Module 1: Introduction

Module Overview
In this module, the rationale of studying this particular subject, Science,
Technology, and Society (ScTS or STS) pertaining to your particular course, will
be discussed. This module will start with the interconnectivity of science,
technology, and society. Recent scientific discoveries and how these benefits
society, along with other examples, will be discussed. A bit of a review of what
science is, types of knowledge, goals, and approaches will also be tackled.
Contrasts of ideal science from pseudoscience will also be presented. In a
participatory manner, the scientific method will be reviewed as among the tools
on how scientific findings are validated that may lead to a paradigm shift. The
concluding part will be the values of science to society.

Motivation Question

Can you still recall when you first took the subject science?
Do you think it is still relevant to take this subject now as a
university student?

Module Pretest

Instructions: In full honesty, answer the following based on your current

knowledge. Encircle the LETTER of the item that best completes the statement.

1. Science generates (A. all B. belief C. research) knowledge.

2. Society demands from science to generate technology to (A. efficiently
accomplish tasks B. dominate other entities C. solve all
problems).
3. Scientific knowledge must be (A. trendy B. futuristic C. factual).
4. A good example of paradigm in the Philippine scenario is the (A. K to
12 implementation B. winning the lotto C. COVID-19 pandemic).
5. Science is valuable because of its (A. predictive power B. capacity
to definitely increase wealth C. promise to bring you to the moon and
back)
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Lesson 1.1: Connectivity of Science, Technology,

and Society (STS)

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you will recall the definition as well as the differentiation of
science, technology, and society. The relevance of science, then, now and in
the future, will be presented as you relate this to your field of specialization, as
indicated by your course.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:
1. Define science, technology, and society;
2. Establish the connectivity of science, technology, and society, and
3. Cite specific examples wherein a technology became outdated as
when replaced by a state of the art technology.

Motivation Question
Look at your writing material.
Do you agree that it is a product of S&T? Why? Why not?

Discussion
Let us see if you get it right in the questions above. Science is the
systematic body of knowledge. Technology is the practical application of
knowledge to facilitate the accomplishment of things and make life easier.
Society is a group of people living together following certain norms to be in
order (Fig. 1). Did you get it right in the pretest above?
Science generates knowledge, like an explanation of how things work.
These can be expressed in words that everyone can deal with, or numbers in
formula or mathematical equations that need a certain degree of training for
one to comprehend. Remember, mathematics is the language of science.
This pool of knowledge is often combined to see a tangible product for
use to accomplish tasks, to make life easier. For instance, many algorithms or
equations are used to have a functional cell phone. A layman operates and
benefits from this 'necessity' gadget without knowing neither understanding
how the required operating system (OS) or bandwidth was put together.
What were the functions of your first cell phone? Probably, call and text
functions? Have you looked at the history of cellphones? Feature of voice call
was the primary function of a cellphone, an analog device in its oldest version.
Then came the 'texting' function. Look at your gadget or observe the capability
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of the cellphone of your friend. Most probably, it's digital, with a camera,
recorder, built-in GPS. Looking back, what tasks were made easier by using a
cellphone? Calling a friend for a meet-up rather than going to his place and
talking to his parents after pacifying the barking dog? Or simply texting your
parents to send the code of the money transfer? Watching a movie or playing
games to pass boredom during the quarantine period? How about you? What
other functions do you think should be added to this electronic device? A cell
phone that shields you from COVID-19? Scientists like computer programmers,
applied physicists, data analysts, virologists, etc. will continue to work to
generate equations to bring to reality your novel idea. You, as a member of the
society, express if not demand that science must address your concern.
Innovations, if not new inventions, will emerge, with the ideal goal of improving
the quality of life.

Figure 1.1. The connectivity of science, society, and technology

(Icons made by Retinaicons, Eucalyp, dDara & Freepik from Flaticon)

However, despite the noble goal of improving the quality of life, there
were instances of which science and technology were used to destroy life, do
you agree? The classic example is dynamite. Maybe you heard of it as
something destructive, like dynamite fishing. However, in the demolition of
huge structures like buildings or massive boulders in construction site, this
manageable explosive property of dynamite is of good use. After WWII,
dynamite fishing became rampant. However, the inventor Alfred Nobel, a
Swedish chemist, did not want to be remembered associated with this
destructive invention. He left a massive amount as prize money for works that
benefit society, the Nobel Prize. Again, look at your cell phone. What good can
it do? How about harm?
Have you heard of a tardigrade a.k.a. 'water bear'? Despite its size (0.184
mm long), being smaller than a grain of salt this animal is dubbed as the
'toughest organism on earth', why?

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Characteristics of tardigrades cosmopolitan as these can survive all over the

world
• live even in extreme condition

How do they do that?

• possess trehalose sugar that is more stable than the common
glucose
• protects the organelles even during cryptobiosis
• possession of damage suppressor protein

Can you imagine the applications of these strengths of the tardigrade to a

human?

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Lesson 1.2: Science and Knowledge

Lesson Summary
This lesson emphasizes the nature of science, its rigid protocols to ensure that
any scientific knowledge is indeed reliable.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:

1. Recognize scientific knowledge;

2. Analyze a scenario when belief knowledge is masked as scientific
knowledge, and
3. Critique the steps to establish scientific knowledge.

Motivation Question

When you express an idea and will be asked, is that scientific?

How will you defend your answer that indeed it is science-based?

Discussion
According to a French chemist, Pierre Eugene Marcelin Berthelot (1827-
1907), "All chemical phenomena depended on the action of physical forces
which can be determined and measured." He opined that everything could be
explained. Do you agree with his statement? Maybe it's the reason that man
don't just stop and wonder at nature but instead tries to understand it.

Science is from the Latin word Scientia, meaning, to know. It is a systematic

body of knowledge based on facts and evidence. The explanation or prediction
in unveiling nature can be tested.
Knowledge - a statement about what is accepted as sufficiently "real" that
allows one to take action upon and thereby live life. But what is real? Have you
heard of a dragon? Is it real? In ancient times, Greece, China, and Egypt had all
their versions of dragons. However, the Chinese dragon represents something
desirable, while that of Egyptians is something evil. If you look at the map, these
are accessible places/civilization thus, can share stories. Indeed, animals or
people move around, but not in ancient times when these places were deemed
remote from each other. So how can science explain this?

Types of knowledge

1. Belief Knowledge- knowledge about the world is inherent and unique in

each human being attained by individual revelation
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Going back to dragons, some claimed to have seen these. Remember

Harry Potter or the movie 'How to Train a Dragon? But is there a specimen
as proof of its existence? Are there data on their population?

2. Research Knowledge - a gathering of knowledge is universal, not just

individual revelation, and is based on a protocol to allow one to select
between alternative observations.

So how does science explain the universal notion of a dragon? What is

the common feature of dragons, serpentine/snakelike, right? In ancient
times, large snakes are seen from afar, no camera nor telescope, unlike
in your time of which close up and good resolution pictures are taken
with high definition lenses. In fact, Sir Attenborough has a scientific
documentary of the so-called 'dragon'. It turned out to be large reptiles
that were mistaken as dragons. Actually, there is a lizard, Pogona
vitticeps with the common name 'central bearded dragon.' The fear of
snakes is based on evolutionary instinct. In Africa, large reptiles or
snakes abound. The molecular evidence based on DNA taken from
'Lucy', the 'Eve' of the molecular world, modern men evolved from the
great migration from Africa. Can you make the connection?

Requirements of research knowledge

1. All observations must be repeatable by one or more observers.

e.g., if dragons are real, then there must be a specimen that can be seen,
again and again
However, if one says God created the world, can God create another
world to prove such? This is one of the areas that science and religion
do not totally agree with each other.

2. All hypotheses are falsifiable - According to the Philosopher, Karl

Popper, that temporary explanation (hypothesis) can be tested by
acceptable logic, empirical and statistical, to accept or reject the
hypothesis. However, he also specified that a contradiction need not
automatically nullify the entire hypothesis. Interpret the statement
below using this requirement for research knowledge.
'all swans are white, but there is a black swan'

3. involves natural phenomena - must involve things that occur in nature

Furthermore, research knowledge does not claim fact but rather claims
logical circumstantial explanation in the light of the requirement. Are
you familiar with the abiogenesis or theory of spontaneous generation?
A classic example would be the statement that flies emerge from rotten
meat- a dead thing that gave rise to a living organism. As observed,
maggots will appear a few days after in a slice of exposed rotten meat.
These are observations. Do you remember who refuted this theory? By
experimentation, Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. Can you outline
how Pasteur did it? How about in your locality, have you heard of
something similar to events explained based on spontaneous generation
theory? Can you disprove it?
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The goal of science

• Understanding of phenomena – how do you feel when natural
phenomena unveil before your eyes? Is it amazing or threatening? Man
continuously seeks to understand these events because it can either
destroy or build up something, including human life. Take for example
lightning. It can kill but on the otherhand, it is a way to convert gaseous
nitrogen to a form usable by plants. Do you know there are those that
find lightning a view to behold?
• Identify relationships and characteristics – this brings you back why
you study a tardigrade, to explore something beneficial for man. How
about the reason why a corona virus is investigated to its totality?
Because the characteristics that make it fatal to man have to be
understood so that control measures can be adopted or better yet
eliminate these pathogens.
• Predict summaries and conclusions – when scientists make
pronouncement about a particular subject, this is usually based on
good set of data. These are analyzed, like what is the trend to predict
future scenario. A good example of this application is the prediction of
the trajectories of typhoon that uses monitoring data through time
among the factors used in the projection. Recently, real time data on
COVID-19 infections are analyzed to predict the rate of transmission of
the virus , thus policies on wearing of proper mask, observance of
quarantine protocol are implemented among the strategies to combat
the viral infection.
• Derive knowledge and facts – this time, can you elaborate on this goal?

Fact - is a statement based on research knowledge

• in light of the current evidence, this is accepted to be true
• so there was a time that spontaneous generation/abiogenesis
was accepted
• fact is changed, when better pieces of evidence and explanations are
presented
• spontaneous generation was discarded when an experiment
proved this to be erroneous.
• the cell theory, that only life begets life, is the accepted fact to
date.
• is based on research knowledge
• mini-hypothesis subject to testing by repeated observations
• when perceptions of facts vary
• doesn't readily get accepted
• some facts become dominant, but others are open for testing

Hypothesis
• tentative explanation by the pattern created by two or more facts
• based on observation
• has predictive value
• testable, open to being proven wrong

Note: No amount of data will prove a hypothesis to be an absolute truth!!

They only fail to disprove it.

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Death of hypothesis
• data are found to disprove it, especially empirical data
• its predictions constantly fail
• it is supplanted by the new hypothesis that better explains the data
• it used to be introduced that hypothesis, when not subjected to
contradictions though time, becomes a theory. Then this theory is
elevated into law. However, some opined that a hypothesis is only a
limited and temporary explanation of a phenomenon. While a scientific
theory is an in-depth explanation. But theories can also change when
new information is validated. A scientific law, on the other hand, is a
statement that is not supposed to go wrong. When that law is proven
to be wrong, then the science supported by it becomes also wrong.

Approaches to research knowledge

1. Formal science
• logic and mathematics - the language of science have the same
meaning anywhere else in the world
• universal
• e.g. numbers are the same anywhere else

2. Empirical science
• deals with objects and observations
NO truth; no right or wrong but there are limitations including but not
limited to the availability of equipment to aid the senses e.g. telescope
for a detailed view of a distant object

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Lesson 1.3: Science vs. Pseudoscience

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you will appreciate the true essence of science that should make
it an indispensable part of any society.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

1. Point out the good characteristics of science;

2. Judge a good science from pseudoscience, and
3. Explain the paradigm shift.

Motivation Question

You have heard of "fake news", right? Any tips to spot this?
How about pseudoscience, can you recognize when you are told of
one?

Discussion
What is good science?
1. eliminates as many variables while entertaining as many alternate
interpretations of the observations as possible.
e.g., experiments will manipulate variables being investigated and keep
minimal all other confounding effects
Do you remember the different models used to represent the atomic
structure? What were these changes in every newer version that is
introduced?

Hallmark of good science: DOUBT

• When things appear to be uncertain, one seeks for answers, that is a
good start for the scientific method to be put in use!

Spotting pseudoscience
• repeated reference to authority rather than primary observation
• In Anatomy, Galen, who is known for pioneering works in animal
dissection, used animals aside from humans. However, his work
was often cited and applied to human anatomy, thus the
perpetuation of error
• unwillingness to admit ignorance or exceptions
• pride can prevent some to accept lapses especially that good
scientific works are often peer-reviewed before publication

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• unwillingness to try to disprove own hypothesis or to seek contradictory

examples
• tenacity is a common characteristic of scientists. They will
forward and defend their hypothesis forgetting that a no
significant result is still a result e.g. when a particular substance
that is assumed to be poisonous is not poisonous at all thus, it
is safe to take such
• consistent presentation of hypothesis in a simplistic manner (disregard
to confounding effects)
• In formulating a hypothesis, all possible factors should be
considered. If you just stick to what you think is the most
plausible factor, then you are already biased from the beginning.
• failure to add new arguments and data with time
• As the saying goes, the only constant in this world is, change.
Scientists have to be updated on recent events that may have
an impact on how things were perceived or explained to be.

2. studies the material universe

3. dynamic
• changes over time
• as research knowledge is based on facts and evidence, when
new facts are discovered, then the former facts are discarded.
State of the art technology, like a high definition camera, can
reveal structures and behavior of an organism not seen using a
camera in your cell phone

Presupposes that:
• There is an order in nature, and therefore the material universe is
knowable
• The human mind is capable of knowing this order
• Knowable within the limits of:
1. human mind - there is an established level of capacity of humans in
a certain age bracket. Have you been told either to be too immature or
mature at your age? Do you know of someone clinically diagnosed with
mental retardation?
2. culture - in some culture, it is taboo to discuss sex education openly,
so it will follow that birth control is not also learned
3. technology -access to state of the art technology is an advantage to
perform the task efficiently, thus provide an opportunity to engage in
another productive learning experience

4. has paradigms – open to a paradigm shift

• an interpretation of the physical world to which scientists subscribe
changes as anomalies arise and gets replaced as knowledge develops

e.g., for a long time, the Philippine education system implemented the 4-
year high school. However, in your case, another two years of senior high
school is added to the curriculum based on studies that this is the
standard duration before achieving a high school diploma

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Lesson 1.4: The Scientific Method

Lesson Summary
This lesson brings you back to the scientific method, the most common
process in doing things in scientific research to generate new knowledge. You
will also have a deeper understanding of the different approaches to scientific
inquiry and get to know a typical scientist.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

1. Follow the steps in scientific method;

2. Differentiate the type of reasoning involved in scientific investigations,
and
3. Characterize a scientist

Motivation Question
Have you been told, "you're like a scientist!"?
What could be the reason/s for such perception of you?
How did you feel about it? Is it affirmatory or sarcasm?

Discussion
What means does science use now?

Scientific Method - a set of techniques for investigating phenomena that is

generally followed to acquire new knowledge. This is the same process applied
to correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

1. Observation - use of senses and equipment to enhance the ability e.g.

use of a microscope to see details of things
2. Ask questions or identify the problem - why does this thing behave like
this? What causes it to behave like this?
3. Form a hypothesis - formulate temporary explanation based on
observations and background data e.g., the plant will not wilt if it has
enough water
4. Conduct an experiment - observe two plants, one is with enough water
supply while the other is not, does wilting occur? Which one wilted?
5. Accept hypothesis or reject the hypothesis
6. Make a conclusion
7. Publish - writing the result of your experiment for others to know,
validate and even perform what you did
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Types of reasoning

Deductive reasoning - attempts to explain things, formulation of hypothesis

and theory
Inductive reasoning - attempts to test the validity of the hypothesis or theory

Which steps of the scientific methods are deductive? Inductive? Which one
should be practiced in science?

Is the scientific method cut out?

Although science follows a basic method of:
• thinking
• observing
• experimenting

But there is no strict recipe!

It can involve:
• serendipity - have you heard how the antibiotic from penicillin was
discovered by Fleming and the circumstances that led to the discovery
of DNA double helix by Watson, Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin? These
revolutionary discoveries were offshoots of just something related to
the major task
• imagination - when one observes a problem, then it will also follow to
imagine if not plan how to solve this
• dream and luck - there are those who believe that they were in the right
place at the right time leading to some novel discoveries, while others
insist it is hard work that led them to success.

Categories of scientific investigation

1. Observational investigation - observed what is present in the

environment; e.g., flowers of different colors
2. Controlled what-if experiment – e.g., will the leaves differ in color if
exposed in the sun or put in the shade?
3. Explanation-seeking experiment – e.g., what pigments are present or
absent, giving the result of yellowish color? What caused it to do that?
4. Modeling what-if experiment – e.g., certain plants will be exposed to the
sun, while others are put in the shade. You can then understand what
to do when yellow or green leaves are needed
5. Problem-solving what-if experiment – e.g., do anything as long as you
produce yellow leaves! I don't care how you do it, JUST FIX IT!

How to spot a scientist

• Curious how nature works - observant on phenomena or overall
surrounding, may it be to enjoy, explain or how it can benefit humanity
• Stay current with the latest news in their field - does a lot of reading or
knowing the latest updates and information on relevant issues and the
possible solutions. How is this done? Is this the same as gossip? Why?
• Benefit from advances in other fields - combines the different fields of
expertise to arrive at a possible solution to a problem. Can you

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mention different specializations of the medical staff that attend to a

positive COVID- 19 patient?
• Integrate work done by others to see the bigger picture - knowledge or
findings of others are being referred and acknowledged, rather than
reinventing the wheel so that the effort and resources can be focused
on something that is still unknown
• Benefit from serendipity - the accidental discovery of penicillin is an
excellent example of a medical breakthrough from the accidental
discovery of the antibiotic property of a fungus that has contaminated
and otherwise pure culture. However, some posit, that if not of the
scientific training of Fleming, the contaminated petri dish could have
just been thrown out
• Compete for grant money - research needs logistics, financial support.
Anyone who would avail should submit a proposal justifying the need,
efficiency of its use, the benefits derived and even justify the
qualifications of the proponent to be worthy of the research money
• Police themselves - scientists are often aware of who else
(collaborators or competitors) are working on the same specialization.
There are strict protocols to be followed. Like a dead COVID patient
cannot be automatically dissected for further studies but rather follow
strict policies in the use of human cadaver. e.g., permit to use in medical
and research purpose
• Maybe suppressed by wealthy corporations - big corporations or
entities can prevent further development of products, especially if this
will compete with available products in the market. Like if you find out
that salty water with its minerals can also be converted to fuel, do you
think the big oil companies will be supportive?
• Can be brutally competitive - proponents must have 'award-winning'
proposal to get the grant, beating deadline, promising deliverables
• Very much like any other person - any scientist is just but a mere
human being

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Lesson 1.5: Value of Science

Lesson Summary
The final lesson in the module for the introduction will remind you of the value
of science. You will look at your own experience if indeed science is relevant to
your life.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to
1. Establish the value of science, and
2. Reflect on the reliance on scientific knowledge on life decisions.

Motivation Question
At this point, can you mention a specific example of which science
made a positive impact in your life?

Discussion
Recently, when changes are introduced, it's not uncommon to hear 'is it
scientific? Is it science-based? The following are just a few of the reasons why
science is of high value.
• Predictive power - the mathematical modeling of the distance reached
by the droplets in coughing and sneezing led to the policies of social
distancing and the measurement of the size of SARS Cov 2 virus on the
type of effective material for facial mask
• Honesty and courage - researchers were brave enough to contradict
what was earlier mandated that healthy persons need not wear a facial
mask
• More informed decisions – e.g., understanding how the virus is
transmitted and how to slow down if not totally eradicate it led to the
legislation of the specific distance to be observed in social distancing
and the description of the proper materials and alternative Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) including the facial mask.

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