Machine Learning

Machine learning
Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and
study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalize to unseen data, and thus perform tasks
without explicit instructions.[1] Recently, artificial neural networks have been able to surpass many previous
approaches in performance.[2][3]
ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing, computer vision, speech
recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine.[4][5] When applied to business problems, it is known
under the name predictive analytics. Although not all machine learning is statistically based, computational
statistics is an important source of the field's methods.
The mathematical foundations of ML are provided by mathematical optimization (mathematical

programming) methods. Data mining is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on exploratory data
analysis (EDA) through unsupervised learning.[7][8]
From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct (PAC) learning provides a framework for
describing machine learning.
History
The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the
field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[9][10] The synonym self-teaching computers was also
used in this time period.[11][12]
Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel invented a
program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots
back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.[13] In 1949, Canadian
psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of Behavior, in which he introduced a
theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among nerve cells.[14] Hebb's model of neurons
interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under
nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.[13] Other researchers who have studied
human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including
logician Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural
networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[13]
By the early 1960s an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron, had
been developed by Raytheon Company to analyze sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns
using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human operator/teacher to
recognize patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions.[15] A
representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning
Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.[16] Interest related to pattern
recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.[17] In 1981 a report was
given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26
letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.[18]
Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine
learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T
and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience
E."[19] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally
operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal
in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the question "Can machines think?" is
replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?".[20]
Modern-day machine learning has two objectives. One is to classify data based on models which have been
developed; the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A
hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with
supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for
stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[21]
Relationships to other fields
Artificial intelligence
As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for
artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic
discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines
learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with
various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed
"neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models
that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear
models of statistics.[23] Probabilistic reasoning was also employed,
especially in automated medical diagnosis.[24]: 488
However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based

approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Machine learning as subfield of AI[22]
Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical
problems of data acquisition and representation.[24]: 488 By 1980,
expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.[25] Work on symbolic/knowledge-
based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming(ILP), but the more statistical
line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information
retrieval.[24]: 708–710, 755 Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science
around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by
researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart, and Hinton. Their main success came in
the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.[24]: 25
Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The
field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical
nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods
and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[25]
Data compression
There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the posterior
probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using
arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction
(by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as
a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence".[26][27][28]
An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space
vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces. For each
compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x,
corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all
compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three
representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.[29]
According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible
compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip file's
compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without
both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.
Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include VP9, NVIDIA Maxine, AIVC,
AccMPEG.[30] Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV,
TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image
Compression.[31]
In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar
data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels
and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression.[32]
Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data
transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a
dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process
condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in
image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points
with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the original data while significantly
decreasing the required storage space.[33]
Large language models are also capable of lossless data compression, as demonstrated by DeepMind's
research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed
data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free
Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and
16.4% of their original sizes, respectively.[34]
Data mining
Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while
machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data
mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step of
knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different
goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as "unsupervised learning" or
as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research
communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major
exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually
evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and
data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect
to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other
supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the
unavailability of training data.
Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as
minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy
between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in
classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-
assigned labels of a set of examples).[35]
Generalization
The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while
optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with
minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is
an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.
Statistics
Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal
goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable
predictive patterns.[36] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological
principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[37] He also suggested the term data
science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[37]
Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set.
In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for
analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the
model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more
accurate the ultimate model will be.[38]
Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,[39]
wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest.
Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call
statistical learning.[40]
Statistical physics
Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be
extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of deep
neural networks.[41] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics.[42]
Theory
A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.[6][43] Generalization in this context is the
ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having experienced
a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution
(considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about
this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.
The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical
computer science known as computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately Correct
Learning (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually
does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the
performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization
error.
For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the
complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the
model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training
error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and
generalization will be poorer.[44]
In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning.
In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time.
There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be
learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.
Approaches
Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to
learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning system:
Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired
outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to
outputs.
Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to
find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden
patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).
Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which
it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an
opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's
analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.[6]
Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all
problems.[45][46][47]
Supervised learning
Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set
of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.[48] The
data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training
examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the
desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the
mathematical model, each training example is represented by an
array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training
data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative optimization of an
objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function
that can be used to predict the output associated with new
inputs.[49] An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly
determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training
A support-vector machine is a
data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or supervised learning model that
predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.[19] divides the data into regions
separated by a linear boundary. Here,
Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, the linear boundary divides the black
classification and regression.[50] Classification algorithms are used circles from the white.
when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and
regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any
numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input
would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.
Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification,
but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two
objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face
verification, and speaker verification.
Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized.
Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and
react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central
applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction,[8] and density
estimation.[51] Unsupervised learning algorithms also streamlined the process of identifying large indel
based haplotypes of a gene of interest from pan-genome.[52]
Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations
within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations
drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on
the structure of
the data, often
defined by some
similarity metric
and evaluated,
for example, by
internal
compactness, or Clustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, CLIPS,[53] turns the alignment image into a
learning regression problem. The varied slope (b) estimates between each pair of DNA
the similarity
segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.
between
members of the
same cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density
and graph connectivity.
Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and
supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing
training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in
conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning
accuracy.
In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are
often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[54]
Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take
actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the
field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research,
information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and
genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision
process (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques.[55]
Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP
and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous
vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.
Dimensionality reduction
Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by
obtaining a set of principal variables.[56] In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the
feature set, also called the "number of features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be
considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality
reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g.,
3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while
keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.[57] The manifold hypothesis proposes
that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction
techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularization.
Other types
Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and
sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modeling, meta-
learning.[58]
Self-learning
Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable
of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[59] It is learning with no external rewards and no
external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions
about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction
between cognition and emotion.[60] The self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such
that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine:
1. in situation s perform action a

2. receive a consequence situation s'
3. compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s')
4. update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')
It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a
separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value
(secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two
environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment,
wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the
behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the
CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable
situations.[61]
Feature learning
Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during
training.[62] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning
algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their
input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing
classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown
data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under
that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the features
and use them to perform a specific task.
Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are
learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and
supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input
data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix
factorization[63] and various forms of clustering.[64][65][66]
Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-
dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation
is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms
aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data,
without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.[67] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple
levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms
of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a
representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.[68]
Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require
input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as
images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An
alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit
algorithms.
Sparse dictionary learning

Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear
combination of basis functions, and is assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and
difficult to solve approximately.[69] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the K-SVD
algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is
to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each
class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely
represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-
noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the
noise cannot.[70]
Anomaly detection
In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events
or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.[71] Typically,
the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in
a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.[72]
In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not
rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical
definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised
algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may
be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[73]
Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[74] Unsupervised anomaly detection
techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the
instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the
data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as "normal" and
"abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification
problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection
techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then
test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.
Robot learning
Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning,
reinforcement learning,[75][76] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).
Association rules
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between
variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some
measure of "interestingness".[77]
Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or
evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based
machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively
represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms
that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a
prediction.[78] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule
learning, and artificial immune systems.
Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced
association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by
point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[79] For example, the rule
found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together,
they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about
marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket
analysis, association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion
detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule
learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.
Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a
discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either
supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of
context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make
predictions.[80]
Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform
representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the
known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP
system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples.
Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing
hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.
Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing.
Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a
logical setting.[81][82][83] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a
Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[84] The term
inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than
mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.
Models
A machine learning model is a type of mathematical model which, after being "trained" on a given dataset,
can be used to make predictions or classifications on new data. During training, a learning algorithm
iteratively adjusts the model's internal parameters to minimize errors in its predictions.[85] By extension the
term model can refer to several level of specifity, from a general class of models and their associated
learning algorithms, to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters tuned.[86]
Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems, picking the best
model for a task is called model selection.
Artificial neural networks

Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist
systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by
the biological neural networks that constitute animal
brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by
considering examples, generally without being
programmed with any task-specific rules.
An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected

units or nodes called "artificial neurons", which loosely
model the neurons in a biological brain. Each
connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can
transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial
neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a
signal can process it and then signal additional artificial
neurons connected to it. In common ANN
implementations, the signal at a connection between
artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of
each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear
An artificial neural network is an interconnected
function of the sum of its inputs. The connections
group of nodes, akin to the vast network of
between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node
neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts represents an artificial neuron and an arrow
as learning proceeds. The weight increases or represents a connection from the output of one
decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. artificial neuron to the input of another.
Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the
signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that
threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different
kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer
(the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.
The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would.
However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology.
Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech
recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical
diagnosis.
Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model
the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of
deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[87]
Decision trees
Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to
go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to
conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves).
It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics,
data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target
variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification
trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and
branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class
labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous
values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In
decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and
explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, A decision tree showing survival
a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree probability of passengers on the
can be an input for decision-making. Titanic
Support-vector machines
Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised
learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as
belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new
example falls into one category.[88] An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear
classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In
addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using
what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.
Regression analysis
Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between
input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line
is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The
latter is often extended by regularization methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression.
When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models
include polynomial regression (for example, used for
trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel[89]), logistic
regression (often used in statistical classification) or even
kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by
taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map
input variables to higher-dimensional space.
Bayesian networks
Illustration of linear regression on a data set
A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic
graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that
represents a set of random variables and their conditional
independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a
Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships
between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can
be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various
diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and
learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like A simple Bayesian network. Rain
speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian influences whether the sprinkler is
activated, and both rain and the
networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent
sprinkler influence whether the grass
and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence is wet.
diagrams.
Gaussian processes
A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite
collection of the random variables in the process has a multivariate
normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined covariance
function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each
other depending on their locations.
Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the An example of Gaussian Process
Regression (prediction) compared
distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of
with other regression models[90]
its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed
points and the covariances between those points and the new,
unobserved point.
Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimization used to do hyperparameter
optimization.
Genetic algorithms
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural
selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding
good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and
1990s.[91][92] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of
genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[93]
Belief functions
The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory, is a general
framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as
probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can be thought of
as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule
of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. However,
there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches in order to
incorporate ignorance and Uncertainty quantification. These belief function approaches that are
implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble
methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that
standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.[3][5][10] However, the computational
complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead a much
higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches.
Training models
Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to
perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to
target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a
corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service.
Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived
from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in
detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a
potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of
study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.
Federated learning
Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning
models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing
to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process
to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction
models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google.[94]
Applications
There are many applications for machine learning, including:
Agriculture
Anatomy
Adaptive website
Affective computing
Astronomy
Automated decision-making
Banking
Behaviorism
Bioinformatics
Brain–machine interfaces
Cheminformatics
Citizen Science
Climate Science
Computer networks
Computer vision
Credit-card fraud detection
Data quality
DNA sequence classification
Economics
Financial market analysis[95]
General game playing
Handwriting recognition
Healthcare
Information retrieval
Insurance
Internet fraud detection
Knowledge graph embedding
Linguistics
Machine learning control
Machine perception
Machine translation
Marketing
Medical diagnosis
Natural language processing
Natural language understanding
Online advertising
Optimization
Recommender systems
Robot locomotion
Search engines
Sentiment analysis
Sequence mining
Software engineering
Speech recognition
Structural health monitoring
Syntactic pattern recognition
Telecommunication
Theorem proving
Time-series forecasting
Tomographic reconstruction[96]
User behavior analytics
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program to
better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation
algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-Research in collaboration
with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009
for $1 million.[97] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the
best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation") and they changed their
recommendation engine accordingly.[98] In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion
Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.[99] In 2012, co-founder of Sun
Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two
decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.[100] In 2014, it was reported that a
machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it
may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists.[101] In 2019 Springer Nature
published the first research book created using machine learning.[102] In 2020, machine learning technology
was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.[103] Machine
learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.[104] Recently, machine
learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on
the user's interaction with the phone.[105][106][107] When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms
(MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By
employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far
surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[108]
Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum chemistry, where novel
algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on chemical reactions, thereby offering new tools
for chemists to tailor experimental conditions for optimal outcomes.[109]
Limitations
Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to
deliver expected results.[110][111][112] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access
to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of
resources, and evaluation problems.[113]
The "black box theory" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the
algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the
algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[114] The House of Lords
Select Committee, which claimed that such an “intelligence system” that could have a “substantial impact
on an individual’s life” would not be considered acceptable unless it provided “a full and satisfactory
explanation for the decisions” it makes.[114]
In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[115]
Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after
years of time and billions of dollars invested.[116][117] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been reported to
produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[118]
Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and
increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with
training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the
necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[119]
Bias
Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system
trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that
are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to
pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[120]
Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[121][122] In an
experiment carried out by ProPublica, an investigative journalism organization, a machine learning
algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged "black defendants high risk
twice as often as white defendants."[123] In 2015, Google Photos would often tag black people as
gorillas,[123] and in 2018, this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the
workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at
all.[124] Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.[125] In
2016, Microsoft tested Tay, a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist
language.[126]
Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other
domains.[127] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and
propelling its use for human good, is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including
Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's inspired by people, it's
created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just
beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility."[128]
Explainability
Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial
intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[129] It
contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an
AI arrived at a specific decision.[130] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and
dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an
implementation of the social right to explanation.
Overfitting
Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as
overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well
it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[131]
Other limitations and vulnerabilities

Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy
example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown
horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are
likely to be horses.[132] A real-world example is that, unlike
humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make
judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the
picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are
oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of
The blue line could be an example of
real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can
overfitting a linear function due to
result in "adversarial" images that the system misclassifies.[133][134] random noise.
Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or

from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a
single adversarially chosen pixel.[135] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and/or
evasion via adversarial machine learning.[136]
Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for
categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine learning models which are often
developed and/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in
cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box
access.[137][138][139]
Model assessments
Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the
holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test
set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-
fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are
performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training
the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances
with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.[140]
In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True
Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report
the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail
to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method
to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously
mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating
characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).[141]
Ethics
Machine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases
may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.[142] For example, in
1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a
computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60
candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names.[120] Using job
hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias
by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.[143][144] Another example includes
predictive policing company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted in “disproportionately high levels
of over-policing in low-income and minority communities” after being trained with historical crime
data.[123]
While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered
a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and representation of
minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.[145] In fact, according to
research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, “female faculty merely make
up 16.1%” of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world.[146]
Furthermore, among the group of “new U.S. resident AI PhD graduates,” 45% identified as white, 22.4%
as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity
in the field of AI.[146]
AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical
information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.[147] Because human languages
contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.[148][149]
Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns
among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as
income-generating machines.[150] This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing
ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be
designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary
owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an
additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to
be mitigated.[151]
Hardware
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more
efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning)
that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.[152] By 2019, graphic processing units (GPUs), often
with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale
commercial cloud AI.[153] OpenAI estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning
projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of
compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[154][155]
Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks

A physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which an
electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. "Physical" neural
network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to
software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in
which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural
synapse.[156][157]
Embedded Machine Learning

Embedded Machine Learning is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is
run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and
microcontrollers.[158][159][160] Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for
transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and
privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties,
personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several
techniques including hardware acceleration,[161][162] using approximate computing,[163] optimization of
machine learning models and many more.[164][165] Pruning, Quantization, Knowledge Distillation, Low-
Rank Factorization, Network Architecture Search (NAS) & Parameter Sharing are few of the techniques
used for optimization of machine learning models.
Software
Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:
Free and open-source software

Caffe MXNet
Deeplearning4j OpenNN
DeepSpeed Orange
ELKI pandas (software)
Google JAX ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)
Infer.NET scikit-learn
Keras Shogun
Kubeflow Spark MLlib
LightGBM SystemML
Mahout TensorFlow
Mallet Torch / PyTorch
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit Weka / MOA
ML.NET XGBoost
mlpack Yooreeka
Proprietary software with free and open-source editions

KNIME
RapidMiner
Proprietary software
Amazon Machine Learning KXEN Modeler
Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO LIONsolver
Azure Machine Learning Mathematica
IBM Watson Studio MATLAB
Google Cloud Vertex AI Neural Designer
Google Prediction API NeuroSolutions
IBM SPSS Modeler Oracle Data Mining
Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service SequenceL
PolyAnalyst Splunk
RCASE STATISTICA Data Miner
SAS Enterprise Miner
Journals
Journal of Machine Learning Research
Machine Learning
Nature Machine Intelligence
Neural Computation
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Conferences
AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge
Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)
International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and
Biostatistics (CIBB)
International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)
International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)
See also
Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning
Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets
Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm
Force control
List of important publications in machine learning
List of datasets for machine-learning research
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Nils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning (https://ai.stanford.edu/people/nilsson/mlbo
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the Wayback Machine, Springer. ISBN 0-387-95284-5.
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06570-7
Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and
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01243-0.
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105359/http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html) 2016-02-17 at the
Wayback Machine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1
Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition),
Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3.
Christopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-853864-2.
Stuart Russell & Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach (http://aim
a.cs.berkeley.edu/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110228023805/http://aima.cs.be
rkeley.edu/) 2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine. Pearson, ISBN 9789332543515.
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine, IRE Convention Record, Section on
Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56–62, 1957.
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine (http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110426161749/http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pd
f) 2011-04-26 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth
Summer Research Conference on AI.
Kevin P. Murphy (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction (https://probml.githu
b.io/pml-book/book1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210411153246/https://pr
obml.github.io/pml-book/book1.html) 2021-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.
External links
Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote
International Machine Learning Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081341/http://
machinelearning.org/)
mloss (https://mloss.org/) is an academic database of open-source machine learning
software.
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Machine Learning

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Machine Learning

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Machine learning

The mathematical foundations of ML are provided by mathematical optimization (mathematical

Relationships to other fields

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based

1. in situation s perform action a

Sparse dictionary learning

Artificial neural networks

An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected

Other limitations and vulnerabilities

Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or

Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks

Embedded Machine Learning

Free and open-source software

Proprietary software with free and open-source editions

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