HYPOTHALAMIC &

ANTERIOR PITUITARY
HORMONES
IGBAYILOLA YUSUFF DIMEJI, Ph.D
Department of Human Physiology
College of Medicine and Health Sciences,
Baze University, Abuja

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 Learning Objectives
• List the functional parts (lobes) of the pituitary
gland.
• Describe the relationships of the hypothalamus to
the anterior and posterior pituitary glands.
• Describe the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal
system.
• Explain the physiological significance of the
hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system in
regulating anterior pituitary functions.
• List the hypothalamic hormones and their target
cells in the anterior pituitary.
• List the anterior pituitary hormones and their target
tissues.
• Summarize the functions of the anterior pituitary
hormones.

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 Learning Objectives

• Outline the different feedback loops regulating

secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.
• Summarize the direct and indirect physiological
actions of growth hormone.
• Outline neuroendocrine control of growth hormone
secretion
• List stimuli that increase and decrease growth
hormone secretion
• Describe the role of prolactin in milk secretion.
• Discuss regulation of prolactin secretion.

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HYPOTHALAMUS
hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain. It is part of the
limbic system, which controls the autonomic nervous system and the
endocrine systems.

One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link

the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
(hypophysis).

Secretes releasing hormones to cause the pituitary to release

hormones
Secretes inhibiting hormones to turn off secretion of pituitary
hormones
THREE METHODS OF
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OVER
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

Hormones Regulation by
❖1. Growth H GHRH & GHRIH
❖2. ACTH CRH
❖3. LH GnRH
❖4. FSH
❖5. TSH TRH
❖6. Prolactin PIH (Dopamine)
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Hormones of the Hypothalamus

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 PITUITARY (HYPOPHYSIS)
pituitary gland, also called the hypophysis, is a small gland—about 1 cm in
diameter and 0.5 to 1 gram in weight— that lies in the sella turcica, a bony cavity
at the base of the brain, and is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary (or
hypophysial) stalk.
PITUITARY (HYPOPHYSIS)
Neurohypophysis – posterior lobe (neural tissue) and the infundibulum
Receives, stores, and releases hormones from the hypothalamus

Adenohypophysis – anterior lobe, made up of glandular tissue

Synthesizes and secretes a number of hormones
THE ANATOMY AND ORIENTATION
OF THE PITUITARY GLAND
PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMIC
RELATIONSHIPS:
ANTERIOR LOBE
• The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an outpocketing of
the oral mucosa

• There is no direct neural contact with the

hypothalamus

• There is a vascular connection, the hypophyseal portal

system,
HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL
SYSTEM
At the median eminence, terminals of hypothalamic neurons release regulatory
factors into the tissue fluids then taken by fenestrated capillaries down to the
anterior lobe.
Releasing hormones
Inhibiting hormones

All blood entering the portal system will reach the intended target cells before
returning to the general circulation
THE HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL
SYSTEM
PITUITARY (HYPOPHYSIS)
PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMIC
RELATIONSHIPS:
POSTERIOR LOBE
• Has a neural connection with the hypothalamus
(hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)

• Nuclei of the hypothalamus (supraoptic and

paraventricular) synthesize oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)

• These hormones are transported to the posterior

pituitary
CELLS TYPES OF THE ANTERIOR
PITUITARY
Five cell types in the anterior pituitary:
1. Somatotropes—human growth hormone (hGH)
2. Corticotropes—adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
3. Thyrotropes—thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
4. Gonadotropes—gonadotropic hormones, which
include both luteinizing hormone (LH) and folliclestimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Lactotropes—prolactin (PRL)
ADENOPHYPOPHYSEAL
HORMONES
The six hormones of the adenohypophysis:
Are abbreviated as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and PRL
Regulate the activity of other endocrine glands

In addition, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC):

Has been isolated from the pituitary
Is enzymatically split into ACTH, opiates, and MSH
 ADENOHYPOPHYSEAL CELLS &
HORMONES
Cell Hormone Chemistry Physiologic Actions
Single chain of 39 Stimulates production of glucocorticoids
Corticotropes Adrenocorticotropic amino acids and androgens by the adrenal cortex;
hormone (cortico- maintains size of zona fasciculata and
tropin; ACTH) zona reticularis of cortex

Stimulates production of thyroid hormones,T4

Glycoprotein having two and T3, by thyroid follicular cells;maintains size
Thyrotropes Thyroid-stimulating subunits, α (89 amino acids) of follicular cells
hormone (thyro- and ß (112 amino acids)
tropin; TSH) Stimulates development of ovarian follicles;
Glycoprotein having two sub- regulates spermatogenesis in the testis
units, α (89aa) and ß (115aa)
Gonadotropes Follicle-stimulating Causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
in the ovary; stimulates production of estrogen
hormone (FSH) Glycoprotein having two sub- and progesterone by the ovary; stimulates
units, α (89aa) and ß (115aa) testosterone production by the testis
Gonadotropes Lutenizing hormone
(LH)
Single chain of 198
Mammotropes, Essential for milk production by lactating
Prolactin (PRL) amino acids mammary gland
Lactotropes

Growth hormone Single chain of 191 Stimulates postnatal body growth; stimulates
Somatotropes secretion of IGF-1; stimulates triglyceride
(somatotropin; GH) amino acids lipolysis; inhibits actions of insulin on carbo-
hydrate and lipid metabolism
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GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
growth hormone (GH) is a protein hormone
secreted by somatotropes (somatotrophs),
which make up around 40% of the anterior
pituitary gland.

GH has many target tissues including bone,

skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue.
GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
Antagonistic hypothalamic hormones regulate GH
Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) stimulates GH release
Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH) inhibits GH release
GROWTH HORMONE PROMOTES GROWTH
OF MANY BODY CELLS
Promote increased size of the cells
Increased mitosis
Specific differentiation of certain types of cells such as bone growth cells
and early muscle cells
 Indirect physiological role of GH (GH and growth)

• Mechanism of action of IGF-1:

• Increases amino acids uptake
by chondrocyres.
• Stimulates protein synthesis by
chondrocyres.
• Stimulates mitosis of
chondrocytes. This effect causes
an increase in number of
chondrocytes (i.e., hyperplasia).
• Stimulates expansion in size of
the chondrocytes (i.e.,
hypertrophy).

• Thus, IGF-1 leads to elongation

of the bones.

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GROWTH HORMONE HAS SEVERAL
METABOLIC EFFECTS
1- Increased rate of proteins synthesis in most cells of the body
2- Increased mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue,
increased free fatty acid in the blood, and increased use of fatty
acids for energy.
3- Decreased rate of glucose utilization through the body
 INCREASED RATE OF PROTEINS SYNTHESIS IN MOST
CELLS OF THE BODY (ANABOLIC EFFECT)

GH promotes protein deposition in tissues :

•enhancement of amino acid transport through the cell membrane

• enhancement of RNA translation to cause protein synthesis by the ribosomes
•Increased nuclear transcription of DNA to form RNA
•Decreased catabolism of protein and amino acids
 INCREASED MOBILIZATION OF FATTY
ACIDS

release of fatty acids from adipose tissue

increasing the FFA in the body fluids
conversion of FFA to acetyl coemzyme A
fat is used for energy in preference to the use of carbohydrates and proteins.
High GH levels might cause excessive fat mobilization leading to acetoacetic acid
formation by the liver>>> causing ketosis>>>fatty liver.
 DECREASED RATE OF GLUCOSE UTILIZATION
THROUGH THE BODY (DECREASE
CARBOHYDRATE UTILIZATION)

Decreased glucose uptake in tissues such as skeletal muscle and fat

Increased glucose production by the liver
increased insulin secretion (cause insulin resistance).
Excess secretion of growth hormone =metabolic disturbances very similar to
patients with type II diabetes. (diabetogenic effect)
 NECESSITY OF INSULIN AND CARBOHYDRATE
FOR THE GROWTH PROMOTING ACTION OF
GROWTH HORMONE

Animal +lacks of pancreas>>>>no growth hormone effect

Animal+ diet without carbohydrate >>>> no growth hormone effect

Carbohydrate and insulin>>production of energy

Insulin : transport of amino acids into cells and glucose transport stimulation
 GROWTH HORMONE STIMULATES CARTILAGE
AND BONE GROWTH

Increased deposition of protein by the chondrocytic and osteogenic cells that cause
bone growth
Increased rate of reproduction of these cells
Converting chondrocytes into osteogenic cells, thus causing deposition of new
bone
Strongly stimulates osteoblast activity.
SOMATOMEDINS (INSULIN LIKE GROWTH
FACTOR-1)

Chondrocytes cultured outside the body+ growth hormone= proliferation or

enlargement fails.
Growth hormone +inside body= proliferation and growth of cells
Factors Affecting GH Secretion

Stimulation Inhibition

Glucose decrease Somatostatin

Free fatty acid decrease Glucose increase
Amino acid increase (arginine) Free fatty acid increase
Fasting IGF-1
Prolonged caloric deprivation Growth hormone
Stress Senescence
Exercise
Puberty
Androgens and estrogens
Sleep
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METABOLIC VS. GROWTH ACTIONS OF GROWTH
HORMONE
Metabolic actions of growth hormone are directly induced by the GH
through its receptor.
Growth actions are mediated by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)
METABOLIC ACTION OF
GROWTH HORMONE
 Hyposecretion of GH; Dwarfism

• Dwarfism means failure in growth (i.e., growth retardation).

• It is caused usually by defective HGH axis (hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-liver-target

organs axis).

• Thus, dwarfism can be caused by decreased secretion of GHRH, HGH or IGF-I. There may
be a defect in the GH receptors.

• Other causes of dwarfism include deficiency of thyroid hormones in childhood.

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 Hyposecretion of GH; Dwarfism

Normal and
abnormal
growth

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 Hypersecretion of HGH

Gigantism and acromegaly

• Excessiveproduction of GH from a GH-secreting

pituitary tumour (somatotropes tumours)can cause
gigantism if excessive GH production occurs when
the body is growing (in childhood and at puberty), i.e.,
before the epiphyseal growth plates fuse.

• Tumors in adulthood (after epiphyseal closure) cause

acromegaly.

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 Pituitary gigantism

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 Acromegaly

Clinical features:
Befor After
Excessive soft tissue growth
e
1- prominent supraorbital ridge.
2- Prognathism.
3- Ride-spaced teeth (widening of incisor
spaces).
4- Increase shoe size.
5- Thick spade-like hands
6- Deepening voice.
7- Macroglossia.

* 38
 Prolactin (PL)
Prolactin (PL) is secreted from mammotrophs (lactotrophs) in the anterior
pituitary.

Control of PL secretion:

• Hypothalamic control of PL secretion is performed primarily by dopamine.

Thus, pituitary stalk lesions cause hyperprolacinaemia.

• The hypothalamic PRH (prolactin releasing hormone), also called prolactin

releasing factor (PRF) stimulates release of PL ? The hypothalamic TRH
stimulates release of PL.

• PL secretion is increased during pregnancy and suckling.

• PL causes increased PIH (dopamine) secretion, i.e., it inhibits its own

secretion.

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 Prolactin (PL)

Main target organ:

Mammary gland (breast).

Effects in females:

• PL plays an important role in the normal development (growth) of the

mammary gland and milk synthesis (production) during lactation.
• PL inhibits GnRH, FSH and LH secretion.
• PL antagonizes the actions of FSH and LH. Thus, ovulation is often inhibited
by breast feeding.

Effects in males:

• In males, PL is involved in testicular function.

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Effects of PL and control of its secretion

* 41
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE
(THYROTROPIN)

Tropic hormone that stimulates the normal development and

secretory activity of the thyroid gland
Triggered by hypothalamic peptide thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH)
Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on the pituitary and
hypothalamus to block the release of TSH
 The hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

• Thyrotropin releasing hormone

(TRH) is produced in the
hypothalamus. It reaches the
thyrotrophs in the anterior
pituitary by the
hypothalamic-hypophysial-portal
system.

• TRH stimulates the synthesis and

release of TSH by the thyrotrophs
from the anterior pituitary.

• In both the hypothalamus and the

pituitary, it is primarily T3 that
inhibits TRH and TSH secretion,
respectively.

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 The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone or
factor (CRH or CRF) is produced ) is
produced in the hypothalamus.

• It reaches the corticotrophs in the

anterior pituitary by the
hypothalamic-hypophysial-portal system.

• CRH stimulates the synthesis of

adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).

• ACTH stimulates the synthesis of adrenal

steroid hormones.

• Glucocorticoids (cortisol) released into

the systemic circulation exert negative
feedback inhibition of CRF and ACTH
release from the hypothalamus and
pituitary, respectively.

* 44
GONADOTROPINS

Gonadotropins – follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH)
Regulate the function of the ovaries and testes
FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls
Triggered by the hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and
after puberty
FUNCTIONS OF GONADOTROPINS

In females
LH works with FSH to cause maturation of the ovarian follicle
LH works alone to trigger ovulation (expulsion of the egg from the follicle)
LH promotes synthesis and release of estrogens and progesterone
FUNCTIONS OF GONADOTROPINS

In males
LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes (Leydig cells) to produce
testosterone
FSH targets Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and
promotes spermatogenesis