Mauryan economy

The economy during the Mauryan times flourished due to the 27 adhyakshas ,
who were responsible for various sectors. Kautilya says that these adhyakshas
were superintendents who regulated and controlled myriad economic
activities like agriculture , mining , weaving , trade , weights and measures and
so on . The state control , kautilya’s suggestions and rich resources of the
empire played a vital role in boosting it’s economy.
Like many other periods of ancient Indian history , the material root of the
Mauryan empire lay in agriculture. The arthashastra greatly explains
agricultural operations . Greek writers were struck by the immensity of
agricultural production . They unanimously speak of the plethora and diversity
of crops which they attribute to the excellent fertility of the soil, presence of
many rivers and abundant rainfall because of two rainy seasons. They have
also mentioned that a bulk of the population was dependent on agricultural
operations . Crops that were cultivated included rice, coarse grains (kodrava),
sesame, pepper, saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable , fruits of
various kinds and sugarcane . Paddy cultivation was the new kind of cultivation
which required intensive labour , irrespective of this it gained great fame by
the 4th century B.C.
The importance of agriculture can be noted through Megasthenes’ division in
which he has classified the society into 7 classes , the farmers have been
placed on the second position in this classification .This classification however
has been rebutted by some because farmers have never really been important
to the Indian society . The farmers perhaps drew his attention because they
were numerically a large class devoted solely to lands .According to Romila
Thapar these divisions were more economic than social , which explains why
the farmers were placed so highly.
As far as ownership of land is concerned Megasthenes and kautilya seem to
have conflicting views . While Megasthenes has stated that all land was under
state ownership , kautilya mentions the prevalence of individual land
ownership (svamitva) too. this can be deduced from the mention of disputes
over land ownership under the scope of civil suits(dharmasthiya) as well as the
detailed section on the sale of land in the arthashastra. The jatakas mention
the gramabhojikas and gahapatis , which is another indication of private
agriculture in areas other than the Mauryan states (janapada territories).The
land owning pattern was rather complex and difficult to fathom in the
Mauryan empire .
 the arthshastra mentions that a large scale of the land was under state
ownership , these lands were known as crown lands or sitalands. The state
appointed the sitadhyaksha to look after these lands and their cultivation.
Who worked on these sita lands poses a bit of a conundrum , the arthashastra
mentions the use of slave labour on these lands while Megasthenes has
refuted this by saying there were no slaves in the Indian society . Historians
have said that it is probable that Megasthenes could’ve confused the slavery
that he saw in sparta with the slavery in india .he couldn’t find a classification
of slaves as the helots and dulos in india , cause even if the slaves were paid
some minimum wages they couldn’t be characterised as dulos and so he
completely rejected the whole thing . Some have even gone on to say that
Megasthenes’ cultural bias could’ve have made him state incongruent
things .Yet texts mention the deportation of 1,50,000 people from kalinga to
Magadha and then these people were employed as slaves . The state is said to
have maintained and employed large numbers of slaves . Historian R.S Sharma
however has asserted that ancient Indian society can not be described as a
slave society because the tasks that slaves were performing elsewhere in the
world , such tasks were already being performed by shudras in India , they
were compelled to serve the upper three castes and they were treated as their
property . Alternately ,according to Romila thapar there were slaves but they
were only used in domestic settings .
One of the most significant agricultural policies that was laid down in the
arthashastra is the creation of new rural settlement on fallow lands to boost
agricultural production , this was known as the janapadanivesa . In this context
there was a constant search for tracts that could be brought under cultivation
by shifting people from overpopulated areas and forming a new settlement
altogether . The shudras were usually the majority of those who were shifted
to such newly settled regions , not only them but also other groups were
encouraged to shift so much so that sometimes ex leaders were shifted too.
Arthashastra suggests that new villages could also be made by inducing
foreigners to move in . Incentives were provided on such shifting , these fiscal
concessions in the form of seed, cattle and cash were an encouragement for
people to move to new areas. All of this was done keeping in mind the
benefits of the royal treasury (kosavridhikarra) . Maximum land was given to
tax paying peasants ( karadakarshakas) because the main aim afterall was to
utilize resources and maximise revenue . Kautilya has recommended the
eviction of a peasant who is unable to discharge his duties properly. Decayed
and ruined areas were also reclaimed and repopulated in the same manner.
R.S Sharma states that the whole of the ganga basin was brought under
cultivation in this manner only .This method could’ve been used for the
peripheral areas too, which in turn meant the growth of agriculture and
adding to the importance of the farmer community . In many cases the new
settlements were considered to be a part of the state owned sita lands .This
method was recognised as a means of expanding the agrarian economy .These
newly settled regions went on to become stable sources of revenue and
resource for the state . Share cropping was also introduced as a means for
boosting the agricultural produce .
State control can be noticed clearly in the realm of agriculture . It is said that
the sita lands were put under comprehensive control of the king , it is quite
possible that the most fertile areas like the ganga basin were among
them .The king could nevertheless own land in both the crown areas and the
janapadas . Another duty performed by the state was the maintenance of
granaries(kosthagara) to ensure supply in case of emergency (atyayika). The
mahashthan inscription from Bangladesh and sohgaura speak about the
existence of granaries .
Inscriptions and the arthashastra mention the presence of forest tribes the
atavikas and the aranyakas who were spread over a vast area and were like
thorns in the chest of the mauryans . Kautilya advises the king to appease
these tribals and prod them to take to agrarian settled life which could be
economically beneficial to the crown . The tribals could help bring more land
under cultivation by employing 5-10 families . He has devoted a whole
chapter on how they should be systematically broken through unfair
means .Controlling the tribals was of great importance to all Mauryan kings
cause they could be the only possible hinderances to economic activities.
Specifically speaking of Ashoka , he seemed to have a paternalistic attitude
towards these tribes but if they disobeyed him stern action was to be taken
against them by his dhamma mahamatttas. This is again indicative of how
important it was for the arthashastran king to maximise his revenue .

The state was responsible for providing irrigation facilities to its people . There
were officials who were responsible for examining sluices . Pushyagupta , a
governer of Girnar (saurasthra) has said to have bulit a land to create a
resevoir for water and a dam too which was called the sudarshana tadaqa .
This reservoir became so important that its history can be traced back to the
5th century b.c . The arthashastra too strongly advocates royal prerogatives
over irrigational facilities (setu). The two types which have been mentioned
are : hydraulic projects with a natural water source (sahodaka setu ) and those
which were fed with water brought artificially (aharyodaka setu ).Tanks
(tadaqa ) and wells (kupa) can also be seen on a local level . such provisions
were recommended in the arthshastra to justify the collection of an
irrigational cess ranging from 1/3 rd – 1/5th . Megasthenes has pointed out that
the measurement of land and inspection of water channels for irrigation and
distribution was done on the same lines as Egypt .
Activities like armour making , ship building , making of agricultural
implements and iron mining were yet again under state control . The Ganges
valley had loamy soil which made iron tipped ploughs and sickles
indispensable to agriculture here . Iron mines were present in the northern
region of the subcontinent , excavations in Bihar have yielded evidence of
sickles, socketed axes , ploughshare all of which are indicative of the wide use
of iron .All such implements facilitated and boosted agricultural operations .
The arthashastra has therefore suggested that the state appointed
lohadhyaksha and akaradhyaksha should be responsible for looking after and
controlling mining activities. They also were responsible for the minting of the
punch- marked coins , these coins had become fairly common now, this can be
deduced from excavation in U.P, BIHAR where they’ve been discovered in
large numbers .The base metal was usually silver. According to the
Arthashastra, The salary of the officials ranged from 48,000-60,000 panas, this
shows how a powerful cash economy existed . Just like mining , armour
making and ship building also had their own superintendents who supervised
these activities , these were the ayudhagaradhyaksha and the navadhyaksha
respectively . Manufacturing these two was of strategic importance and thus
were placed under state control.
According to kautilya the most important task of the king was to keep the
treasury(kosa) full at all times to counter unforeseen circumstances if any and
to maintain the administrative machinery .Another reason behind this
emphasis could be that the Mauryan empire was the first strong dynasty , so it
had a lot of potential threats and keeping up with a paraphernalia to protect
themselves was of paramount importance . The main source of this was the
taxation system . Land revenue was the backbone of the Mauryan economy,
classical writers mention that 1/4 th of the produce was paid in tax by the
peasants , along with this they also paid a land tax (bhaga) which was levied at
1/6th of the produce .Land revenue collection had to be efficiently organised so
maximum surplus could be collected , to do so the state had appointed two
officials the samaharta and the sannidatta who were responsible for the
assessment of the land revenue and the treasury respectively. The mauryas
introduced new taxes and implemented the existing ones sternly , this is why
it has been stated that the Mauryan rule constitutes a landmark in the history
of improvement of the taxation system in ancient India . A tax called the
pindakara was assessed on a group of villages and it was paid by the farmers ,
this was more of a customary tax . Often the villagers had to give supplies to
the royal army if it passed through their area , this was customary too and
many scholars believe that it added to the burden of the people. The
arthshastra has carefully mentioned about how much different villages should
be taxed and so collectors & assessors varied . State atleast in its major areas
would’ve ensured the collection of a substantial amount of land revenue
notwithstanding which maintaining a large army and administration would’ve
been problematic .
Another tax which was paid in cash was the Hiranya . Fiscal measures for
emergencies included the levying of the pranaya ( a gift of affection ) , this tax
was first mentioned by panini and later on it has been elaborated on by
kautilya . It meant taking 1/3rd – 1/4th of the produce on basis of the soils
nature . Though this in theory can be seen as a voluntary gift tax when it was
put into practice it became more of an obligatory tax . The importance of such
taxes has constantly been emphasized . The importance of tax collection can
be seen through the inscription in the Lumbini edict of Ashoka which says that
when he visited the birthplace of buddha , he exempted the peasants from
bali and reduced the bhaga to 1/8 th , since this was a holy place to him he
could’ve completely exempted it too but he didn’t, this is indicative of his
shrewdness as a ruler too .
Since the taxes from Magadha and the adjoining areas were not enough they
tried to go beyond their reach and gain control in kalinga and Karnataka .
Kalingas’ conquest was important cause of its agricultural richness and trade
routes that led to minerals and precious stones . Regulation of economic
activities in far flung areas was different , so they worked out different
strategies on the basis of the nature of the resources in that area . According
to Romila thapar it is difficult to gauge Mauryan control in Punjab , Sindh ,
Rajasthan and the north western region , one because no inscriptions are
present and secondly because no evident restructuring can be seen . These
regions were only exploited for their resources. They did this with the help of
the influential class of that area .Due to different levels of economic
development outside the ganges valley , it would’ve been rather problematic
to completely reorganize them and so they were left as it is .
Even though agriculture was most prominent , non agrarian activities of
various kinds existed too . Trade was done in different ways, it was
intrinsically linked to organisation and production . The organisation of trade
was important & administrative control over trade made it more efficient .
Some of the main trade centres of this time were rajgir , kausambi ,&
Patliputra .Megasthenes has underlined the importance of trade for yielding
some levy to the Mauryan treasury .The Jatakas frequently refer to caravantic
trade wherein people carried large amounts of goods across the empire . The
security to do so was provided by the state and this made internal trade viable
and thriving. The main trade routes were along the river Ganges and the
Himalayan foothills (utarapath and dakshinapath). Kausambi trade route was
connected to Ujjain in the west and even to the gujarati coast across
narmada , this was the dakshinapath and its vastness is suggestive of
flourishing trade of these times . Megasthenes talks about a trade route
between north western india and patliputra and another route existing
between the south east and patliputra . The eastern trade routes were
connected to Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka ,the second eastern route
continued to the ganges delta and then it turned right to tamralipti , its exit
point was for the south and the south-east. the southern routes were
connected to central india ,the south east and finally to kalinga .The opening
up of communication was a direct result of the expansion of settlements
which also helped foster trade .
As far as foreign trade is concerned different trade routes have been
mentioned . Major trade routes to west Asia and central Asia passed through
the north-western part of India .The northern routes were very well spread ,
they passed through shravasti , kapilavastu , vaishali and they went as far as
Peshawar . Eratosthenes also talks about a royal highway which connects
patliputra to Susa in Iran . This is indicative of how well connected patilputra
was . If the arthashastra is given credence then the Mauryan state exercised a
rigid control over the trade and industry . The superintendent of commerce
panyadhyaksha not only fixed prices of commodities but also intervened
whenever there was a glut of any commodity , his presence has also been
acknowledged by Megasthenes in his records . The superintendent of
markets , samasthadhyaksha was responsible for preventing fraudulent trade
practices . The superintendent of weights and measures the pautvadhyaksha
was entrusted with the enforcement of the standard weights and measures .
All state boats were placed under the charge of the superintendent of ships
the navadhyaksha , the river transport had become better and efficient due to
the clearing up of the forests. The superintendent of tolls , the shulkadhyaksha
collected tolls from the traders that ranged from 1/5 th – 1/25th of the value .
Apart from these officials , superintendents were also appointed to look after
the weaving industry (sutradhyaksha), breweries , state liquor shops
(suradyaksha). The state didn’t only regulate private trade but it was itself
engaged in trade and commodity production. The goods they produced were
called rajapanyas , special officers looked after this process. Usually state
servants sold these goods , but help and guidance from private sellers was also
sought after . They carefully chose their areas of production since they only
wanted their involvement in sectors that could harvest good revenue and help
the state .

The number of artisans and craftsmen also increased substantially by this

time . Crafts were necessarily heredity and skills were passed down from one
generation to another . Some crafts became small scale industries . The state
did this by employing artisans , miners, stone builders , spinners and
weavers .The state exempted a few of them from taxes because they already
supplied compulsory labour, while others like weavers were taxed .Weaving
and textile / yarn production was also recommended by the arthshastra and
so it was an important economic activity under the state , nevertheless it was
also practiced privately . In north india guilds (shrenis) were present and
production was carried along these . There were various towns where people
from a single community settled in large numbers and were closely knit
together by kinship ties . For e.g. the lohar community .The well known guilds
were those of the metallurgists , carpenters , textile workers , potters and
leather workers. The artisans found it advantageous to join these guilds as it
facilitated specialisation and the strengthening of the art . The guilds also
benefited the state cause revenue collection became easier. Many guilds were
patrons of rich art . Guilds gained a lot of power in the post Mauryan period
and they were also important during the Mauryan period which can be
deduced from Megasthenes’ classification .The major sections of the
population at this time were the government officials and the
artisans/merchants.
There was a process of urbanism which had started earlier and it continued to
nurture now . The urban economy was characterised by exchange systems ,
manufacturing and exchange of goods . An increase in urban areas was noted
during this time (durganivesha ), proliferation of rural areas was seen too .
The arthashastra mentions the durgavidhana which were state founded walled
towns that were inhabited by everyone .Protection , layout , economic
regulation of towns was necessary , because the towns (durgs) were seen as
imperative resources collecting machineries . Apart from this there was a
general administration of law and order because the king had realised that for
the economy to flourish it was necessary to have a well regulated law and
order system. This was applied to all cities in the heartland of the Mauryan
empire (metropolitan areas).Population mobility and inter group exchanges
were quite common as well.

The society was divided into 4 varnas , a fifth varna that is of the untouchables
(chandalas and svapakas) started making its appearance. Large number of jatis
were also present . Untouchability and class system became more crystallised
now . The varnas by this time had become endogamous . The first three varnas
(dvija) had an increased rigidity now , this could’ve been a probable cause
behind the increasing social tensions . Even though the first 3 varnas were
considered to be dvija , in reality the first two varnas were most privileged .
The dharma Shastra texts give immense importance to varna and consider it to
be the basis of social organisation ,While buddhist texts have given more
importance to the jati organisation than the caste organisation . Kautilya
clearly mentions how the varna jati systems should be upheld . He also
mentions 15 mixed castes (antayavasayin), these originated due to
miscegenation and they lived beyond the pale Brahmanical order , this points
at how people of these times didn’t comply with the caste classification so
much . Members of such mixed castes were also categorized as untouchables
and they were required to live outside the settlement and close to cremation
grounds .Megasthenes refers to 7 castes – philosophers , farmers , soldiers ,
herdsmen , artisans, magistrates and councillors . In the Greek texts they’ve
been called the genos . Most historians have translated this as a caste division
which may or may not be true,This was perhaps a class division more than a
caste division.
According to R.S Sharma , Megasthenes probably meant division because the
castes in reality were 4 and not 7 while the jatis were numerous .He refers to
the standing army and says it was of a large number. He has also mentioned
herdsmen and huntsmen he’s identified them with a tribe and considered
them lowly . The overseers and the councillors were respected yet they were
numbered last , all of this is indicative of a random classification . some
historians, have said that Megasthenes probably followed Herodotus’s
classification of the Egyptian society , while some historians like D.N Jha have
said that he clearly confused caste with occupation . Irrespective of these
opinions , he understood the essentials of the caste system because he has
greatly emphasized on the importance of endogamy which is an essential
tenet of the system. Megasthenes has also stated that the philosophers were
the most respected group and that cultivators were of low status .
Forced labour(vishti) was imposed on the lower caste members more now. A
class of government servants called vishtivandhakas were appointed for
procuring and maintaining the forced labourers. A more constructive point
that can be noted is that it was for the very first time in the mauryan empire
that shudras who were agricultural labourers , got land of their own in the
janapadanivesa. They were also employed as share croppers on sitalands.
The worst paid members of the society were the dasas (slaves ) and the
karmakaras(higher labourers) . They were employed by the state and were
paid in ‘particles of rice ‘ and bad liquor . Kautilya suggests the employment of
vaishyas and shudras in the army however, the execution of this suggestion is
uncertain. Kautilya remarks the Presence of dasis and devdasis . The jogimara
cave inscription speaks of a man from Varanasi declaring his love for a
devadasi .Women at this time could claim their streedhan . Polygamy was
permissible and widow remarriage was practiced under certain
circumstances . Nevertheless the patriarchy in the society can easily be
realized , by statements such as ‘wives are there for having sons’(Kautilya).
By 187 B.C , the Mauryan empire began to decline and both economic and
societal complications played a part in it . Some economic factors were the
debasement of the punch marked coins , the iron mines in Magadha had been
drained by now and control over mines in south India was difficult to maintain
due to constant threats from local chiefs , hence there was shortage of iron
need for coin , agricultural implements all of which ultimately had a negative
impact on the economic condition . The immense amount of deforestation
carried out by the state to increase agricultural operations caused famines and
floods that sullied the empire further . The immense expenditure on the army
and payment to the bureaucracy created a financial crisis too , despite the
myriad taxes imposed on the people it was difficult to maintain this
superstructure .As far as social difficulties are concerned the Brahmanical
reaction against Ashoka’s policy grew sturdier and ultimately new kingdoms
ascended on the ruins of the Mauryan empire , all of which were directed by
brahmins.