COMPUTER NETWORKS

NETWORK LAYER
Multiple Choice Type Questions
1.If subnet mask is 255.255.252.0 then how many
subnets is available?
2
WBUT 2013]
a) b) 18 c) 4 d) 24
Answer: (c)

2. Which of the following is an interior routing protocol?

WBUT 2013]
a) RIP b) OSPF c) BGP d) both (a) & (b)
Answer: (d)

3.When host knows its IP address but not its physical address,
it can use
WBUT 2013]
a) RARP b) ICMP c)ARP d) IGMP
Answer: ()

4. Which of the following is a valid host for network

192.168.10.32/28?
a)
WBUT 2013, 2016]
192.168.10.39 b) 192.168.10.47 c) 192.168.10.14 d) 192.168.10.54
Answer: (a)

5. Which class of IP address is reserved for multicast communication?

WBUT 2013, 2014, 2016]
a) Class A b) Class B c)Class C d) Class D
Answer: (d)

6. The network layer concerns with WBUT 2015, 2016]

a) packets b) bits c) frames d) IP
Answer: (a)

7. An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer

is called nétwork
a)
WBUT 2015]
socket b) pipe c) port d) none of these
Answer: (a)

8. IPv6 addresses have a size of.

WBUT 2015]
a) 32 bits b) 64 bits c) 128 bits d) 265 bits
Answer: (C)

9. ICMP
resides at the same layer as which of the following protocols mentioned
below?
a) TCP
WBUT 2016]
b) UDP c)IP d) ARP
Answer: (c)

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routine algorithms can be used for network layer

10. Which one of the following WBUT 2017]
design?
Algorithm b) Distance Vector Routine
a) Shortest path d) All of these
c)Link State Routine
Answer: (d)
WBUT 2017]
11. ICMP is primarily used for
b) Addressing
a) Error diagnostic
d) None of these
c) Forwarding
Answer: (a)

Short Answer Type Questions

T 2014, 2017]
1.What is Gateways? Differentiate between hub and switch?
Answer:
interface with another network that
A Gateway is a network node that is equipped to
that may
possibly uses different protocols. Gateways are therefore protocol converters
operate at any layer.
Hubs and switches are networking equipments that inter-connect several
hosts. They
differ in the way that they pass on network traffic that they receive. A hub repeats
everything it receives on all other ports. A switch on the other hand makes a short
analysis of the packet received and tries to repeat it only on an appropriate port. For
Ethermet, a hub does not isolate collision domain. Switches on the other hand solate
collision domain and hence permit a larger number of hosts to operate smoothly with low
collision levels.

2. Difference between router & bridge? WBUT 2014, 20171

Answer:
1) Routers are more intelligent than bridges in the sense that if runs an algorithm that
depends on the contents of a packet. For example, an IP router runs the routing
algorithm based on the destination IP address of the packet.
2) Routers can operate on interfaces that lead to identical media types but bridges are
meant to interconnect different kinds of media. For example we can have a router
connecting Ethermet LANs. A bridge on the other hand can connect an Ethernet LAN
with a Token-ring LAN (for example).
3) Routers allow hosts that aren't practically on the same logical network to be able to
communicate with each other, while bridges can only connect networks that are
logically the same.
4) Routers operate at the layer 3 (network layer) of the OSI model,
while bridges are
only at the layer 2 (Data link layer)

3. What is distance vector routing protocol? What is difference between RIP

EGP? and
WBUT 20141

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Answer:
1 Part:
Distance Vector Routing
communications methods Protocol (DVRP) is one of two major
that use data packets routing protocols
requires routing hardware sent over Internet Protocol for
to
topology in order to determinereport the distances of various (IP). DVR
the best and most efficient nodes within a network or IP
routes for data packets.
2nd
Part:
Routing Information Protocol
path from end-to-end (RIP) is a dynamic
protocol sed to find the
(source to destination) best route or
metric/hop count algorithm. over a network by
This algorithm is used using a routing
the source to destination, to determine the shortest path
which allows the data from
shortest time. to be delivered at high speed
in the
RIP plays an important
role providing the shortest
node to node. The hop is and best path for data
the step towards the to take from
router, computer or next existing device, which
other device. Once
the length of the hop is
could be a
information is stored in determined, the
a routing table for future
wide area networks and use. RIP is being used in
is generally considered both local and
Exterior-Gateway Protocol to be easily configured and implemented.
between two neighbour a
(EGP) is protocol for
exchanging routing information
gateway hosts (each with
autonomous systems. EGP is its own router) in a network
routing table information.
commonly used between
hosts on the Intermet to exchange
of
The routing table contains
addresses they can reach, a list of known routers,
and a cost metric associated the
the best available route is with the path to each router
chosen. Each router polls so that
120 to 480 seconds and its neighbour at intervals
the neighbour responds by sending between
EGP-2 is the latest version its complete routing table.
of EGP.
4. a) An organization
with a
network administrator wants site address of 145.99.0.0
to create 32 subnets. Whatneeds to be subnetted. The
subnet mask? Design the should be the value of the
b) What do you mean by subnets.
a supernet?
Answer: WBUT 2015]
a) Address of the site is 145.99.0.0
To set 32 subnets we need 6
subnet bits. So the last octet in binary
Here number of hosts per subnet in 2. will be 1111 1100
So Address: 145.99.0.0
Network: 255.255.255.252 30
Network: 145.99.0.0/30
Broadcast: 145.99.0.3
Host Min: 145.99.0.1
Host Max: 145.99.0.2
Hosts/Net: 2

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or subnets
Internet Protocol (IP) networks
combining several The new
Supernet is created by interdomain routing (CIDR) prefix.
b)A a single classless collection of the
prefixes of the
into one network with as the supernetting, route
same routing prefix commonly called
combined network has the is
The procedure used to create a supernet
enables organizations to modify their
subnets. summarization. Supernetting by
aggregation or route requirement of network routing devices
minimize the extensive and helps
network size and helps to conserve address space
independent routes. It also processing overheads
combining several information and minimize scheme,
the router to
effectively store routing
supports the CIDR address coding
while matching the
routes. Supernetting
allowing routing table
entries to be reduced.
loop problem is removed in
transparent bridge? How the WBUT 2016]
5. What do you mean by
transparent bridge?
Answer: segments with
more than one network
ITransparent bridges are devices which
Part: connects
transparent bridge is
essentially used to
decisions. A incoming frames
all routing associated port, to filter
other bridges to make their
nodes and port, and to forward
learm the MAC addresses of al the same incoming
addresses are located on
whose destination MACdestination MAC through their associated port.
incoming frames to the

2nd spanning tree algorithm to create a loop

Part: problem, the bridges use the
To solve the looping
less topology.
Questions
Long Answer Type
WBUT 2013, 2016]
difference between IPV4 and IPV6. WBUT 2013]
1. a) State the ID of the
format. ID and the host
Discuss IPV6 packet Find the net
b) What is the
purpose of subnetting? WBUT 2013, 2014,
20161

following IP addresses:
i) 19.34.21.5 of
ii) 220.34.8.9 255.255.255.224. Determine the maximum number
c) A network has subnet mask network.
network. Determine the broadcast address of the
WBUT 2013, 2014, 2016
Host in this
Answer:
a) 1" Pat: IPv6 So,
IPv4 are 128 bits (16 bytes) in length.
bytes) in length. So,Addre
Addresses are 32 bits (4 maximum 2128 addresses are possible.
addresses possible.
maximum 232 Hexadecimal number notation, e.g.,
Number notation, e.g., 192.168.10.160 32FE:4201:39A6:0000:0000:0000:1234:ABCD|
Dotted
should be supported IPSec support is not optional
IPSec is optional and
externally
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IPv4
Header does not identify IPv6
packet flow for QoS Header
handling by routers contains Flow Label field,
Identifies pacl:et flow for which
QoS handling by
Both routers and the sending router.
host fragment
packets. Routers do not support packet fragmentation.
Header includes a checksum. Sending host fragments packets.
Header includes options. JHeader does notinclude a checksum.
ARP uses broadcast ARP JOptional data is supported as
request to resolve IP Multicast extension headers.
to MAC/Hardware address. Neighbour Solicitation messages
Broadcast addresses are used resolve IP addresses to
to send traffic to IPv6 MAC addresses.
all nodes on a subnet. uses a link-local scope all-nodes
multicast
Configured either manually address.
or through DHCP. Does
not require manual configuration
DHCP or
Must support a 576-byte
packet size (possibly Must
fragmented). support a 1280-byte packet
size (without
fragmentation).
2d Part:
The IPv6 protocol defines
a set of headers, including
extension headers. The following the basic IPv6 header and
figure shows the fields he IPv6
and the order in which that appear in the IPv6 header
the fields appear.
Version Traffic class
Flow label
Payload length
Next header
Hop limit

Source address

Destination address

The following list describes the

function of each header field.
Version4-bit version number ofInternet Protocol =
Traffic class-8-bit traffic class field. 6.
Flow label -20-bit field.
Payload length 16-bit unsigned integer,
which is the rest of the
follows the IPv6 header, in octets. packet that
Next header 8-bit selector. Identifies
the type of header that
follows the IPv6 header. Uses the same immediately
values as the IPv4 protocol
Hop limit -
8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented field.
forwards the packet. The packet is by.one by each node that
discarded it the hop limit is
zero. decremented to
Source address 128 bits. The address of
the initial sender of the packet.
Destination address 128 bits. The address
-

packet. The intended recipient is not

of the intended recipient
necessarily the recipient of the
routing header is present. if an optional

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b) 1" Part: network congestion. Congestion used to

subnetting is to help relieve networks to use
The main purpose of because it was more common for
than it is today the entire
be a bigger problem network are connected through a hub,
hubs than switches. When
nodes on a one PC sends a
domain. What this means is that if machine
collision the packet. Each
network acts as a single network sees
PC on the entire recipient.
packet to another PC, every ignores the packet if it isn't the intended
but
looks at the packet header,

2nd Network-id Host-id

Part Host bits 34.21.5
a) Network Address Class
34.21.5 19
9
O 19.34.21.5 220.34.8
9
220.34.8.9
(i) 11111.So, the broadcast
=
12. Here in the
Broadcast address, host
c) Number of Hosts
=

address is 255.255.255.255
What is the
difference between
system (AS)?
2. a) What is
autonomous
Explain an Interdomain routing protocol.
WBUT 2013]
AS?
intradomain and Inter domain

Answer: single
1s Part: is the unit of router policy, either a
autonomous system (AS) administrator.(or
On the Internet, an controlled by a common network
networks that is (such as a university,
network or a group of single administrative entity
sometimes
administrators) on behalf of a autonomous system is also
group of division). An unique
enterprise, or a business is assigned a globally
a business domain. An autononious
system
referred to as a routing System Number (ASN).
sometimes called an Autonomous routing information to
each other
number, communicate
autonomous system autonomous system
Networks within an like RIP, OSPF, etc. An
Gateway Protocol (IGP) systems using the Border
Gatewáy
using an Interior autonomous
information with other
shares routing
Protocol (BGP).

Inter-Autonomous System
2nd
Part: Intra-Autonomous System inter-autonomous system
routing
used to An. between
routing protocol is provides routing
An intra-AS routing tables within
protocol administrative
configure and maintain the autonomous systems (that is,
system (AS).
an autonomous domains).

protocols are also known as

Intra-AS routing
protocols
interior gateway
Protocol (BGP)
Information Protocol The Border Gateway
RIP: Routing
protocol: '
3rd Part: ofinter domain routing
is an example
Distance vector routing protocol
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i)pass periodic copies of routing
ii) accumulate table to neighbour
distance vectors routers
iii) routers discover the
best path to destination
u from each neighbour.

12

10

A: The first table below shows

the initial values at z.
after one hop of information The second table shows the
received from the neighbours,
the last after three hops (where contents
the least-cost path from the third after two hops, and
x-to-u via z is found).
Cost to
Z
V

From

10

Cost to

4 0
From X 12

0 10
5 0
Cost to

4 0
From 12
11
0 3
9 3 0
Cost to

4 0
From X 11
0 2
11 7 0
9 5 2 3
0

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WBUT 2013]
b) What is the difference between RIP and OSPF?
RIP uses
Answer: algorithm. OSPF is based on Link state routing.
RIP is based on Bellman Ford uses topological graph
for calculating
shortest route. OSPF
hop count for calculating
in different
shortest path. classless/subnetting (RIP v2) networking
RIP uses classfull (RIP v1) and
versions. OSPF uses both in same version.
node F of the
path from node A to algorithm.
algorithm to find the shortest
c) Apply Dijkstra Do the same for
Bellman-Ford
in figure below. WBUT 2013]
network graph shown 3
6

Answer are set to oo,

In the above, A is the root node initiated to = 0 and other

Step 1: A=0 C-o

D-
D (F)F*

E-
B-
Step2: B, D & c, so, it visits the
adjacent nodes.
connected to
As, Node Ais
A-0 C-3

D-2

B-2

Step 3: Then,
are precede such that if d[u]+w{u + v) <d[v]
TakingNode B,
dlv=d[u]+ w(u,v)

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A-0
C-3

F
D-2
(B

B-2 E=7
Step 4:
Taking Node D, from
D not transition possible.
A=0
C-3

Step 5: B-2
Taking E-7
Node A=0
C-3

D-2

Step 6: B-2 E-7

Taking node E, F will
be 10 which is>9
So, the shortest path
is ACF.
Dijkstra's algorithm
requires global information
algorithm uses only of network where Bellman-Ford
local knowledge of neighboring
problem will be same as nodes. The result
the Dijkstra's
solution. of the above
3. a) State
the advantage of IPV6 over IPV4.
Answer: WBUT 2014]
Larger Address Space: Address
filed
of IPv4 is only 32 bits in length. in IPv6 is 128 bits long while the address filed
IPv6 offers very large,
compared to IPv4. i.e.296 address space
as
Better header format: The header of IPv6 has been designed
the routing process. In
header of IPv6 options are separated in a way to speed-up
Options are inserted into from the base header.
base header only when required
by the upper-layer
data.

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can be
designed in a way that a protocol
IPv6 has been emerging technologies or
new
3. Provision for extension: requirements of
extended easily to meet the
. applications.
in IPv6: IPv6 provides a mechanism
Resource Allocation support Flow label enables source to send
Label for resource allocation. mechanism is really
called Flow
request
helpful in real-time
for the
audio and
special handling of a packet.
This
video transmission. confidentiality and packet's integrity encryption and
ensure
5. Security Features: To included in IPv6.
authentication options are
WBUT 2014, 2016]
RARP.
b) DIfferentiate between ARP and
Answer: Protocol)
ARP: (Address Resolutionis sent from one host on a LAN to another, it isThe the 48-bit
device
When an Ethernet frame for which interface the frame is destined.
Ethemet address that determinesthe destination IP address in the IP datagram. Address IP
different forms of addresses: 32-bit
driver software never looks at
mapping between the two provides a dynamic
resolution provides a address the data link uses. ARP
whatever type of use the term
addresses and
address to the corresponding hardware address. We the
mapping from an IP automatically and is normally not a concern of either
dynamic since it happens administrator.
application user or the system
Protocol)
RARP: (Reverse Address Resolution a unique hardware address, assigned by the
manufacturer
on a network has read its
Each system
interface. The principle of RARP is for the diskless system to (a broadcast
of the network the interface card and send an RARP request IP address
hardware address from
unique
network) asking for someone to reply. with the diskless system's
frame on the
(in an RARP reply).
What is its significance in case of
classless
4. a) What is CIDR notation?
addressing? is NAT? [WBUT 2015]
a private address? What
b) What do you mean by
Answer
a) 1" Part: without
Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for assigning IP addresses
Classless
classes like Class A, Class B or Class C.
using the standard IP address is represented as
IP
A.B.C.D /n, where "/n" is called the to
In CIDR notation, an IP address bits used
network prefix. The IP prefix identifies the number of significant used to
prefix or 192.9.205.22 /18 means, the first 18 bits are
identify a network. For example,
14 bits are used to identify hosts. Common
represent the network and the remaining
prefixes are 8, 16, 24, and 32.

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2nd
Part:
In order to extend the life
completed, it was necessary of
IP version 4
until the newer
to take a new IP version 6 could
sYStem calls for eliminating approach to addressing IPv4 devices. be
the notion This new
classless addressing
scheme sometimes of address classes entirely,
called Classless creating a new
Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).
b) A private IP address is a
non-Internet facing
IP addresses are provided IP address on
by network devices, an internal network.
such as routers, using Private
translation (NAT). network addressS
Originally it was
thought that IPv4's
4.294,967,296 theoretical 32-bit IP addressing
IP addresses -- system yi: lding
as the Intermet grew it became apparent would be adequate for all purposes wever
and a future system (which that something had to fill
would tum out to be the gap between IPv4
and implerment. Private IP IPv6) that would
addressing and NAT take time to develap
Private IP addressing uses fill that gap with 1
addresses from the the private IP range.
(192.168.0.0- 192.168.255.255). class C range reserved
DHCP or be manually set,
Private addresses can
be assigned by the router
for:NAT
after which those addresses using
through the router. can communicate with
one another
Private IP addresses can
only be guaranteed unique
conflicts. If a directly to an internal network,
connected computer does excepting
even assigning a private not have a static IP address
IP address manually will assigned,
Private IP addresses not enable communication.
cannot be directly contacted
public IP address over the Intermet as a
can. This situation affords computer with a
device communicates an extra layer of security:'A
with the Internet using its network NARB:
to see any incoming public IP address from
if
so, it is directed
data was requested by one
of
an ISP and checks
the private IP-assigned
to that computer; not it is typically compter3. Lfiito
Another benefit of using NAT, forif those discarded.
websites, file and who do tend to have incoming
game servers is the ability rer ie ts like
crash, as the incoming
-
to quickly switch servers in
traffic can all be forwarded he event o a
to a back-up server very easily.
5. a) State
the difference between static
Answer: and dynamic routing. WBUT
2016]8
staticrouting .' ¥
Static routing is when you dynamic routing
statically|Dynamic routing is when
contigure a router to you use a roüting|
send traffic for|protocot such
particular destinations in preconfiguredand/or as OSPF, 1SIS, EIGRP;
directions BGP to figure out what
paths traffic
should take.
b) Describe
any shortest path algorithm.
Answer: [WBUT 2016]
L the
node at which we are starting
be called the initial node. Let the.distance
the distance from the initial node
ne initial distance to Y. Dijkstra's shortest path
of node Y
algorithm will assign
values ard
will try to improve them step by step.

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initial node
value: set it to zero för our
. Assign to every node a tentative distance
and to infinity for all other nodes. initial node as current. Create a set of the
2 Mark all nodes unvisited. Set the nodes except the
nodes called the unvisited set consisting of all the
unvisited
initial node.
consider all of its unvisited neighbours and calculate their
3. For the current node, the current node A is marked with
a distance
tentative distances. For example, if
B has length 2, then the distance
connecting it with a neighbour
of 6 and the edge 6+2=8. If this distance is less than the
previously
to B (through A) will be distance. Even though a
tentative distance of B, then overwrite that
recorded "visited" at this time and it
been examined, it is not marked as
neighbour has
remains in the unvisited set. current node, mark
considering all of the neighbours of the
4. When we are done it from the unvisited set. A
visited node
visited and remove
the current node as
will never be checked again. visited (when planning a route
between
node has been marked
5. If the destination tentative distance among the nodes in the
the smallest
two specific nodes) or if planning a complete traversal), then
stop. The
unvisited set is infinity (when
algorithm has finished. with the smallest tentative
distance and
node that is marked
6. Select the unvisited 3.
it as the new "current node" then go back to step
set
following: WBUT 2017
protocol answer the
6. With respect to Ethernet detected?
a) How is collision usually collision?
b) What will the
transmission station do upon frame?
Why is there a minimum limit to the size of the
c)
frames
Answer: nodes transmitting in the same time. The
the result of two This
a) In Ethernet world,impact and collide when they meet on the physiçal media. has
from each machine whenever it
methods allow any device to try to access the medium
contention-based use a Carier
prevent complete "choking" on the media, these methods any
data to send. To process to first detect if the media is transmitting
(CSMA) means
Sense Multiple Access a signal on the media from another computer, it
is
signal in that moment. If there the device attempting to transmit sees that the
media
is talking. When is
that another device short period of time. If no carrier signal
and try again afier a
contention
is in use, it will wait its data. Ethernet and wireless networks use
detected, the device transmits
same
based media access control. fail and two devices will transmit at the
CSMA process will will be
It is possible that the collision. If this occurs, the data sent by both devices
a data
time. This is called resent. As the number of.nodes increases on a share
to be
corrupted and will need collision decreases
probability of successful media access without a collisions
media, the required to correct errors due to these
Additionally, the recovery mechanisms
further diminishes the overall throughput.

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b) CSMA/CD Protocol:
It is used when more than two computers are sharing the same
medium typicaliy
Something that is happening in LAN networks when
computers are connected trough hub.
CSMACD is a practice used for multiple access control protocols. Transimission
will be
taken place by a particular station at a time but when more than one station will
transmit
at the samc time as a result collision car be occurred.

CSMA/CA Protocol:
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)
that has been
introduced to get better the CSMA performance. According to that a station will
sense the
transmission medium before sending the frame. CASMA/CA protocol is used in wireless
(802.11) LANs. Moreover, when a station sense collision in case
of CSMA/CA, it first
waits for some timc after that but before packets transmission. it will listen to the channel
for its idleness, if s0 packets transmission will start otherwise it will waits for the medium
to become unoccupied.
Note that above mentioned both CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA protocols are the best
Cxample of Physical Pròtocols.

c)The minimum frame size on Ethernet is so that by the time the beginning of a frame
gets all the way across a maximum-width network, if a collision is detected there on the
far side of the network, there's still enough time for the jam signal (collision
detection
notification) to make it all the way back across the network while the ransmitter is still
transmitting. so that the transmitter will receive the jam signal and know it got collided
with so it will have to retransmit.
Anything below 64 bytes is just considered a runt (a buggy transmission) and ignored.
Runts are not collisions and do not trigger retransmissions.
But this is all pretty much moot as nobody runs hubs anymore, since Gigabit Ethernet
requires switches. So today's networks are always full duplex and CSMAJCD is a thing of
the past
A sender sends the packet (frame) and determine whether it got received by receiver
on the other side of channel or not. It may not be reached there mostly duc to
collisions with other packets in transit.
So therc must be a mechanism by which sender get to know whether a packet is reached
at the receiver or not. To check this, you want the head of the packet to transit from one
end of the wire and back again before the tail of the packet finished transmission. If
there's a transmission anywhere on the wire overlapping. you'tl hear it collide at your
receiver.
rames must be at least 64 bytes long. not includingthe preamble, so, if the data ficld is
shorter than 46 bytes, it must be compensated by the Pad field

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Collision

Round Trip

spend multiple receive

Secondly setting a minimum frame size allows you to
cycles verifying your frames' check sums.

7. Write short notes on the following: WBUT 2013]

a) Socket WBUT 2014]
b) BGP
RIP WBUT 2014]
c)
RARP WBUT 2017]
d) ARP &

Answer:
a) Socket:
flow across a'
A network socket is an endpoint of an inter-process communication
computers is based on the
computer network. Today, most communication between
Internet Protocol; therefore most network sookets are Internet sockets.
A socket API is an application programming interface (API), usually
provided by the
sockets.
operating system, that allows application programs to control and use network
Intermet socket APls are usually based on the Berkeley sockets standard.
A socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number,
much like one
particular
end of a telephone connection is the combination of a phone number and a
the
extension. Based on this address, internet sockets deliver incoming data packets to
appropriate application process or thread.

b) BGP:
BGP is a complex, advanced distance Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), BGP exchange
routing information between Autonomous Systems (ASs). a
Unlike Interior routing protocols such as RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF that run inside
company's network, BGP uses a different basic algorithm for building a loop-free
topology than any of the above mentioned protocols.
BGP is especially used for exchanging routing information between all of the major
Internet Service Providers (ISPs), as well between larger client sites and their respective
ISPs. And, in some large enterprise networks, BGP is used to interconnect differen
geographical or administrative regions.
BGP is Primarily used to support the complexity of the public Internet; Cisco has added
several clever and useful features to its BGP implementation (BGP 4). Somne of the
primary attributes of BGP is the use of pieces of information about a known route, where
it came from, and how to reach it, A BGP router will also generate an error message iT

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reccivcs a route that is missing these are mandatory attributes. Clients/ Corporate
Networks being connected by BGP.

Intermet

Company B
Autonomous System 2S5

Company A
Autonomous System 5S6

ISP
Autonomous System 10,566

c) RIP:
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the most commonly used Interior
Gateway Protocol (IGP) routing protocols on internal networks (and to a lesser extent,
networks connected to the Intermet). which helps routers dynamically adapt to changes of
network connections by communicating information about which networks cach router
Can reach and how far away those networks are.
Although RIP is still actively used, it has largely been made obsolete by routing protocols
such as OSPF and IS-IS.
The routing algorithm used in RIP, the Bellman-Ford algorithm, was first deployed in a
computer network in 1969. as the initial routing algorithm of the ARPANET.
A version
of RIP which supported the Internet Protocol (IP) was later included n the
5erkeley Software Distribution (BSD) of the Unix operating system as the routed
daemon, and various other vendors would implement their own implementations of the
routing protocol. Eventually RFC 1058 was issued to unity the various implementations
under a single stancdard.
RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol, which emplovs the hop count as a routing
etric. The maximunm number of hops allowed with RIP is 15. Each RIP router transmits
ull updates every 30 seconds by defaultL generating large amounts of network traffic in
Ower bandwidth networks. It runs above the network layer: of the Internet protocol suite,
Usng UDP port 520 to carry its data. A mechanism called split horizon with limited
PSon reverse is used to avoid routing loops. Routers of some brands also use a
down mechanism known as heuristics, whose usefulness IS arguable and is not a part
Ot
the standard protocol.
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and RIPng.
There are three versions of RIP. RIPv1, RIPv2, do not carry subnet information, lacking
RIPv1 uses classful routing. The routing updates limitation makes it impossible to have
masks. This
Support for variable length subnct
different-sized subnets inside of the same network class. included the ability
was developed in 1994 and
Due to the deficiencies of RIPv1, RIPv2 However to
information. thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing.
to carry subnet Rudimentary plain
backwards compatibility the 15 hop count limit remained.
maintain authèntication was
authentication was added to secure routing updates. Later, MDS
text
defined in RFC 2082.
No. 3(b) of Long Answer Type
Questions.
d) ARP & RARP: Refer to Question

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TRANSPORT LAYER
Multiple Choice Type guestions
1. Process-to-process delivery is the function of ..
a) transport
Answer: (a)
b) network c) physical
.. layer. WBUT 2014]
d) none of these

2.Port number is: WBUT 2014]

a) process number b) computer physical address
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these
Answer: (a)

3. UDP is: WBUT 2014]

a) Connectionless b) connection-oriented
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these
Answer: (a)

Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol used in internet?

4.
WBUT 2015]
a) TCP b) TCP and UDP c) UDP d) none
Answer: (b)

5. Which of the following is not Network support Layer? WBUT 2017]

a) Transport Layer b) Network Layer
c) Data Link Layer d) Physical Layer
Answer: (a)

6. The amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given
period of time is WBUT 2017]
a Scope b) Bandwidth c) Limitation d) Capacity
Answer: (b)

Short Answer Type Questions

1."TCP and UDP" - which one is better? Justify your answer. WBUT 2013]
Answer:
CP ensures a reliable anct ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from user to server or
VICe versa. UDP is
not dedicated to end to end connections and communication does not
Check readiness of receiver.
Reliability:
TCP is more reliable since it manages message acknowledgment and retransmissions in
case of lost parts. Thus there is absolutely no missing data. UDP does not ensure that

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acknowledgment, time out and
communication has reached receiver since concepts of
retransmission are not present.
Ordering: same sequence. In
transmissions are sent in a sequence and they are received in the
TCP and delivers
in wrong order, TCP reorders
the event of data segments. arriving sequence may not be maintained when it
application. In the case of UDP, sent message
is absolutely no way of
predicting the orderin which
reaches receiving application. There
message will be received.
Connection: three packets for a socket connection
and
TCP is a heavy weight connection requiring
is a lightweight transport layer
designed
handles congestion control and reliability. UDP
ordering of messages.
atop an IP. There are no tracking connections or
Method of transfer: is transmitted to segment boundaries.
UDP
TCP reads data as a byte stream and message
and on arrival are checked for their
messages are packets which are sent individually
data stream has none.
integrity. Packets have defined boundaries while
WBUT 2014]
2. Indicate QoS in transport layer.
Answer: Service (QoS) refers to the
In packet-switched computer networking. Quality of
a given traffic contract.
probability of the telecommunication network meeting
probability of a packet succeeding in
Sometimes, QoS is used informally to refer to the
example, telephony QoS refers to lack of
passing between two points in the network. For
loudness levels etc.
noise and tones on the circuit, appropriate
for QoS application and the entire Internet
The Internet was not conceived with a need
things that can happen to packets as they
ran on a "best effort" system. However, several
travel from origin to destination: (drop) some packets if they
Dropped packets: The routers might fail to deliver
none, or all of the packets might
arrive when their buffers are already full. Some,
network, and it is impossible to
be dropped, depending on the state of the
ask for this
determine what happened in advance. The receiving application must
in the overall
information to be retransmitted, possibly causing severe delays
transmission.
its destination, becauseit
Delay: It might take a long time for a packet to reach
a less direct route to avoid congestion.
gets held up in long queues, or takes is very
Alternatively, it might follow a fast, direct route. Thus delay
unpredictable.
This
. Jitter: Packets from source will reach the destination with different delays.
of
variation in delay is known as jitter and can seriously affect the quality
streaming audio and/or video.
Out-of-order delivery: When a collection of related packets are routed through
the Internet, different packets may take different routes, each resulting ina
one
different delay. The result is that the packets arive in a different order to the

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with which they were sent. This problem necessitates

special additional protocols
responsible for rearranging out-of-order packets
once they reach their destination.
Error: Sometimes packets are misdirected, or-combined together, or corrupted,
while en route. The receiver has to detect
this and. just as if the packet was
dropped, ask the sender to repeat itself.
Throughput
Security
Applications which require QoS are of the following
types:
Streaming multimedia, which may require guaranteed throughput.
IP telephony or Voice over IP (VOIP), which may require strict imits on
jitter
and delay.
Video Teleconferencing (VTC), which requires lowjitter.
Dedicauted link emulation, which requires both guaranteed
throughput and
imposes limits on maximum delay and jitter.
A safety-critical application, such as remote surgery, may require a
guaranteed
level of availability (this is also called hard QoS).
These types of service are called inelastic, meaning that they require a certain level of
bandwidth to function any more than required is unused, and any less will
render the
service non-functioning. By contrast, elastic applications can take advantage of
however
much or little bandwidth is available.

3. State the basic differences between TCP and UDP. WBUT 2016]
Answer:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) | UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, a | A simpler message-based connectionless
connection can be made from client to | protncal With UDP you send messages
server, and from then on any data can be| (packets) across the network in chunks.
sent along that connection.
Reliable when you send a message along a Unreliable - When you send a message, you
-

TCP socket, you know it will get there don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on
unless the connection fails completely. If it the way.
gets lost along the way, the server will re-
request the lost part. This means complete
integrity, things don't get corrupted.
Ordered if you send two messages along a Not ordered If you send two messages out,
-

connection, one after the other, you know you don't know what order they'll arrive in.
the first message will get there first. You
don't have to worry about data arriving in
the wrong order.
Heavyweight - when the low level parts of Lightweight - No ordering of messages,
|

nd
the TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order. tracking connections, etc. I's just fire and
resend requests have to be sent, and all the forget! This means it's a lot quicker, and the
out of sequence parts have to be put back network card / OS have to do very little work
together, so requires a bit of work to piece to translate the data back from the packets.
together.

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WBUT 2017]
4. Discuss the function of Transport Layer.
Answer:
Functions of Transport Layér: "peer to peer"
is to provide transparent
The purpose of the Transport Layer entity, thus relieving the upper layers
communication. wvith the remote (peer) transport The transport
and cost-cffective data transfer.
from any concern with providing reliable
basic service provided by the Network Layer
layer usually turns the unreliable and very
more powerful one. It provides end-to-end control and information transfer with
into a program.
the quality of service needed by the application
other parameters are needed to give a
Besides bandwidth and latency, which network
5.
characterization of QoS offered by a used for digitized voice traffic?
good [MODEL QUESTION]

Answer: technologies and

broad collection of networking
QoS (Quality of Service) refers to a
on the ability of a network to
techniques. The goal of QoS is to provide guarantees
performance within the scòpe of QoS
deliver predictable results. Elements of network
(throughput), latency (delay), and error
often include availability (uptime), bandwidth
rate.
QoS can be targeted at a network interface,
QoS involves prioritization of network traffic.
in, terms of specific applications. A
toward a given server or router's performance, or
deployed as part of QoS, to insure that
network monitoring system must typically be
networks are performing at the desired level.
generation of Internet applications such as VolP,
QoS is especially important for the new networking technologiés like
video-on-demand and other consumer services. Some core
prioritized traffic or guaranteed performance
Ethemet were not designed to support
QoS solutions across the Internet.
levels, making it much more difficult to implement
[MODEL QUESTION]
6. What is choke packet?
Answèr:
flow control along a network. A router detects
A specialized packet that is used for
ini use, line utilization and average
congestion by measuring the percentage of buffer to
a choke packet across the network
queue lengths. When it detects congestion, sends
it

the entire data source associated the congestion.

7. What is connection oriented protocol? Briefly explain the services of that

[MODEL QUESTION]
protocol.
Answer:
In telecommunications, connection-oriented
describes a means of transmitting data in
an end-to-end
which the devices at the end points use a preliminary protocol to establish
is sometimes
connection before any data is sent. Connection-oriented protocol service
it guarantees that data will arrive in the
called a "reliable" network service, because
is connection-oriented.protocol.
proper sequence. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) a

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Eor connection-oriented communications,
cach end point must
it can communicatc. The be able to transmit so that
alternative to connection-oriented
connectionless approach, transmission is the
in which data is
sent from one
nrior arrangement. Connectionless end point another without
protocols are usually described to
he end points have no protocol-defincd as statcless because
"conversation" of message way to remember
exchanges. Because where they are in a
connection-oriented protocols are they can keep track
sometimes described as of a conversation,
stateful.

Long Answer Type Questions

. What do you mean by traffic shaping?
Explain in detail leaky bucket algorithmn?
Answer: [WBUT 2015]
1 Part:
Traffic shaping, also known as "packet
shaping," is the practice
data transfer to assure a certain level of regulating network
of performance, quality of service
on investment (ROI). The practice
involves delaying the flow
(QoS) or return
designated as less important or less of packets that have been
desired than those of prioritized
Regulating the flow of packets into traffic streams.
a network is known as "bandwidth
Regulation of the flow of packets throttling."
out of a network is known as "rate
limiting."
2nd
Part:
The leaky bucket is an algorithm
used in packet switched
telecommunications networks to check computer networks and
that data transmissions conform
on bandwidth and burstiness to defined limits
(a measure of the unevenness
flow). The leaky bucket algorithm is or variations in the traffic
also used in leaky bucket counters,
when the average or peak rate e.g. to detect
of random or stochastic events or stochastic
exceed defined limits. processes
The Leaky Bucket Algorithm is
based on an analogy of a bucket .that
bottom through which any water it has a hole in the
contains will leak away at a constant
unless it is empty. Water can be added rate. until or
intermittently, i.e. in bursts, but
added at once, or it is added at if too much is
too high an average rate, the water will
capacity of the bucket, which will overtlow. exceed the
There are actually two different methods
of applying this analogy described in the
literature .These give what appear to .be
two different algorithms. both of which
referred to as the leaky bucket algorithm. are
This has resulted in confusion about what
lcaky bucket algorithm is and what its the
properties are.
n one version, the
analogue of the bucket is a counter or variable, separate from
Of traffic, the flow
and is used only to check that traffic contornms to the limits, i.e.
the wateris brought the analogue of
to the bucket by the traftic and added to it so that the level
n the bucket of water
indicates conformance to the rate and burstiness limits. This
elerred to here as the leaky bucket as a meter. In the second version, version is
the traffic passes
hrough a queue that is the analogue of the bucket, i.e. the traftic is
the analogue of the
water passing through
the bucket. This version is referred to here as the leaky bucket
as a
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equivalent
is to (a mirror image of) the token bucket
queue. The leaky bucket as a meter the same traftic as conforming
or
parameters vill see
algorithm, and given the same be seen as a special case of
the leaky
nonconforming. The leaky bucket as a queue can
bucket as a meter.

2. Writeshort notes on the following WBUT 2016]

a) Token Bucket Algorithm WBUT 2016]
b) QoS in transport layer
Answer:
a) Token Bucket Algorithm: the leaky bucket, but the primary
The token bucket is similar in some respects to
traffic to continue transmitting while
difference is that the token bucket allows bursty It thereby
a user-configurable threshold.
there are tokens in the bucket. up to
characteristics. The token bucket mechanism
accommodates traffic flows with bursty
on the presence of tokens in the bucket.
dictates that traffic can be transmitted based
and when tokens are present a flow is
Tokens each represent a given number of bytes
there are adequate tokens in thee
allowed to transmit traffic up to its peak burst rate if
bucket and if the burst threshold in configured appropriately.

The algorithm is as follows (assume each token

=1
byte):
a token is added to the bucket every 1/r seconds
the bucket can hold at the most b tokens
if a token arrives when the bucket is full, it is discarded-
and the
when a packet of n bytes arrives, n tokens are removed from the bucket
packet is sent to the network
bucket and
if fewer than n tokens are available, no tokens are removed from the
the packet is considered to be nonconformant.

The algorithm allows bursts of up to b bytes, but over the long run the output of
conformant packets is lim ed to the constant rate, r. Nonconformant packets can be
treated in various ways:
dropped
queued for subsequent transmission when sufficient tokens are the bucket
transmitted bur marked as non-conformant and possibly to be dropped
subsequently if the network is overloaded.

b) QoS in transport layer: Refer Question No. 2 of Short Answer Type Questions.

3.a) What is the difference between the flow control and the congestion control?
Justify for the long haul communication, the window flow control is ineffective.
b) Compare reservation based congestion control with permit based congestion
control. [MODEL QUESTION]

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Answer:
a) Flow control vs. congestion
control:
Flow control means preventing the
droppingbecause it runs out source from sending
of buffer space. This is data that the sink will end up
protocol-just make sure the fairly easy with a sliding
source's window is window
buffer. TCP does this no larger than the free
space in the sink's
by letting the sink
field of the acks. Congestion advertise its free buffer
control means preventing space in the window
from sending data that will end (or trying to prevent) the source
up
This is more complicated, becausegetting dropped by a router bccause its queue is
packets from different ful
paths can converge on the same sources travelling different
queue.
In long haul communication
networks, bandwidth is
memory buffers or processor usually so limited that' calls
cycles be satisfied in for
send/receive a message. Credits much less time than it takes
given to senders can to
tying up more than a small be honoured without necessarily
amount of buffers, typically
reassembled. That is, receivers one for each message being
can "lie" in promising
at the time credits are sent. Nevertheless, buffers which may not be available
by the time buffers
manage to find some. A are needed, the receiver can
common strategy is
receivers, or alternatively, to page to share a buffer pool among many
out inactive buffers.
b) Reservation-Based -the hosts
attempt to reserve network
established. capacity when the flow is
-The routers allocate resources to satisfy
reservations or the flow is rejected.
-The reservation can be receiver-based
(e.g., RSVP) or sender-based.
Permit-Based -The sender's
rate is controlled by the receiver
per second it can absorb. indicating the bits

4. What is congestion?
Why
algorithm for congestion control.does congestion occur? Explain Leaky bucket.
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
The leaky bucket is an algorithm
used in packet switched
computer networks and
telecommunic: u networks to check that data transmissions
on bandwidth and burstiness conform to defined limits
(a measure of the unevenness or
flow). The leaky bucket algorithm is variations in the traffic
also used in leaky bucket
when the average or peak rate counters, e.g. to detect
of random or stochastic events or stochastic
exceed defined limits. processes
The Leaky Bucket Algorithm is
based on an analogy of a bucket .that
bottom through which any water it contains has a hole in the
will leak away at a constant
unless it is empty. Water can be added intermittently, rate, until or
i.e. in bursts, but if too
added at once, or it is added at too high an average much is
rate, the water will exceed
capacity of the bucket, which will overflow. the
There are actually two different methods
of applying this analogy described in
literature.These give what appear to be two different the
algorithms, both of which
referred to as the leaky bucket algorithm. This are
has resulted in confusion about
eaky bucket algorithm is and what its properties are. what the

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is a counter or variable,
separate from the flow
In one version. the analogue of the bucket i.c. the analógue of
traffic conforms to the limits,
of traftic, and is used only to check that the level of water
traftic and added to so that
it
the water is brought to the bucket by the
indicates confornance to the rate and burstiness limits. This version is
in the bucket versi0n, the trallic passes
here as the leaky bucket as a meter. In the second
referred to analogue of the
bucket, i.e. the traflic is the
through a queue that is the analoguc of the leaky bucket as a
version is referred to here as the
water passing through the bucket. This token bucket
to (a mirror iprage of) the
queue. The leaky bucket as a meter is equivalent conforming
will sec the same trafiic as or
algorithm. and given the same parameters the leaky
be seen as a special case of
nonconforming. The leaky bucket as a queue can
bucket as a meter.
congestion control and flow control?
5. a) What is the difference between
working of leaky bucket algorithm. Give argument why the leaky
b) Explain the large the packet
pet kick independent of how
bucket should allow just one packet [IMODEL QUESTION]
is.
Answer:
a) Congestion control1
Flow Control
transmission|
is a bursty situation over the|The over all packet and data .by this
When here
which packet should be chosen|lover a network path is controlled'
network path and
this mechanism mechaniSm.
and how arethesubject ofresponsibility. Mainly Datalink layer responsibility
though
Mainly Transport Layer every layer governs the data flow in their
own manner.
Repeat ARQ,
Leaky Bucket etc algorithms arej Stop and Wait, Selective
Token bucket,
Routing algorithms are used.
used.
in packet switched computer
networks and
is an algorithm used
b) The leaky bucket limits
networks to check 1hat data transmissions conform to defined
telecommunications traffic
burstiness (a measure of the unevenness or variations in the
on bandwidth and e.g. to detect
bucket algorithm is also used in leaky bucket counters,
flow). The leaky processes
average or peak rate of random or stochastic events or stochastic
when the
exceed defined limits. in the
Algorithm is based on an analogy of a bucket .that has a hole
The Leaky Bucket will leak away at a constant rate, until
or
which any water it contains
bottom through intermittently, i.c. in bursts, but if too much
is
it is empty. Water can be added
unless water will exceed the
added at once, or it is added at too high an average rate, lie
overflow.
capacity of the bucket, which will in the
are actually two different methods of applying this analogy escribed are
There algorithms, bcth of wlich
what appear to be two different
literature .These give ihe
algorithnm. Ths has resulted in confusion about what
referred to as the leaky bucket
its properties are.
leaky bucket algorithm is and what flow
the bucket is a counter or variable, separate from tie
In one version, the analogue of o'
and is used only to check that traffic conforms to the limits, i.e. the analogue
of traffic,
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

the water is brought to the bucket by the traffic and

added to it so that the level of,water
in the bucket indicates conformance
to the rate and burstiness limits. This version 1s
referred to here as the leaky bucket
as a meter. In the second version,
through a queue that Is the analogue the traffic passesS
of the bucket, i.e. the traffic is the analogue
water passing through the bucket. This version is of the
referred to here as the leaky bucket as a
queue. Thé leaky bucket as a meter is equivalent
to (a mirror image of) the token bucket
algorithm, and given the same parameters
will see the same traffic as confoming or
nonconforming. The leaky bucket as a queue
can be seen as a special case of the
bucket as a meter leaky

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APPLICATION LAYER
Multiple Choice Type 9uestions
layer service? WBUT 2013, 2016]
1. Which of the following is an application access
b) file transfer and
a) remote login
service d) all of these
c) mail
Answer: (d)
WBUT 2015]
application layer uses the
2. When displaying a web page, the HTTP protocol d) all of these
a) FTP protocol b) SMTP protocol c)
Answer: (c)
layer is called WBUT 2015]
The packet of information at the applicationc) segment
3. d) frame
a) packet b) message
Answer: (b)
[MODEL QUESTION
4. E-mail cannot be sent
TCP/IP
a) if the sending site does not use
TCP/IP
b) if the receiving site does not use
through private networks
c)
d) none of these
Answer: (d)
object identifier. The object
5. objects managed by SNMP are given an
All [MODEL QUESTION]
identifier always starts with c) 1.3.6.1.2.1 d) none of these
a) 0 b) 1.3.2.6.1.1
Answer: (c)
wants to send a message to user B confidentially, the plain text is
6. Ifuser A [MODEL QUESTION
encrypted with the public key of c) the network d) Either A or B
a) A b) B
Answer: (b)
.. can forward or block messages based on the information in
7. A [MODEL QUESTION]
the message itself.
a) proxy firewall ,b) packet filter firewall
c) message digest d) private key
Answer: (b)

Short Answer Type Questions

integrity and
What do you understand by data privacy? How can authentication, WBUT 2014
1.
non-repudiation be implemented by the digital signature technique?

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 COMPUTERNETWORKS
Answer:
1" Part:
Data privacy reiers t0 the
r evolving relationship between
nublic expectation of technology and the legal right
privacy in the collection to,
Drivacy problems and sharing of data.
exist wherever uniquely
are collected identifiable data relating
and stored, in digital form to a person or persons
control can be the root or otherwise. Improper
cause for privacy issues. or non-existent disclosure

2nd
Part: Refer to Question No. 1(6) Long
Answer Type Questions.
2. a)Discuss about the four basic principles
b) What is firewall? of network security. WBUT 2015]
Answer:
a) Four basic principles of network security
are as follows:
Confidentiality - The message
the recipient gets can be
read by anyone else since it was proven not to have been
encoded.
Integrity The message the recipient
gets can be proven not to
changed since it was encoded. have been
Authenticity The message the recipient
-

encoded by (edit) a positively-identified gets can be proven to have

been
sender.
Non-repudiation - The sender, given a
message received by a recipient,
validly deny that the message cannot
was sent by him or that it was
content sent by him. not the original

b) A system designed to prevent

unauthorized access to or from a
Firewalls can be implemented in private network.
both hardware and software, or
Firewalls are frequently used a combination of both.
to prevent unauthorized Internet users
private networks connected to the from accessing
Internet especially intranets. All messages
leaving the intranet pass through entering or
the firewall, which examines each
those that do not meet the message and blocks
specified security criteria.
There are several types
of firewall techniques:
Packet filter: Looks at each packet entering leaving
or the network and accepts or
rejects it based on user-defined rules.
Packet filtering is fairly effective
transparent to users, but it is difficult and
to configure. In addition, it is susceptible
spoofing. to IP
Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific
FTP and Telnet servers. This is applications, such as
very effective, but can impose a performance
degradation.
Circuit-level gateway: Applies security mechanisms when
a TCP or UDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made,
packets can flow
between the hosts without further checking.
roxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
The proxy
Server effectively hides the true network addresses.

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& private Koy

cryptographywith oxample.
3. What is cryptography? Explain Public WBUT 2016]

Answer:
be
Part: generated codes that allows information to
Cryptography involves creating written or a format that
is unrecadable for an
Cryptography eonverts data into it back into a
kept secret.
it be transmitted without anyone decoding
unauthorized user. allowing to
the data.
readable format, thus compromising several levels. The
information cannot be read
cryptography on transit and
Intormation security uses maintains its integrity during
The infomation
non-repudiation. This means that neither
decrypt it.
Without a key to in
also aids
while being stored. Cryptographyinformation may claim they did not create or receive it.
the
the creator nor the receiver of

it does not require a secret

2md
Part: very secure because
encryption is considered
Public key
receiver. Other encryption technologies that use a
shared key between the sender and on a key
and decrypt data rely on both parties deciding
single shared key to both encrypt what that key is. However, the
fact that it
parties finding out
ahead of time without other intercepting the key.
between both parties opens the door to third parties
must be shared is called symmetric encryption,
while public key
This type of encryption technology
encryption.
encryption is known as asymmetric encryption)
encryption (also called private-key encryption or secret-key
Symmetric
and decryption.
involves using the same key for eneryption be encrypted
(an algorithm) to the data to
Encryption involves applying an operation as an
key to make them unintelligible. The slightest algorithm (such
using the private as
can make the system nearly tamper proof (there being so such thing
exclusive OR)
absolute security). is related to the exchange of keys.
main disadvantage of a secret-key cryptosystem
The a secret (keys). The problem of key
Symmetric encryption is based on the exchange of
distribution therefore arises: separate
with several people while ensuring
Moreover, a user wanting to communicate as are people. For a group of
confidentiality levels has to use as many private keys there
it is necessary to distribute a number of keys
N people using a secret-key cryptosystem,
equal to N * (N-I)/2.
DNS protocol in the internet. WBUT 2017]
4. Describe the purpose of
Answer: called IP (Internet
Websites are identified in computer systems by a series of numbers
multiple numbers for all
Protocol) addresses. So that humans do not have to remember
visiL, these numbers are matched by names in a database table
the websites they want to
Servers. The DNS server
housed on special types of computers called Domain Name
translates the website names into the correct IP address.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Bencfits: Without domain
name servers, navigating
Cxtremely cumbersome the Internet would become an
task. Given the millions
track of these by IP number would of websites in existence, keeping
be impossible.
Function: When you type
a name such as www.ehow.com
rcquest irst goes to a DNS server. into a browser, ne
address, it does so. Otherwise, the
If that server can translate
request is forwarded a
the name to an P
.Size: According to Dan Kaminsky, a security researcher, to higher level server.
million DNS servers. About 10 the Internet has about 9
percent are vulnerable
Additional Resources). to malicious attacks (see
Expert Insight: You can learn what DNS
servers are being used in
by using a Windows command. In your own setup
Start/Run type "cmd".
type "ipconfig/all". This will display When a black box appears,
the DNS servers running.
Warning: When DNS servers develop
problems or are maliciousiy hacked,
find yourself on what you thought you may
was the web page wanted
fraudulent sites. but actually redirected to

5. What is peer process?

Answer: WBUT 201M7
Peer-to-Peer Process:
Within a single machine, each layer
calls upon the services
Layer 3, for example, uses the services of the layer just below it.
provided by layer 2 and provides
layer 4. Between machines, layer x services for
on one machine communicates
another machine. This communication is with layer x on
governed by an agreed-upon series
conventions called protocols. The of rules and
processes on each machine that
given layer are called peer-to-peer communicate at a
processes. Communication between
therefore a peer-to-peer process using the machines is
protocols appropriate to a given
At the physical layer, communication layer
is direct as shown in
A sends a stream the following Figure. Device
of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes).
however, communication must move At the higher layers,
down through the layers on device
device B, and then back up through A, over to
the layers. Each layer in the sending
Own information to the message device adds its
it receives from the layer just above it
whole package to the layer and passes the
just below it.
At layer I
the entire package is converted to a fom that can be
receiving device. At the receiving machine, transmitted to the
the message is unwrapped layer by
with each process receiving and layer,
removing the data meant for it. For example,
removes the data layer 2
meant for it, and then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3
he data meant for it then removes
and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.

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Desice
Device

Intemediate
Intendiate

Peer to eer proioxul (5th layerd Application

Appliration
(1tlh layei)
5.4 interface
5-4 interfarc Per lu *er rotocv! Transport
Transpon 4-3 intertace_
4-3 interfece
Nework
3-2 intertace
F Notwak -N Nerwrk
Nrtwork
3-2interface_
Data link
Data link FData link Data F link
2-1 interface
interface
2-1 Physical Plysical Physical
Plhysical

Phrsical cammunication

Long Answer Type Questions

terms:
do you understand by message security? Explain the following
1. a) What
i) User Authentication
ii) Key management WBUT 2013]
ii) Security protocols..
Answer
Greek
1 Part: security. The word is derived from the
Cryptography is the science of message
kryptos. meaning hidden. Symmetric
two kinds of cryptosystems: symmetric and asymmetric.
There are
(the secret key) to encrypt and decrypt a message, and
cryptosystems use the same key and a
cryptosystems use one key (the public key) to encrypt a message
asymmetric called
key (the private key) to decrypt it. Asymmetric cryptosystems are also
different
public key cryptosystems.

2nd Part: claimed

Authentication: Authentication is the process of verifying an identity
User Authentication process consists of two, steps a
by or for' a system entity.
is presented to the security system and
Identification step, where n identifier
information that corroborates the binding
Verification step. where authentication
the entity and the presented identifier, is generated. One common method of
between verification. However,
authentication is the through the familiar username-password
in situations that demand high security.
more complex schemes are also employed
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Key Management: In
general, the strength
of discovering the key, of encryption is related the
which in turn depends to dificutty
of the key. For example, on both the cipher used and
most commonly used
the difficulty
of discovering the key
the length
for public-key for the RSA Cipher
large numbers, a well-known encryption depends
on the difficulty of factoring
described in terms mathematical problem.
of the size Encryption strength is often
longer keys provide stronger of the keys used to perform the encryption:
encryption. in general,
Security protocols: Network
ensures the security security protocols
and integrity are a type network
Network security protocols of data in transit over networkprotocol that
define the processes a connection.
data from any illegitimate and methodology to secure
attempt to review network
Network security protocols or extract the contents
are primarily designed of data.
application, service or to prevent any unauthorized
device from accessing user,
all data types regardless network data. This applies
of the to virtually
Network security protocols network medium used.
generally implement
techniques to secure the cryptography and
encryption
data so that it can only
algorithm, logical key, mathematical be decrypted with a special
formula and/or a combination
Some of the popular network of all of them.
security protocols include
(SFTP), Secure Hypertext Secure File Transfer Protocol
Transfer Protocol (HTTPS)
(SSL). and Secure Socket Layer

b) How can Authentication,

Integrity and Non-Repudiation
digital signature? be implemented by
Answer: WBUT 2013]
Authenticity, integrity,
non-repudiation can be explained by digital
certificate. signature and digital
A digital signature is
basically a way to ensure
spreadsheet, text file, etc.) is that an electronic document
authentic. Authentic means (e-mail,
document and you know that it that you know who created
has not been altered in the
it. any way since that person
created
Digital certificates To implement
-
public key encryption on
secure Web server might a large scale, such as
need. requires a different approach. a
certificates come in. A digital certificate This is where digital
is essentially a bit
Web server is trusted by an of information that says
independent source known as a the
Certificate Authority acts as Certificate Authority. The
the middleman that both computers
each computer is in fact who trust. It confirms that
they say they are and then provides
computer to the other. the public keys of each

c)Explain RSA algorithm with an example.

Answer: WBUT 2013]
In cryptography, RSA is an algorithm for public-key
described in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi encryption. The algorithm
Shamir and Len Adleman at MIT; was
are the initials the letters RSA
of their surmames. RSA involves two keys: public key.and
public key is known private key. The
to everyone and is used to encrypt messages.
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
key:
generate a public key and a privaterandomly and independently
The following are steps numbers p and q such that p * q,
to
Choose two large prime
of each other.
Computen = pq.
Compute («)=(p-1)(9-1). p{n)
1<e<ø(n) which is coprime to
Choose an integer e such
that
(mod¢(»)).
Compute d such that de =1
m <n,
Encrypting messages Alice. He turns M into a number
to
send a message M protocol. Bob now has m, and knows n
and
Suppose Bob wishes to
previously agrecd-upon reversible ciphertext c corresponding to m:
using some He then computes the
announced.
e, which Alice has then
exponentiation by squaring. Bob
cm modn
This can be done
quickly using the
method of
transmits c to Alice.
messages d. She can recover m from c by the
Decpting Bob, and knows her
private key
Alice receives c from (modn)
following procedure: m =c" message M. The decryption procedure works
recover the original
Given m, she can
= (modn).
because c (m=m" (mod
1 q-1 ), Fermat's little
theorem yields
Now, since ed =
1
(mod p-1) and ed=
(mod p) and m= m
(modg)
mm distinct prime numbers,
applying the Chinese remainder theorem
to

Since p and q are yields

these two congruences
m m (mod pg)
Thus, c=m (mod n).

Example:
Choose p=3 and q=
1|
11 =33
Compute n =p * q- 3* 2* 10 =20
Compute o{n) =(p-1)* (9-1)= and e and n are coprime. Let
e= 7
Choose e such that1
<e <p(n) is d = 3 [(3 * 7)
(d * e) % p(n) = 1.One solution
d such that
Compute a value for
1]]
% 20
Public key is (e, n) (7,33)
33)
Private key is (d, n) => (3, c = 2'%33 29
is
The encryption ofm=2
The decryption of
c 29 is m = 29* % 33 2
=

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 2. What do you understand cOMPUTER NETWORKKS
browser in World Wide Web?by Domain Name Server
(DNS)? Explain
Answer: the function or
Part: WBUT 20171
The Domain Name System
information associated or Domain
Name Server
with domain names (DNS) is a system
the Internet. DNS associates in a distributed that stores
many types of information database on networks,
importantly, it provides such as
the IP address with domain names,
essential component associated with but most
of contemporary Internet the domain name.
DNS is useful for several use. DNS IS an
hard-to-remember IP reasons. Most well known, the
addresses (such DNS makes it possible,
names (such as "microsoft.com") as 207.142.131.206) to attach
Humans to easy-to-remember
and e-mail addresses. Less tak advantage of this when they domain
recognized, the domain recite URLs
people t0 assign authoritative name
names, without needing system makes it possible for
registrar each time. to communicate with
a central

resource
"zone delegation" NS RR ("resource recordss
record")
names the nameserver 2SsoCiated with
authoritative for delegated name
subzone
zone of authority
"delegated subzone" managed by a
name serner
When a system administrator
wants to let another administrator
manage a part of a zone, the tirst
administrator s nameserver
delegates part of the zone to
another nameserver
Domain names are arranged in a tree, and cut into zones, which are served
nameservers. by
The domain name space is a tree of domain names. Each
node or leaf in the tree is
associated with resource records, which hold the information associated
with the
domain name. The tree is divided into zones. A zone is a collection of
connccted nodes
that are authoritatively served by an authoritative DNS nameserver.
A single
nameserver can host several zones.
The information associated with nodes is looked up by a resolver. A
resolver knows how
0communicate with name servers by sending DNS requests, and heeding DNS

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find the
usually entails recursing through several name servers to
responses. Resolving
needed information. communicate with a single name server. These
only
Some resolvers are simple, and can name server to perform the work of
finding
simple resolvers rely on a recursing
information for it. parts (technically labels), separated by
consists of two or more
A domain name usually
dots. For example microsofi.com. top-level domain. (for example, the address
the
The rightmost label conveys
mail.yahoo.com has the top-level domain .org). subdomain of the domain above it. Note
subdivision or
Each label to the left specifies a dependence, not absolute dependence.
For example,
that "subdomain" expresses relative
domain. com and mail.yahoo.com
is a
subdomain of the
yahoo.com comprises a theory. this subdivision can go down to
127
jvahoo.com. In
subdomain of the domain 63 characters, as long as .e
whole domain
label can contain up to
levels deep. and each characters. But in practice some
domain
a total length of 255
name does not exceed
registries have shorter limits than that. IP addresses is called a
hostname. For
or more associated
A domain name that has one domains are both hostnames, but the
com
and mail.yahoo.com
example, the yaho.com
domain is not. DNS servers. Each domain or subdomain has
hierarchical set of
The DNS consists of a that publish information about that. domain and
servers
one or more authoritative DNS "beneath" it. The hierarchy of authoritative DNS servers
domains servers: the
the name servers of any At the top of the hierarchy stand the root
domains.
matches the hierarchy of (resolving) a top-level domain
name.
servers to query when looking up
recursion
An example of theoretical DNS
Where's www.wikipedia.org Root
nameserver 198.41.0.4
204.74.112.1
Try
org.
nameserver 204.74.112.1
DNS Recurser 207.142.131.234"
Try
wikipedia.org.
nameserver 207.142.131.234
I's at xxx.xx.xx.xxx"

consults three nameservers to resolve www.wikipedia.org.

recurser
Here, the DNS
wecd
2nd Part: and display
is a software program that allows a user to locate, access, are
A web browser is usually shortened to "browser." Browsers
usage, a web browser as other
pages. In common and accessing websites on the internet, as well
used primarily for displaying
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 COMPUTER NETWORKSS
content created using
languages such as
Extensible Markup Language Hypertext Markup
(XML). Language (HTML) and
Browsers translate
web pages
1HTTP) into human-readable and websites delivered using
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
rotocols and prefixes, such content. They also have the ability
as secure HTTP to display other
mail handling (mailto:), and
em (HTTPS), File Transfer
files (file:). In addition, Protocol (FTP)
olug-ins required to0 display most browsers also support
active content, such èxternal
content. as in-page video, audio
and gamne

3. Write short notes on the following:

a) Firewall
b) DNS WBUT 2013]
c) HTTP WBUT 2013, 2014, 2016]
d) SMTP. WBUT 2014, 2017]
e) Cryptography WBUT 2014]
) FTP WBUT 2015]
g) SNMP WBUT 2016, 2017]
Answer: WBUT 2017]
a) Firewall: Refer to Question No. 2(b)
of Short Answer Type Questions.
b) DNS: Refer to Question No. 2(T
Part) of Long Answer Type Questions.
c)HTTP:
Short for HyperText Transfer
Protocol, HTTP is the underlying
the World Wide Web. HTTP defines protocol used by
how messages are formatted
what actions Web servers and and transmitted, and
browsers should take in response
For example, when we to various commands.
enter a URL in your browser, this actually
command to the Web server directing it sends an HTTP
to fetch and transmit the requested Web
The other main standard page.
that controls how the World Wide Web works is
covers how Web pages HTML, which
are formatted and displayed.
HTTP is called a stateless
protocol because each command is executed
Without any knowledge independently,
of the commands that came before it. This is the main reason
It is difficult that
to iimplement Web sites that react intelligently to
shortcoming of HTTP is being addressed in number user input. This
a of new technologies, including
ActiveX, Java, JavaScript
and cookies.
Trors on the Internet can be quite frustrating- especially if
we do not know the
terence between a 404 error and a 502 error. These eror messages, also called HTTP
datus codes are response codes given by Web servers and help identify
problem. the cause of the
ror example, "404 File
Not Found" is a common HTTP status code. It means the
Web
Crver cannot find the file you requested. The file the webpage or other
--
document we
lo load in our Web browser has either been moved or deleted, or you
Wrong URL
--
entered the
or document name.

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

d) SMTP: recipients of a
relatively simple. text-based protocol, where one or more is
SMTP is a
cases verified to exist) and then the message text
message are specified (and in most becoming widely used in the carly
25. SMTP started
transferred. SMTP uses TCP port better suited to handle
c-mail transfers
UUCP which was
1980s and gradually replaced connected. SMTP works best
when both
intermittently
between Unix machines that were connected to the network all the
timc.
machines are
the sending and receiving first) mail transfer agents to
implement SMTP.
first (if not the or a server, for
Sendmail was one of the implement SMTP as a client
programs that
Today, there are several Aficrosoft Exchange Server.
example, exim, Postfix. qmail, and and did not deal well with
binary files. Later,
ASCIl
This protocol started out as purely developed to encode binary files for transfer
through
standards such as MIME were
from a remote
SMTP.
that does not allow one to "pull" messages
SMTP is a "push" protocol or IMAP.
demand. To do this a mail client must use POP3
server on
Question No. 4 of Short Answer Type Questions.
e) Cryptography: Refer to

for exchanging files over

FTP:or File Transfer Protocol is a commonly used protocol computers involved in an
FTP the TCP/IP protocol. There are
two
software,
any network that supports server, running FTP server
and a client. The FTP client
FTP transfer -- a server connection requests from other computers. The
listens on the network
for
a connection to
the server. Once
client software, initiates uploading
computer, running FTP number of file manipulation operations such as and
connected. the client can do
a
server, rename or delete files on the server
download files from the network can manipulate
files on
files to the server. TCPIP based
connected to a are involved (if
so on. Any computer regardless of which operating systems server
network existing FTP client and
another computer on that There are many
permit FTP access).
the computers are free. FTP
programs, and many of these 21, and runs exclusively over TCP. The
on two ports, 20 and connection on this
FTP is commonly run21 for incoming connection from FTP clients. A
FTP server. For the
server listens on port stream, on which commands are passed to the Depending on the
control connection is required.
port forms the take place, a different
mode) can listen for
the
file transfer to server (passive
actual or the
mode, the client (active mode) begins, the client and server also negotiate
transfer transfer
connection. Becfore file connections (where the server
cónnects
incoming data In case of active client.
of the data connection.
port 20 before connecting to the
the port binds
transfer data), the server restriction.
on
to the client to This can
passive connections, there is no such stream, the control stream sits idle.
For transferred via the data after
is being fîrewalls which time out sessions
While data transfers through successfully transferred,
the
problems with large data may well be
cause
periods of idleness. While the file causing an error to be
generated.
lengthy by the firewall,
can be disconnected
control session
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Many sites that run FTP
arrangement, users servers enable
do not need an so-called "anonymous
access is typically 'anonymous' account on the server. ftp". Under this
or 'ftp'. This The uscr name for anonymous
users are commonly account does not need a password. Although
asked to send
authentication, usually their email addresses
there is trivial or as their passwords
While transferring data no verification. for
over the network,
ASCII mode two modes can be
used
Binary mode
The two types differ in the way
they send the data.
type transfer, the individual letters, When a file is sent using
numbers and an ASCIl-
character codes. The receiving characters are sent using
machine saves these their ASCII
(for example, a Unix machine in a text file in the appropriate
saves it in a Unix format
format). Hence if an ASCII format, a Macintosh
transfer is used it can saves it in a Mac
stored by the receiving computer be assumed plain
text is sent, which is
in its own format.
Sending a file in binary mode
is different. The
and as such the recipient sending machine sends
stores the bitstream as each file bit for bit
By default, most FTP clients it receives it.
use ASCII mode. Some
transfer-mode by inspecting clients try to determine
the file's name or contents. the required

g) SNMP:
In typical SNMP uses, one or
more administrative computers,
task of monitoring or managing called managers, have
a group of hosts or devices the
managed system executes, at on a computer network. Each
all times, a software
reports information via SNMP component called an agent which
to the manager.
SNMP agents expose
management data on the managed
protocol also permits active systems as variables. The
management tasks, such as moditying
configuration through remote and applying a new
modification of these variables.
via SNMP are organized in The variables accessible
hierarchies. An SNMP-managed
key components: network consists of three
Managed device
Agent- software which runs on managed devices
Network management station
A managed device is
(NMS)- software which runs on the manager
a network node that implements an SNMP
unidirectional (read-only) or bidirectional interface that allows
(read and write) access to
information. Managed devices exchange node-specilie node-specific
information with the NMSs.
Sometimes called network elements, the
managed devices can be any
including, but not limited to, routers, access type of device,
servers, switches, bridges, hubs,
elephones, IP video cameras, computer hosts, and IP
printers.
An agent is a network-management software
module that resides on a managed
An agent has local knowledge device.
of management information and translates that information
or
A
from an SNMP-specitic tom.
nework management station (NMS) executes applications that monitor
managed devices. NMSs provide the bulk of the processing and control
and memory resources

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
on any managed
One or more NMSs may exist
management.
required for netvork
network.
in a data network. Also, explain the security
4. a) State the threats that
can arise
requirements to be met due to the stated threats. a means of secure transfer of
Explain 'public key encryption' system as [MODEL QUESTION
b)
information over a network.
Answer
into any compartmented computer system.
a) Unauthorized entry
through classified computer libraries.
Unauthorized searching/browsing information
manipulation, or denial of access to
destruction,
Unauthorized modification,
for
residing on a computer system. information on any system not explicitly approved
classified
Storing or processing
without, prior
classified processing defeat security or auditing systems,
Attempting to circumvent or administrator, other than as part of a legitimate system
authorization from the system
testing or security research. your computer network.
of rules for the secure operation of
Any other willful violation
keys -- a public key
known to everyone and a
system that uses two to
b) A cryptographic recipient of the message. When John wants
only to the message. Jane
private or secret key known Jane's public key to encrypt the
Jane, he uses
send a secure message to
to decrypt it. private keys are
then uses her private key public key system is that the public and
An important element
to the messages and oly
the public key can be used to encrypt virtually
related in such a way that only can be used to decrypt them. Moreover, it is
key
the corresponding private key if you know the public
key.
the private Hellman.
impossible to deduce
invented in 1976 by Whitfield Diffie and Martin
Public key cryptography
was
called Diffie-Hellman encryption. It is also called
is sometime key (symmetric
For this reason, it because it uses two keys instcad of one
asymmetric encryption
encryption).

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

MODERN TOPICS
Multiple Choice Type Questions
1.Blue-tooth uses .. To communicate between
a) Radiowave two devices.
b) Microwave [MODEL QUESTION]
c) Infrared
d) none of these, a separate
technology exists
Answer: (a)

Short Answer Type Questions

1.What are the functions of B-ISDN?
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer
BISDN is both a concept and a set of services
and developing standards for integrating
digital transmission services in a broadband
network of fiber optic and radio media.
BISDN will encompass frame relay service for
high-speed data that can be sent in large
bursts, the Fiber Distributed-Data Interface (Fiber
Distributed-Data Interface), and the
Synchronous Optical Network (Synchronous
Optical Network). BISDN will support
transmission from 2 Mbps up to much higher, but as
yet unspecified, rates.
BISDN is the broadband counterpart
to Integrated Services Digital Network, which
provides digital transmission over ordinary
telephone company copper wires on the
narrowband local loop.

2. What is hand off in cellular telephony?

[MODEL QUESTION]1
Answer:
As a mobile user moves from one service
area to the next, a hand-off occurs from one
Service area to the next. The hand-off would disrupt
the call for 100 to 200 ms. Thisis
Just enough
to disrupt the carriet detect (CD) cycle; hence, the modem assumes that
of the callers has disconnected, one
and it hangs up. This problem can be overcome similar to
ax modems over cellular links. The modem will delay 400 ms before
hanging up, giving
Thehand-off enough time to take place. Some data might be affected, but error detection,
and error correction procedures (CRCs) will detect and correct the data bits that
Deen corrupted.
have
But, all these techniques lower the effective throughput of our
Ommunication system and the effective throughputs achieved with cellular modems
hover around 19200 bits/s
. What do you mean by geosynchronous satellite [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
gcosynchronous satellite is a satellite whose orbital trackk on the Earth repeats
larly over points on the Earth over time. If such a satellite's orbit lies over the equator
nd the orbit is circular, it is called a geostationary
Satemc
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Questions
Long Answer Type
[MODEL QUESTION]
following:
1. Write short notes on the
a) ISDN
b) Cable Modem
c) Bluetooth
d) Wi-Max technology
e) Distributed system
Satellite transmission
f)
Answer switched telephone
circuit
a) ISDN: Network (ISDN) is a type of ordinary
Integrated Services Digital
transmission of voice and data over
allow digital with
network system, designed to quality and higher speeds than available
resulting in better and breaking
telephone copper wires, is set of protocols for establishing
broadly. ISDN a the user. In a
analog systems. More and for advanced call
features for
transmission.
connections,
circuit switched simultaneous voice, video, and text (room)
videoconference, ISDN provides videoconferencing systems and group
desktop
between individual
videoconferencing systems.
B
Configurations B (for "Bearer") and D (for "Delta").
channels,
In ISDN, there are two
types of channels are irntended for
(which may include voice), and D
channels are used for data
data).
can also be used for (BRI) - also Basic rate
signalling and control (but Basic rate interface
access to ISDN. of 64 kbit/s, and one
There are two kinds of B channels, each with bandwidth designated
access (BRA)- consists of 16 kbi/s. Together these three channels can be contains
two
bandwidth of
D channel with a
interface (PRI)- also Primary rate access (PRA)-
rate kbit/s.
as 2B+D. Primary and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64
B channels
a greater number of

modulate a data signal

b) Cable Modem: a special type of modem that is designed to
is
A cable modem infrastructure. Cable modems are primarily
over cable television
broadband Internet access, laking
advantage of
used to deliver network.
bandwidth on a cable television
unused are both
cable modems and DSL differ little and
In practicc, offer snappy 40-70ms
alternatives to dial-up access. Both to a server.
superior time of a data packet sent
response, or the round-trip
sluggish 150-400ms.
Dial-up is a more differentiation in bandwidth, or the rate at which dial-up
There is greater cable and the various types of DSL. A
between acrossS
and receive dala, 0.04 Mbs. Cable modems
one can send and upload at some 40 kbs, or attemptsS
modem can download 3-6 Mbs down /0.3-0.4 MBs up. There are few
consistently attain designations.
most services beyond the traditional 'home' and 'business'
different service tiers
to offer
CNET-EE-92
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

In comparison, DSL tends to offer less speed and more variance between service
nackages and prices. Service quality is also far more dependent on your location in
relation to the local ISP.
There are three traditional disadvantages to cable internet:
Users in a neighborhood share the available bandwidth provided by a single
coaxial cable line. Therefore, connection speed can vary depending on how mariy
people are using the service at the same time.
Cable networks using a shared line risk a loss of privacy, especially in light of the
availability of hacking tools for cable modems. This issue is addressed by
encryption and other privacy features specified in the DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
Service Interlace Specitication) standard used by most cable modems.
Many cable Internet providers are reluctant to offer cable modem access without
tying it to a cable television subscription. This has ramifications similar to those
of the lack of naked DSL.

c) Bluetooth
Bluctooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area networks (PANs).
Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices like
personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers and digital
cameras via a secure, low-cost, globally available short range radio frequency.

A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset A Bluetooth mouse

Bluetooth is a radio standard primarily designed for low power consumption, with a shor
range (power class dependent: 10 centimeters, 10 meters, 100 meters) and with a low-
cost transceiver microchip in each device.
Bluetooth lets these devices talk to each other when they come in range, even if they are
o in the same room, as long as they are within up to 100 meters of each other,
dependent on the power class of the product. Products are available in one of three power
classes:
Power Power Range
Class (d Bm) (approximate)
(mW)
Class 1
100 mW 20 dBm 100 meters
Class 2 2.5 mW 4 dBm -10 meters
Class 3, ImW 0 dBm -10 cm (! meter max)

Bluetooth Application
Wireless networking between desktops and laptops, or desktops in a confined
Space and where little bandwidth is required
Bluetooth peripherals such as printers, mice and keyboards

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

nunmbers, and are able t0 connect to

Bluetooth cell phones have bcen sold in large
automobile handsfrec
computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs). cerlain
also includes support for more
systems and various other devices. The standard
constructing vireless LANS.
powertul, longer-range devices suitable for
transfer files to and from computers
Certain mp3 players and digital cameras to
Bluetooth headsets for mobile phones and smartphones
Some testing equipment is Bluetooth enabled
Some medical applications are under development

d) Wi-Max technology: Access) is a telecommunications

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Intermet access. The current WiMAX
protocol that provides fixed and fully mobile
update expected to offer up to
revision provides up to 40 Mbi/s. with the IEEE 802.16m
Gbit/s fixed speeds. The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which
1 interoperability of the standard. The
was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and
technology enabling the delivery of last
forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based
cable and DSL".
mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to
IEEE 802.16 wireless-networks
WiMAX refers to interoperable implementations of the
similarity with Wi-Fi, which refers to
standard (ratified by the WiMAX Forum), in LAN standard (ratified by
interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.11 Wireless
certification allows vendors to sell their
the Wi-Fi Alliance). The WiMAX Forum level of
equipment as WiMAX (Fixed or Mobile) certified, thus ensuring a
same profile.
interoperability with other certified products, as long as they fit the
"WiMAX' and is sometims referred to
The IEEE 802.16 standard forms the basis of
WiMAX", 802.16d" and
colloquially as "WiMAX", "Fixed WiMAX", "Mobile
follow:
802.16e". Clarification of the formal names are as refers to the working party that has
802.16-2004 is also known as 802.16d, which
WiMAX", since it has no
developed that standard. It is sometimes referred to as "Fixed
support for mobility. 802.16-2004. It
802.16e-2005, ofen abbreviated to 802.16e, is an amendment to
is therefore also known as
introduced support for mobilíty, among other things and
"Mobile WiMAX"
the most commercial interest to datee
Mobile WiMAX is the WiMAX incarmation that has
countries. Mobile WiMAX is also the basis of
and is being actively deployed in many
revisions of WiMAX. As such, references to and comparisons with "WiMAX" in
future
WiMAX".
this Wikipedia article mean "Mobile
WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential
The bandwidth and range of
applications:
across cities and countries through a
Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity
alternative to cable and DSL for "last mile"
variety of devices., Providing a wireless
broadband access.
IPTV services (triple play).
Providing data, telecommunications (VolP) and
plan.
Providing a source of Internet Connectivity part of business continuity
as a

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 COMPUTERNETWORKS

c) Distributed System:
Distributed computing is a field of
computer science that studies distributed systems.
distributed system consists of multiple A
autonomous computers that communicate
a computer network. The computers interact through
with each other in order to achieve a
common goal. A computer program
that runs in a distributed system is
distributed program, and distributed called a
programming is the process of writing
programs. such
Distributed computing also refers to the
use of distributed systems to solve computational
problems. In distributed computing. a problem is
divided into many tasks. each
is solved by one computer. of which
There are two main reasons for using distributed
systems and distribut . computing
First, the very nature of the application may require
the use of a communication network
that connects several computers. For example, data is
produced in one physical location
and it is needed in another location.
Second, there are many cases in which the use
of a single computer would be possible in
principle, but the use of a distributed system is
beneficial for practica! reasons. For
example, it may be more cost-efficient to obtain the
desired level of performance by
using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison
with a single high-end
computer. A distributed system can be more reliable than
a non-distributed system, as
there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed
system may be easier to expand
and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.
Examples of distributed systems and applications
of distributed computing include the
following:
Telecommunication networks.
Telephone networks and cellular networks.
Computer networks such as the Internet.
.'Wireless sensor networks.
Routing algorithms.
Network applications.
World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks.
Massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities.
Distributed databases and distributed database management systems.
Network file systems.
Distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline
reservation systems.

) Satellite transmission:
In Satellite transmission, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with
ne help of satellite. n this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated
microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal and
sent it
Dack to the receiver's antenna present on the earth's surface. So, all the signal
transferring
IS
happening in space. Thus this type of communication s known as space
Communication.

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Active and
are commonly used in satellite communication are
Two satellites which
passive satellites.
Satellite
Transmitter

Earth Station
Earth Station
Receiver
Transmitter

CNET-EE-96
 QUESTION 2013

Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)
correct aiternatives for the following
Choose the
i) A hub is a
a) router
b) bridge c) repeater d all of these

f subnet mask is 255.255.252.0 then how many subnets is available?

a) 2
b) 18 c) 4 d) 24

m) Flow control in OSI reference model is performed in

b) network layer
a) data link layer
c) session layer d) application layer

iv) Which of the following is an application layer service?

a) remote login b) file transfer and access

c) mail service d) all of these

....Oriented protocal
v)PPP is
a.. b) bit c) byte d) rore o trese
a) phase

vi) Which of the following is an interior routing protocol

c) BGP a) eoth (a; a (b)
a) RIP b) OSPF

vi) Checksum is used for

b) error correction
a) error detection
c) error encapsulation d) both (a) and (b)

Vii) address, it can use

Wnen host knows its IP address but not its physical
a)iGMP
a) RARP b) ICMP c) ARP

ix) Whi network 192 168.10.32/28?

the following is a valid host for
Of c) 192 188.10.14
d) 192.168.1054
a) 192.168.10.39 b) 192.168.10.47

Which multicast communication?

ass of IP address is reserved for
a) Class A c) Class C d) Class D
b) Class B
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

Group-B
(Short Answer Type Questions)
protocol and how?
minimum window size required for selective repeat ARa
2. What is the
1.
Type Question No.
Sce Topic: DATA LINK LAVER, Shórt Answer

HDLC? Why bit stuffing is

you mean by Data transparency? What is Bit stuffing in
3. What. do
needed?
Type Question No. 2.
See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer

for the bit stream 0001110101:

4. Draw the following encoding schemes
i) NRZ-I
i) Manchester coding
i) Differential Manchester coding. Type
COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Short Answer
See Topic: OVERVIEVW OF DATA
Question No. I.

transmitted frame for the bit stream

5. Applying CRC algorithm, detemine the check sum and the
polynomial x* +x*+1.
11010111 and for the generator
Type Question No. 3.
Sce Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer

6.What is Bit Rate? What is Baud Rate?

in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are sent
per second, find the
An analog signal caries 4 bits

baud rate and bit rate. Type

COMMUNICATION AND NETwORKING, Short Answer
See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA
Question No. 2.

Group-C
(Long Answer Type Questions)
IPV4 and IPV6, Discuss IPV6 packet format.
7. a) State the difference between
Justihy your answer
b)"TCP and UDP" which one better?
is
Find the net ID and the host ID of the following IP addresses:
c) What is the purpose of subnetting?
i) 19.34.21.5
i) 220.34.6.9 this
255.255.255.224. Determine the maximum number of Host in
d) A network has subnet mask
network.
network. Determine the broadcast address of the
NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Quéstion No. 1.
a), c)& d) See Topie:
b) See Topic: TRANSPORT
LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

8.hat
do you understand by message security? Explain the following terms.
Authentication
) User
management
i) Key
protocols.
i) Security
entication, Integrity and Non-Repudiation be implemented by
Authent
b) How can digital signature?
algorihm with an example
) Explain RSA
LAYER, Long Answer Type Question
Sec Topic: APPLICATION No. 1.

a aWrite down the advantages of Fibre-optic cable over twisted pair and coaxial cables

b) Suppose that a signal has 2 times the power as a noise signal that is added to t. Find the SNR
in decibels.
c) A 12 bit data bit block 011101010111 is to be set using hamming code for eror detection and
correction. Show how the receiver corrects an error that occurs in 6h bit position from right.
d) What is transmission impaiment? How many types of transmission impairments are there?
Discuss them.
a)&b) See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA cOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING. Short
Answer Type Question No. 3.
) See Topie: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 4.
d) Sce Topic: PHYSICAL LEVEL, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

10. a)What is autonomous system (AS)? What is the difference between intrademan and Inter
domain AS? Explain an Interdomain routing protocol.
b) What is the difference
between RIP and OSPF?
G)Apply Dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest path from node A to node F of the netwok graph
shown in figure below. Do the same for Bellman-Ford algorithm.

ote lopie: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question.o. 2.

1. Write short notes of any three of the following

a) Firewall
b) Circuit switching
c) DNS
d) QoS in transport layer
e) Socket

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No. 3{a).
APPLICATION LAY'ER, Long Answer Type Question
a) See Topic: AND
NETWORKING, Long Answer
DATA COMMUNICATION
b) See Topic: OVER\VIEW OF
Type Question No. 6(a) No. 3(b).
Answer Type Question
c) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER, Long No. 1.
TRANSPORTLAYER, Long Answer Type Question
d) See Topic: No. 7(a).
Long Answer Type Question
c) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER,

QUESTION 2014

GROUP-A
(Multiple Choice Type Question)
1. Answer all questions: .... layer.
function of .
() Process to process delivery the
is none of these
d)
b) network
c)physical
a) transport
in IEEE 802.5 network?
(i) Which channel access method used
is
c) token ring
d) all of these
a) CSMACD b) token bus

reserved for multicast communication?

(i) Which class of IP address
is
c) class C d) class D
A b) class B
a) class

.. ayer
(iv) Repeaters function in the... d) transport
c) network
a) data link b) physical

(v) Port number is:

b) computer physical address
a) process number
d) none of these
c) both (a) and (b)

at least two paths to and from each node?

(vi) What network topology implements
b) ring c) mesh d) star
a) bus

for:
(vii) The hamming code used
is
b) error correction
a) error detection
c) error encapsulation
d) both (a) and (b)

access method is used in Ethernet network?

(vii) Which channel
CSMACD b) token bus c) token ring d) all of these
a)

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

is:
ix) UDP
a) Connectionless b) connection-oriented
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these

(x) Which address cannot be changed?

a) Hardware address b) logical address
o) both (a) and (b) d) none of this

GROUP-B
(Short Answer Type Question)
2, a) What is the purpose of subnetting? Find the net-ID and the Host-ID of the following IPP

addresses.
i) 19.34.21.5

i) 220.34.8.9
b) A network has subnet mask 255.255.255.224. Determine the maximum number of Host in
this
network. Also determine the broadcast address of this network.
See Topic:NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 1(b) & (c).

3. a)What is bit rate? What i baud rate?

b) An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are sent per second, find
the baud rate and bit rate.
See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING. Short
Answer Type
Question No. 2.

4. How does Manchester encoding differ from differential Manchester encoding

See Topic: OVERVIEW
OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Short.Answer Tyj
Question No. 4.

S.What is Gateways? Differentiate between Hub

and Switch.
See Topic: NETWORK
LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. I.

6.What do you mean by MAC

and LLC? Explain.
ee lopic: MEDIUM
ACCESS SUB LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. I.

GROUP-C
(Long Answer Type Question)
.a) Explain the operation CDMA
of technology.
D) Difference
between router & bridge?

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
networks and make a
that are used in computer
discuss about the different guided media
c) Briefly
comparison among them.
d) What is OSI reference model? Qucstion No. (a).
1

SUB LAYER, Long Answer Type

a) See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS 2.
b) Sec Topic: NETVwORK LAYER, Short
Answer Type Qucstion No.
AND NETWORKING, Long Answer
c) & d) Scc Topic: oVERVIEW OF
DATA COMMUNICATION
Type Question No. 1(a) & (b).

8. a) Explain CRC code with example.

b) Describe 802 3 header formats. Why is padding required?
c) Indicate QoS in transport layer
Type Question No. 1(a).
a) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER. Long Answer
Answer Type Question No. 1(b).
b) Sec Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER, Long
Type Question No. 2.
c) Sec Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER, Short Answer

error?
9.(a) How does a single bit error differ from a burst
b) State the advantage of IPV over IPV4.
c) Differentiate between ARP and RARP.
a) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Long Answer
Type Question No. 1(b).
b) & c) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer
Type Question No. 3(a) & (b).

is difference between RIP and EGP?

10. a) What is distance vector routing protocol ? What
b) What do you understand by data privacy?
How can the authentication integrity and non-
repudiation be implemented by digital signature?
OSI and TCP/IP model.
c) Write down the similarities and differences between
a) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Short Answer Type
Question No. 3.
b) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER, Short Answer Type
Question No. 1.
c)See Topic: OVERVIEW F DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Long Answer

Type Question No. 1(c).

of the following:
11. Write short notes on any three
a) HTTP
b) BGP
c) RIP
d) SMTP
e) DNS
a) See Topic: APPLICATION LA YER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(c).
b) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(b).
c) See Topie: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(c).
d) See Topic: APPLICATION LA YER, Long Answer Type Questíon No. 3(d).
) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(b).
CNET-EE-102
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
QUESTION
2015
GROUP-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)
Choose the correct alternatives for the following:
i)
A is a device that forwards packets
between networks by
information included the packet
in processing the routing
a) bridge b) firewll
c) router
d) switch
)Which transmission media has the highesttransmission
speed in a network?
a) coaxial cable
b) wisted pair cable
c) optical fiber
d) electrical cable

) Which one of the following task is not done by

data link layer?
a) framing b) error control
c) flow control
d) channel coding
iv) The network layer concerns with
a) packets b) bits c) frames
d) IP

v)Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol

used in internet?
a) TCP b) TCP and UDP c) UDP d) none

vi) An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer

network is called
a) socket b) pipe c) port d) none of these

vi) When displaying a web page, the application layer uses the
a) FTP protocol b) SMTP protocol c) HTTP protocol d) all of these

Vi) The packet of information

at the application layer is called
a) packet b) message c) segment d) frame
x) In this topology
there is a central controller or hub
a) star b) mesh c) ring d) bus

x)IPv6
addresses have a sizeo
a) 32 bits b) 64 bits c) 128 bits d) 265 bits

Which of this is not a network edge device?

a) PC c)servers d) switch
b) smartphone

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POPULARPUBLICATIONS

GROUP- B
Question)
(Short Answer Type
is 63. What is the bit
with a 1MHz bandwidth. The SNR for the channel
2. a) We have a channel impairments.
different types of transithission
rate and signal level? b) Discuss about the
No. 2.
PlHYSICAL LEVEL, Short Answer Type Question
a) See Topic: 1.
LEVEL, Short Answer Type Question No.
b) See Topic: PHYSICAL

band-pass channels?
3. a)What do you mean by low-pass and Manchester encoding schemes with
differences between Manchester and Differential
b) State the
an example. COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING,
Short Answer
OF DATA
a) Sec. Topic: OVERVIEW
Type Question No. 5. AND NETWORKING, Short Answer
OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION
b) See Topic:
Type Question No. 4.

4. a) What is TDM? on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800

constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points
b) A
bps, what is the baud rate? Answer Type
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Short
See Topic: OVERVIEW OF
Question No. 6.

of 145.99.0.0 needs to be
subnetted. The network
organization with a site address
5. a) An mask? Design
to create 32 subnets. What should be the value of the subnet
administrator wants
the subnets.
b) What do you mean by a
supernet?
No. 4.
LAYER, Short Answer Type Question
See Topic: NETWORK

6. a) Discuss about the

four basic principles of network security.
b) What is firewall?
LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.
See Topic: APPLICATION

GROUP C
(Long Answer Type Question)
performed by each layer
in detail about OSI reference model mentioning the functions
7. a) Discuss model?
of OSI reference model from TCP/IP reference
What are the differences
in it.
different framing techniques.
b) Discuss in detail about NETWORKING, Long
1s Topie: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND
a) part: See
No. 2.
Answer Type Question

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
2nd part: See Topic: OVERVIEW OF
DATA COMMUNICATION
Answer Type Question No. 1(c). AND NETWORKING, Long

b) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER,

Long Answer Type
Question No. 2.

8, a) Explain in detail how an

eror coutld be detected
using the Checksum method for error
detection.
b) What do you mean by flow control
problem?
c) What is an ARQ? Discuss about
the different operations
performed by Stop&Wait ARQ.
See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Long Answer
Type Question
No.3.

9. a) Discuss about the different modes of

operations perfomed by HDLC.
b) What do you mean by data transparency
and bit stuffing in HDLC?
c)Explain in detail the concept of connection
establishment using LCP in
d) What is bandwidth-delay product?
case of PPP.
a), b) & d) See Topie: DATA LINK LAYER,
Long Answer Type Question No.
e) See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER, 4(a). (b) & (¢).
Long Answer Type Question No.
2.

10. a) What is CIDR notation? What is its

significance in case of classless
b) What do you mean by a
addressing?
private address? What is NAT?
c) What do you mean by traffic
shaping? Explain in detail leaky bucket algorithm?
a)&b) See Topic: NETwORK LAYER, Long Answer Type
Question No. 4(a) & (b).
c) See Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER,
Long Answer Type Question No. 1.

11. a) What are the directions of

data flow? Explain with suitable examples.
b) How do we measure the
performance of a computer network? Explain.
c) Discuss in detail different
topologies for computer networks.
d) What is throughput?
e) Differentiate between internet,
intranet and extranet.
See Topic: OVERVIEw
OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Long Answer
Type
Question No. 3.

12. Write short notes on any three of the following

a) QAM
b) Twisted Pair Cables
c)
Hamming Code
d) Go back-N ARQ
e) Cryptography.

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
Long Answer
OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING,
a) See Topic:
Type Question No. 6(b) NETWORKING, Long Answer
OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND
b) See Topic:
Type Question No. 6(c).
e) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Long
Answer Type Question No. 6(a).
G{b).
Long Answer Type Question No.
d) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, No. 3(c).
e) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER,
Long Answer Type Question

QUESTION 20166

Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)
following:
1. Choose the correct alternatives for the is
n devices using Mesh topology
i) The total number of links required to connect
a) 2 b) n(n+1)/2 c) nn-1)/2 n
d)

i) Flow control is the responsibilities of the d) none of these

a) Data link layer b) Transport layer c) Both of these

ii) A hub is a
c) Repeater d) All of these
a) Router b) Bridge

following protocols mentioned below?

iv) ICMP resides at the same layer as which of the
d) ARP
a) TCP b) UDP

network 192.168.10.32/28?
v)Which of the following is a valid host for
c) 192.168.10.14 d) 192.168.10.54
a) 192.168.10.39 b) 192.168.10.47
multicast?
vi) Which class of IP addres is reserved for
b) Class B c)Class C d) Class D
a) Class A

in Ethernet network?
vii) Which channel access method is used
b) Token bus c) Token ring d) All of these
a) CSMA/CD

IP address but not its physical address, it can use

vii) When host knows its
a) RARP b) ICMP c) ARP d) IGMP

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

ix) Checksum is used for

a) Error detection b) Error correction
c) Error encapsulation d) Both (a) and (b)

Which of the following is an application layer service?

a) Remote login b) Mail service
c) File transfer and access d) All of these

xi) The network layer concerns with

a) Packets b) Bits c) Frames d)IP

Group B

(Short Answer Type Questions)

2. a) What do you mean by data transparency?
b) What is Bit stuffing in HDLC?
c) Why is bit stuffing needed?
See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No.2.

3. a) How does Manchester encoding difer from diferential Manchester encoding?

b) Draw the following encoding scheme for the bit stream:
0001110101
i) NRZ-I
i) Manchester coding
i) Differential Manchester coding
a) See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING,
Short Answer
Type Question No. 4.
b) See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING,
Short Answer
Type Question No. 1.

3) What is the purpose of subnetting? Find the netid and the hosted of the following IP
addresses.
)19.34.21.5
i) 220.34.8.9
OA network has subnet mask 255.255.255.224. Determine the maxmum or number of Host in
this
network.
AUSO
determine the broadcast address of this network.
dee Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. I{b) & (¢).

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5. a) What are the differences between TCP & uDP?

b) Physical address operates in local domain whereas logicalí/P address operates in global
domain. Explain.
a) See Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 3.
b) See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA cOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Short Answer
Type Question No. 7.

6. Briefly discuss about the different guided media that are used in computer networks and make a
comparison among them.
See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Long Answer Type
Question No. 1(a).

Group-C
(Long Answer Type Questions)
7. a) State the differences between IPV4 and IPV6.
b) State the difference between static and dynamic routing.
Descibe any shortest path algoithm.
d) Differentiate between ARP and RARP
a) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER. Long Answer Type Question No. 1(a) (1* Part).
b)& c) See Topic: NETrwORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 5(a) & (b).
d) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(b).

8. a) What is the basic difference between CSMA and CSMA/CD?

b) Briefly describe CSMACA procedure.
c) What do you mean by back of factor in case of CSMACD protocol?
d) What is the working operation of stop and wait ARa for lost acknowledgement?
e) Selective Repeat ARQ of the window size must be at most 2"/2. Explain it.
a), c), d) & e) See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 5(a), (b), (c) & (d).
b) See Topie: MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No.2.

9. a) Find the expressions for average delay and throughput for both pure ALOHA and slotted
ALOHA. Compare their performances as well.
b) What is cryptography? Explain Public & private Key cryptography with example.
c)What is the difference between Flow Control & Error Control.
a) See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS sUB LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 3.
b) See Topic: APPLICATION LAY'ER, Short Answer Type Question No. 3.
c)See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 5.

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0 a 10-bit sequence 1010011110 and a divisor of 1011.

)Given Find the CRG.
b Write down Advantage and disadvantage of Mesh Topology.
A/rite down the advantages of fibre-optic cable over twisted pair and coaxial cable.
Al What is transparent bridge? How the loop problem is removed in transparent bridge?

a) See Topic:
DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No.6.
See Topic: PiIYSICAL LEVEL, Short Answer Type Question No. 3.
See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Short Answer
Type Qucs tion No. 3(a).
d) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 5.

11. Write the short notes any three of the following:

a) FTP
b) IEEE 802.11
c) Token Bucket Algorithm
d) DNS
e) QoS in Transport Layer
a) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3().
b) See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No.3.
e) See Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 2(a).

.d) See Topic: APPLICATION LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(b).
e) See Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 2(b).

QUESTION 2017

Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Qucstions)
1. Choose the correct alternativas for any ten of the following
i) WDM methodology is populaly used for
a) twisted pair cable b) coaxial cable
c) optical fibre d) wireless transmission

A network which is used for sharing data, software and hardware among several users owning
microcomputers is called
c) MAN d) VAN
a) WAN b) LAN

ethod of communication in which transmission takes place in both directions, but only in one
direction at a time, is called
a) Simplex b) Full duplex C) Four wire circuit d) Half duplex

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iv) The topology with highest reliablity is

b) star topology c) ring topology d) mesh topology
a) bus topology

v) Protocols are
DTEs are to communicate
a) agreement on how communication components and
b) logical communication channels used for transferring data
c) physical communication channels used for transferring data

d) none of these

many acknowledgements are

vi) For stop-and-wait flow control, for n data packets sent, how
needed?
a) n b) 2n c) -1 d) n+1

vil) Which of the following is not Network support Layer?

b) Network Layer
a) Transport Layer
c) Data Link Layer d) Physical Layer

to another in a given. period of time is

vin The amount of data that can be carried from one point
c) Limitation d) Capacity
a) Scope b) Bandwidth

for network layer design?

ix) Which one of the following routine algorithms can be used
b) Distance Vector Routine
a) Shortest path Algorithm
c) Link State Routine d) All of these

x)ICMP is primarily used for (Network Layer)

b) Addressing
a) Eror diagnostic
c) Forwarding d) None of these

from one end of a network to the other and back

xi)The duration of time it takes to send a message
is called
b) Full Duplex Time
a) Round trip time
c) Circle trip time
d) Data Travelling time

xii) What is the minimum size of a IP packet?

a) 16 byte b) 10 byte c) 20 byte d) 32 byte

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Group-B
(Short Answer Type Questions)
2. Discuss the function of data link and Transport Layer. What are the drawbacks of mesh
topolagy?
1s Part: See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 7.
2nd Part: See Topic: TRANSPORT LAYER, Short Answer Type
Question No. 4.
2nd Part: See Topic: PHYSICAL LEVEL, Short Answer Type Question No. 4.

3. Describe the purpose of DNS protocol in the internet

See Topie: APPLICATION LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 4.

4.Explain Client Server Model. What is the Idea of web based e-mail
See Topie: oVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETwORKING, Short Answer Type
Question No.8.

5. What are Gateways? Differentiate between Hub and Switch.

See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

6. Explain cSMACD. What is its usage?

See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER, Short Amswer Type Question No. 4.

Group-C
Long Answer Type Questions)
7. What do you understand by Domain Name Server DNS)? Explain TCP/IP and ADSL Explain
the function of browser in World Wide Web?
"&3 Part: See Topie: APPLICATION LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 2.
2 part: See Topic: oVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, Long
Answer Type Question No. 4.

8. Write short notes on: a) HTTP and FTP, b) SNMP, c) ARP & RARP
a) See Topie: APPLICATION LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(c) & (.
b) See Topie: APPLICATiON LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(R).
C) See Topie: NETWORK
LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(d).

9. With respect to Ethernet protocol answer the following

aHow is collision usually detected?
b) What will the transmission station do upon collision?
c) Why is there a minimum limit to the size of the frame? What is the difference betweena
bridge and a router?

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a), b)& c) See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Long Answer Type Question No. 6.
c) 2 Part: See Topic: NETWORK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.

of the Layers with necessary

10. List the layers of TCP model. Describe the function of each
OSi model?
diagram. What is peer process? How does the layer of TCP correlate with the
AND NETWORKING,
', 2 & 4 Part: See Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Long Answer Type Question No. 5.
Question No. 5.
3 Part: See Topic: MEDIUM ACCESs SUB LAYER, Short Answer Type

11. Distinguish between Amplitude modulation and Frequency

modulation. What is the difference
by Data Transparency? What is
between Single mode and Muttimode fibres? What do you mean
Bit stuffing in HDLC? Why is bit stuffing needed?
NETWORK, Short
Part: Topic: OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND
Sece
1"&2
Answer Type Question No. 9.
No. 2.
3, 4h & 5th Part: See Topic: DATA LINK LAYER, Short Answer Type Question

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 COMPUTER. NETWORKS

Qerview of Data Communication and Networking 2

Physical Level 20
Data Link Layer 25
Medium Access Sub Layer 39

etwork Layer 53
Transport Layer 69
pplication Layer 78
Modern Topics 91

NOTE
WBUT course structure and syllabus of 7th Semester has been changed from 2013.
COMPUTER NETwORKS has been introduced as a new subject in present
curriculum. Taking special care of this matter we are providing chapterwise
complete solutions of new University Question Papers along with some model
questions and answers, so that students can get an idea about university questions
patternsS.
 POPULARPUBLICATIONS

OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION

AND NETWORKING
LMultiple Choice Type Questions
1. A hub is a WBUT 2013, 2016]
a) router b) bridge c) repeater d) all of these.
Answer: (c)

2. Repeaters function in the layer WBUT 2014]

a) data link b) physical c) network d) transport
Answer: (b)

3. Which address cannot be changed?

a) Hardware address b) logical address WBUT 2014]
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of this
Answer: (a)

4. A is a device that forwards packets between networks by processing

WBUT 2015]
the routing information included in the packet. d) switch
a) bridge b) firewall c) router
Answer: (C)
in a network?
5. Which transmission media has the highest transmission speed WBUT 2015]
b) twisted pair cable
a) coaxial cable
d) electrical cable
c) optical fiber
Answer: (c)
WBUT 2015]
6. Which of this is not a network edge device? d) switch
b) smartphone c) servers
a) PC
Answer: (d)
n devices using Mesh topology is
7. The total number of links required to connect WBUT 2016]
b) n(n+1)/2
a) 2"
n(n-1)/2 d)
c)
Answer: (¢)
used for WBUT 2017]
8. WDM methodology is popularly b) coaxial cable
a) twisted pair cable d) wireless transmission
c) optical fibre
Answer: (c)

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
9. Method of communication
but only in one direction at in which transmission takes place
a) Simplex a time, is called in both directions,
b) Full duplex WBUT 2017
Answer: (d) c) Four wire circuit
d) Halfduplex
10. The duration of
time it takes to
the other and back is called send a message from
a) Round trip time one end of a network to
c) Circle trip time [WBUT 2017]
b) Full Duplex Time
Answer: (a) d) Data Travelling
time

Short Answer Type

Questions
1. Draw the following
i) NRZ-
encoding schemes for
the bit stream 0001110101:
ii)Manchester coding WBUT 2013, 20161
ii) Differential Manchester
coding.
Answer:

Data

()
NRZ-I 0
0 0

(i)
Manchester

(ii)
Differential
Manchester

2. What is Bit Rate? What is Baud

Rate? NBUT 2013,
An analog signal carries 4 bits in 2014]
each signal unit. If 1000 signal units per
second, find the baud rate and bit rate. are sent

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Answer:
1 transmited in one
Part:
the number of data bits,(that's O's and 1's) transmitted in
Bit rate is a measure of means 2400 zeros or ones can be
second
second. A figure ot 2400 bits per
'bps'.
one second, hence the abbreviation times a signal in a
communications channel
the number of channel can change states up
Baud rate by definition means means that the
baud rate
changes state. For example, a 2400
to 2400 times per second.

2nd Part: per second.

There are 1000 signal units are sent
we know
And cach signal carries 4 bits. as 4x1000bit/sec.=4000 bit/sec.=4kbps.
Bit rate = No. of bits
per second=
=1kbps.
No. of signal units per second 1000 bits/sec.
Where Baud rate =

over twisted pair and coaxial

the advantages of fibre-optic cable WBUT 2013, 2016]1
3. a) Write down
cable.
Answer numerous advantages:
Optical fibre is a cable with
Light-weight
Immune to noise
Low attenuation
100 Mbps
Tolerates data rates on the order of gigahertz (monomode fibre)
of megahertz to several
Bandwidth from tens
to
power as a noise signal that is added
b) Suppose that a signal
has 2" times the WBUT 2013]
it. Find the SNR in decibels.
Answer
10 log 2 = 3 dB
x= 10 log ratio =
x= 10 log 10 = 10 dB a value for n or k. If you want a general answer:
The last two. you need 10n log 2 3n dB
x 10 log ratio 10 log (2/n)== 10k log 10 10k dB
=
= 10 log (10^k)
= 10 log ratio

differ from differential Manchester

encoding?
Manchester encoding WBUT 2014, 2016]
4. How does
OR,
Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding
between
State the differences
example.
WBUT 2015]
schemes with an
Answer: is the Manchester encoding technique
example of a Physical Layer protocol
A simple This is a synchronous protocol,
copper-cabled local area networks (LANs). a
used on
"ticks" of an electronic timer. Each binary bit is allocated
the
because it is based on middle of that time slice, if the voltage changes from low
to
At the
fixed slice of time. CNET-EE-4
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
high. this is interpreted as a binary
of the bit time, this is a 0. The If voltage drops from high to low at the middle
1. the
number is representcd using Manchester Encoding
this signaling techniquc. Diagram shows how a binary
such as a NIC, only pays attention The device that receives this signal,
segment. to voltage changes
time Thus, to represent a series that occur in the middle of a 1-bit
the beginning of a bit time, so it of Is, the signal must first drop
is ready to change to low voltage at
another binary 1. from low to high again to represent

Manchester Encoding 0

A variation of this method, called

Differential Manchester encoding,
signal. It counts cach voltage change avoids this skipping
at a clock tick. from high
binary 1. A binary 0 is represented to low or low to high, as a
by no voltage change at
Differential Manchester Encoding the clock tick. The
Diagram displays an example
of this encoding scheme.

0
Differential Manchester Encoding
5. What do you mean by low-pass and band-pass
Answer: channels? WBUT 2015]
If a channel can carry base band processes, the
channel is called a low-pass channel. it
can carry narrow-band processes, we If
call it a band-pass channel. The low-pass
a model for much channels channellis
as pair of wires or a coaxial cable. For wave
guides and open space radio channels, the band-pass guides. light
channel is the suitable model.
6. a) What is TDM?
b)A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced WBUT 2015]
the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the baud rate? points on a circle. If
Answer:
a) Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting
multiple data streams in a
Single signal by separating the signal into many segments,
each having a very
duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based short
timing. on the

b) The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees apart. Since 2' =8, 3
Dits are transmitted with each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is 4800/3
=1600 baud.
. Physical address operates in a local domain whereas logical
global
address has a
domain. Explain, Define bandwidth of a media. WBUT 2016]
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

Answer:
into the ROM of the NIC card which
1)A Physical address is a 48-bit flat address burned
is divided into 24-bit vendor code and 24-bit
is a Layerl device of the OSI model. This
be changed.
serial address. This is unique for cach systcm and cannot
A Logical address is a 32- bit address assigned to
each system in a nctwork. This works
IP address.
in Layer-3 of OSI Model. This would be generally the
It is present on Network interface cad.
It
i) Physical address also called MAC address.
won't change.
boundary.
Logical addressing is used when a packet passes n/w

Band Width: transfer, throughput or bit

Bandwidth (computing) or digital bandwidth: a rate of data
rate. measured in bits per second the width of a range of
Bandwidth (signal processing) or analog bandwidth: a measure of
frequencies. measured in hertz.

8. Explain Client Server Model. What is the ldea

of web based e-mail. WBUT 2017]
Answer:
provides resources and services to one or
The client-server model describes how a server
servers, mail servers, and file servers.
more clients. Examples of servers include web
devices, such as desktop computers,
Each of these servers provides resources to client
have a one-to-many relationship with
laptops. tableis, and smart phones. Most servers
to multiple clients at one time.
clients, meaning a single server can provide resources
the server can either accept or reject the
When a client requests a connection to a server,
server establishes and maintains a
connection. If the connection is accepted. the
For example, an email client may
connection with the client over a specific protocol. The SMTP
an SMTP connection to a mail server in order to- send a message.
request authentication from the client, such as the
application on the mail server will then request
credentials match an account on the mail server, the
email address and password. If these
recipient.
server will send the email to the intended
client-server model. One example is Blizzard's
Online multiplayer gaming also uses the
games for World of Warcraft, StarCraft,
Battle.net service. which hosts online game client
and others. When players open a' Blizzard application, the
Overwatch. players log in to Battle.net, they can
automatically connecis to a Battle.net server. Once play
players, and matches with or against other
see who else is online, chat with other
gamers. cach
provide connections to multiple clients at a time,
While Internet servers typically services
so much traffic. Therefore, popular onlince
physical machine can only handle distributed
physical servers, using a technique called
distribute clients across multiple connected
matter which specific machine users are
computing. In most cases, it does not
all provide the same service.
to, since the servers

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 COMPUTERNETWORKS

Client
Client

Client

Server Client

Client Client

*
Client-Server Model
Web based e-mail: Webmail are web-based
accounts that are operated from a website. email accounts. These are usually free email
Mail. Examples include Hotmail, GMail
and Yahoo
Webmail allows the users to access
their emails as long as they have
connection and a web browser. This access to an Internet
also means that the user cannot
draft a new email offline. read an old email or

9. Distinguish between Amplitude

the difference between Single mode
modulation and Frequency modulation.
and Multimode fibres? What is
Answer: WBUT 2017
I part:
Amplitude Modulation
In AM, a radio wave known as the | In FM,
Frequency Moduation
a radio wave known as the |
"carrier" or "carrier wave" is modulated in "carrier"
or "carrier wave" is modulated in
amplitude by the signal that is to be frequency
by the signal that is to be
transmitted. The frequency and phase transmitted.
The amplitude and phase
remain the same. remain thesame.
AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz | FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum
(OR) Up to 1200 bits per second. from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400
bits per second.
AM stands for Amplitude Modulation FM stands for Frequency Modulation
AM has poorer sound quality compared FM is less prone to
interference than AM.
With FM, but is cheaper and can be However. FM
signals are impacted by
transmitted over long distances. It has a physical barriers. FM has better
sound
lower bandwidth so it can have more quality due to higher bandwidth.
Stations available in any frequency range.

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2n part: Multimode
Single mnode
Polymeric Coating
Coating

Multiple Paths-Sloppy
Glass
Requires very Straight Paths Cladding Glass Core
Glass
Cladding Glass Core 125 Microns = 60 Microns

125 Microns 5 S Microns d/a

d/a
Larger Core than Single-Mode Cable (50
Small Core
microns or greater)
Less Dispersion
Allows Greater Dispersion and therefore,
Suited for Long- Distance Applications
Loss of Signal
(Upto 3km) Used for Long-Distance Application, but
es Lasers as the Light Source Often
Backbones for shorter than Single-Mode (Upto -2km)
within Campus
Uses LEDs as the Light Source Often
Distances of several Thousand meters
within LANs or Distances of a Couple
Hundred Meters with a Campus Network

Long Answer Type Questions

media that are used in computer
1. a) Briefly discuss about the different guided WBUT 2014, 2016]
networks and make a comparison among them.
Answer:
There are four basic types of Guided Media:
Open Wire
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber

Open Wire
electrical wire strung along power poles.
Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the
protection from noise
There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or interference
interference is used. This media is susceptible to a large degree of noise and
for short distances under 20
and consequently not acceptable for data transmission except
ft

Twisted Pair
in pairs. Each pair would consist
The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together
for the negative data signal.
of a wire used for the positíve data signal and wire used
a
on the other wire. Because
Any noise that appears on one wire of the pair would occur
of, phase and the noise
the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
appearing on the wires cancels
itself out. Twisted
svstcms that use a balanccd line Pair cables are most effectively
method of transmission used in
The degree of reduction in noise
interference is determined
urns per foot. Increasing the number specifically by the number
of
To further improve noise rejection,
of turns per foot reduces the noise interference.
a foil or wire braid
pairs. shield is woven around the twisted

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable consists of two
conductors. The inner conductof
with the other conductor woven is held inside an insulator
around it providing a shield.
coating called a jacket covers the An insulating protective
outer conductor. The outer shield
conductor from outside electrical signals. protects the inner
(shield) and inner conductor plus The distance between the outer conductor
the type of material used for
conductor determine the cable properties insulating the inner
or impedance. Typical impedances
cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 for coaxial
ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet.
excellent control of the impedance characteristics The
be transferred than Twisted Pair cable.
of the cable allows higher data rates to

Optical Fibre
Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that
can carry information at frequencies in the
visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical
optical fibre consists of a very narrow
strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a
concentric layer of glass called the
Cladding. A typical Core diameter is 62.5 microns (I micron =
10-6 meters). Typically
Cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coating the cladding
is a protective coating
consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket. Data is transmitted
as light waves which
undergo continuous total internal reflection.
The cost of optical fibre is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher transmission
capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity,
it is more expensive.
Topic Twisted Pair Co-Axial Cable Optical Fiber
Number of One pair of cables are
Single cable is required ngle Cable is required
Cable required
Medium Electrical medium is Illumination medium is
Electrical medium is used
usvd used
Noise Noise immunity iss Noise immunity is
Noise immunity is high
low moderate.
Communication Communication speed is
Communication speed is
Speed speed is low, nearly 4 moderate, nearly 500
high. nearly 2 Gbps
Mbps Mbps
Low Bandwidth, Comparatively high Very High bandwidth
Bandwidth
3 MHz bandwidth, 350MHz 2 GHz
Cover small distance, Cover small distance, Cover large distance,
Distance 2to 10 km I to 10 km 10 to 100Okm
Used in LAN, TI Used in Cable TV,
Usage Used in WAN,MAN etc.
Lines Ethernet Channel

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WBUT 2014]
b) What is OSI reference model?
or OSI Reference
Answer:
Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Model
The Open Systems and computer
is a laycred abstract description for communications Interconnection
Model for short) Systems
protocol design. devcloped as part of the Open
network
layer model.
initiative. It is also called the OSI seven into a series of seven
layers (listed as
fiunetions of a protocdl
The OSI model divides the software):
decreasing "distance" from the application
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
model.
differences between OSI and TCP/IP WBUT 2014]
c)Write down the similarities and
OR,
model from TCP/IP reference model?2015]
What are the differences of OsI reference WBUT

Answer: models.
differences between the OSI and TCP/IP
Below we describe similarities and
Similarities
models include the following:
The main similarities between the two architecture.
Both of the models shate a similar
They share similar architecture
-

layers.
both of them are constructed with
This can be illustrated by the fact that common
common application layer Both of the models share a
-
They share a services
this layer includes different
"application layer". However in practice
depending upon eact model. can be illustrated
nparable transport and network layers This presentation and
-

Both models have

functions are performed between the
by the fact that whatever
functions are performed at the Transport
network layer of the OSI model similar
layer of the TCP/IP model. According
is required by networking professionals
-

Knowledge of the both models

know both
article obtained from the internet networking professionals "need to
to
models" individual
are switched Basically this means that
Both models assume that packets
in order to reach the same destination.
packets may take differing paths

Differences
the two models are as follows:
The main differences between internet has
Protocols are considered to be standards around which the
TCP/1P "generic, protocol-independent standard"
developed. The OSI model however is a
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

TCP/IP combines the presentation and

session layer issues into its application layer.
.TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
.TCPIP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it
has fewer layers.
TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible
model- This is mainly due to the fact
because TCPAP protocols are the standards around which
the internet was developed
therefore it mainly gains creditability due
to this reason. Where as in contrast
networks are not usually built around the OSI model
as it is merely used as a
guidance tool.
The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers
whereas the TCP/IP only has 4
layers.

2. Discuss
in detail about OSI reference model
mentioning the functions performed
by each layer in it. WBUT 2015]
Answer:
The Open Systems Interconnection Referenee Model (OSI Model
or OSI Reference
Model for short) is a layered abstract description for communications
and computer
network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection
initiative. It is also called the OSI seven layer model.
The OSI model divides the functions of a protocol into a series of seven layers
(listed as
decreasing "distance" from the application software):
Physical (Layer 1)
OSI Model, Layer I conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light
or radio signal
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. lt provides the hardware
means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables. cards and
physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, R$232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer
components.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protol krnowledge and management and handles errors in the physical
layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub
layers:The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC)
layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the
data and permission to ransmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow
control and error checking.

Network (Layer 3)
Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as
virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
Tunctions of this layer, as well as addressing, intemetworking, error handling. congestion
control and packet sequencing.
Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

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hosts,
Transport (Layer 4) transfer of data betwecn end systcms, or
provides transparent ensures complete
OSI Modcl, Layer 4. recovery and flow control. It
end-to-cnd error
and is responsible for
data transfer.
include SPX, TCP, UDP.
Layer 4 Transport examples
applications. The
Session (Layer 5)
and terminates conections bctween
This layer establishes,
manages
terminates conversations, exchanges, and
coordinates, and and connection
session layer sets up. each end. It deals with session
applications at
dialogues between the
coordination. NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
examples include NFS,
Layer 5 Session

Presentation (Layer 6) representation (e.g.,

independence from differences in data versa. Thé
This layer provides application to network format, and vice can
encryption) by translating from into the form that the application layer
transform data providing
presentation layer works to to be sent across a network,
and encrypts data
accept. This layer formats It is sometimes called
the syntax layer.
compatibility problems. PICT,
freedom from include.encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF,
Layer 6 Presentation examples
JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

Application (Layer 7) Communication

application and end-user processes.
OSI Model, Layer 7, supports is identified, user authentication and
privacy are
service
are identified. quality of
partners Everything at this,layer is
syntax are identified.
considered. and any constraints on data application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
applicaion-specific. This layer provides entircly in the
services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist
other network software architectures are part of this layer.
application level. Tiered application
directions of data flow? Explain with suitable examples.
are the
3. a) What
measure the performance of a computer network? Explain.
b) How do we networks.
c) Discuss in detail
different topologies for computer
d) What is throughput? intranet and extranet. WBUT 2015]
internet,
e) Differentiate between
simplex,
Answer:
use three transmission modes (methods) to exchange data,
a)_Network devices
half duplex, and full duplex. where traffic moves in only one
transmission is like a one-way street
Simplex
is a one-way-only transmission,
which means that data can
direction. Simplex mode Figure 1-7
in one direction from the sending device to the receiving device.
flow only
transmission.
illustrates simplex lane on some three-lane roads. It
is a
is like the center
Half-duplex transmission but not in both
lane in which traffic can move in one direction or the other,
single
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 dircctions at the COMPUTER NETWORKS
same time. Half-duplex
device must take mode limits data transmission
turns using the
B to A, but not linc. Therefore, because each
at the same time. data can flow from A
Full-duplex transmission Figure 1-8 illustrates to B and
is likc half-duplex transmission. from
lane accommodating a major highway
traffic going with two lanes of traffic,
accommodates two-way in opposite
simultaneous directions. Full-duplex each
send and receive mode
at the same time. transmission, which means that both
and B to A at the In sides can
same time. Figure full-duplex mode, data can flow from
1-9 ilustrates
full-duplex transmission. A to B
b) Measures of computer
second (bps). This network performance
quantity can represent are commonly stated
available network bandwidth. either an actual data in units of bits per
rate or a theoretical limit
Modern networks support to
10,000 or 100,000 very large numbers of bits per
bps, networks normally second.
megabits and gigabits. express these quantities nstead of quoting
in terms of kilobits,
The following equations
illustrate the
mathematics behind
Kbps=I kbps = 1 kilobit per
1
=
these terms:
Mbps =1,000 Kbps second 1,000 bits per second
Gbps= = 1,000 Mbps
Technically, network
speed
abbreviated as "Bps" with a can also be expressed in units of bytes per
capital 'B. second,
Use of these quantities is
strongly discouraged in networking
bits per second standard: to avoid confusion with the
IKBps= I
kBps I kilobyte per second=
Finally, the conventions used for 8,000 bits per second 8
measuring Kbps
might appear similar at first to the capacity of computer disks
those for networks. and memory
Data storage capacity is normally
measured in units of kilobytes,
gigabytes. In this non-network
style of usage, 'K' represents a multiplier megabytes and
represents a multiplier of 1,000 units of capacity. of 1,024 and 'k'
The following equations define the mathematics
behind these terms:
I KB 1,024 bytes
I
kB 1,000 bytes
I MB 1,024 KB
1
GB 1,024 MB

c) Below five devices arranged in different network

topology
i) Mesh

Number of cable = 10
Each node is connected through a four cable. If one connection fails,
the entire system
does not halt.

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ii) Star

Number of cable = 4
If one connection fails all other links remains active.

ii) Bus

Number of cable = I
If the connection fails, the entire network goes down.

iv) Ring

Number of cable = 5
If one connection fails, the ring can disable the entire network.

d) Throughput is a measure of how many units of information a system can process in a

given amount of time. It is applied broadly to systems ranging from various aspects of
computer and network systems to organizations. Related measures of system productivity
include, the speed with which some specific workload can be completed, and response
time, the amount of time between a single interactive user request and receipt of the
response.

e) The Internet is a network of LAN-s that uses the IP protocol at the network layer and
covers the entire world. The Intranet is similar, i.e., it is also a network of networks
driven by the IP protocol. However, all the networks of the Intranet belong to the same
organization.
An extranet is a private .network that uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or operations
with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.

4. Explain TCP/IP and ADSL. WBUT 2017]

Answer:
1s Part:
TCP/IP: TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the
network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules
which govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols
describe
themovement of data between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
simple naming and addressing
schemes. It contains
OSI model. The layers are: four layers, unlike seven layers
in the
1. Process/Application
Layer
2 Host-to-Host/T ransport
Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
Application Layer Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Internet Layer Transport Layer
Network Layer
Network Access Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Layer 1: Network Access Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect
to the host, so that the packets
3. Váries from host to host and network can be sent over it.
to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

. Selection of a packet
switching network which is based
internetwork layer is called a on a connectionless
internet layer.
2 It is the layer which holds the
whole architecture together.
3. It
helps the packet to travel independently
to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is
from the way they are sent.
used in this layer.
6. Tiie various functions
performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides
if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting
on the data is done by
transport layer.
3 The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information
to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message
(data) into small units so that they are
more efficiently by the network layer. handled
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be
sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications
that were at the top of the
protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS
etc.
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a remote
communication protocol which allows connecting 10
1. TELNET is a two-way
machine and run applications on it. transfer amongst computer
Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File
2. FTP (File efficient.
It is reliablc, simple and
users connected over a network. is used to transport
Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which
3. SMTP (Simple Mail
between source and destination, dirccted via a route.
electronic mail a for Hosts
Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address
4. DNS (Domain Name
connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
and UDP
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP connection-oriented
(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable
o TCP without error and
from source to destination
protocol which handles byte-stream
flow control. connection-less protocol that
(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable
o UDP request-reply
not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. E.g.: One-shot
does
kind of service.

2nd Part:
ADSL: Communications
subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of DSL broadband
Asymmetric digital' be sent over
Internet. ADSL allows more data to
technology used for connecting to the compared to traditional modem lines. A
lines (POTS), when
existing copper telephone telephone line to allow
called a microfilter, is installed on a subscriber's
special filter. time.
ADSL and regular voice (telephone) services to be used at the same
both
special ADSL modem and subscribers must be in close geographical
ADSL requires a Typically this distance
the provider's central office to receive ADSL service.
locations to 1.5 to 9 Mbps when
is within a radius of 2 to 2.5 miles.
ADSL supports data rates of from sending
(known as the downstream rate) and from 16 to 640 Kbps when
receiving data
data (known as the upstream rate).

layers of TCP model. Describe the function of each of the Layers with,
5. List the correlate with the OSI model?
necessary diagram. How does the layer of TCP WBUT 2017]

Answer Answer Type Questions.

Refer to Question No. 4(1" Part) ofLong
following:
6. Write short notes on the WBUT 2013]
a) Circuit Switching9 WBUT 2015]
b) QAM WBUT 2015]
c) Twisted Pair Cables
Answer:
a) Circuit Switching: a telephone call, the switching equipment
within the
When we or our computer places all the
system seeks out a physical "copper" (including fibre and radio) path
telephone
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
way from our tclephone to the
receiver's tclephone. This
Switching and is shown schematically technique is called circuit
in Fig (a). Each of
carrier switching office (cnd office, toll the six rectangles represents a
incoming lines and three outgoing office, etc.) In this example, cach office has three
lines. When a call passes
physical connection is (conceptually) through a switching office, a
established between the line on which
in and one of the output lines, as
shown by the dotted lines.
the call came
The model shown in the figure is highly
"copper" path between the two simplified of course, because parts
telephones may, in fact, be microwave of the
thousands of calls are multiplexed. links onto which
Nevertheless, the basic idea is valid:
been set up, a dedicated path between both once a call has
ends exists and will continue to exists until
the call is finished.
An important property of circuit switching is
the need to set up an end-to-end path
any data can be sent. The elapsed time between before
the end of dialing and the start
can easily be. 10 sec, more on long
-distance or international calls. During this
of ringing
interval, the telephone system is hunting
for a copper path, as shown in
time
before data transmission can even begin, fig. Note that
the call
way to the destination, and be acknowledged. request signal must propagate all the
point-of-sale credit verification), long For many computer applications (e.g.
setup times are undesirable.
Long Long
distance distance
office oftice

End office
End office

Local Loop
___iLi
Carrier Joining Carrier
Trunk Trunk Trunk

Digital PBXx

Example of Connection Over a Public Circuit Switching

Network
b) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM is a form of modulation
for modulating data signals onto a carrier
which is widely used
used for radio communications. It is widely
used because it offers advantages over other forms of
data modulation such as PSK,
although many fornms of data modulation operate alongside each
other.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. QAM is a signal in
which two carriers shifted in
phase by 90 degrees are modulated and the resultant
output consists of both amplitude
and phase variations. In view of the fact that both
amplitude and phase variations are
present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and
phase modulation.
A motivation for the
use of quadrature amplitude modulation comes from the fact
Straight amplitude modulated signal, i.e. double sideband even that a
with a suppressed carrier

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OCcupies twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal. This is very wasteful of the
aj lable irequency spcctrum. QAM restores the balance by placing two independent
double sideband suppressed carrier signals in the same spectrum as one ordinary double
sideband supressed carrier signal.

c) Twisted Pair Cables:

Refer to Question No. (a) of Long Answer Type Questions.
7.a) What is the purpose of Guard Bands? [MODEL QUESTION]
b) What is the relationship between FDM and VWDM?
c) In FDM, suppose there are 3 signal sources each having bandwidth 300 MHz,
find the minimum bandwidth of the path if 10 MHz guard bands are used.
d) What is the drawback of 'synchronous TDM that leads to the concept of
asynchronous .TDM?
e) Explain bit stuffing and interleaving in TDM.
Answer:
a) Guard band is a narrow part of the radio spectrum between radio bands, for the
purpose of preventing interference.
It is a narrow frequency range used to separate two wider frequerncy ranges to ensure that
both can transmit simultaneously without interfering each other. It is used in
TDM/TDMA/FDM/FDMA. It may be used in both wired and wireless communications,
so that adjacent frequency bands on the same media can avoid interference.

b) fdm: total frequency bands are divided into several uso

e.g.: television broad casting
wdm: total wave length is divided in to number of users
eg.: optical networking

c) For 3 signals we require at least 2 guard bands.

=
maximum bandwidth = 3 x 300 +2 x 10 920 MHz
10 MHz 10 MHz

00 MHz 300 MHz 300 MHz

920 MHz

d) Disadvantages:
One drawback ofthe TDM approach, as discussed earlier, is that many of the time slot in
the frame are wasted. It is because, 11 a particular terminal has no data to transmit at
particular instant of time, an empty time slot will be transmitted. An efficient alternative
to this synchronous TDM is statistical TDM, also known as asynchronous TDM. It
dynamically allocates the time slots on demand to separate input channels, thus saving

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 COMPUTERNETWORKS
the channel capacity.
As with Synchronous
1/0 lines with a buffer associated TDM, statistical multiplexers
to cach of them. also have many
the input bufters, collecting During the input, the multiplexer scans
data
receiving end, the demultiplexer until the frame is filled and send the frame.
receives the frame At the
appropriate buffers. and distributes the data
to the
e) Inserting bits in data in order
to break up a bit pattern
to go out of synchronization. that may cause the transmission
For example, in
a change from 0 to 1. If too TI lines, timing is maintained by detecting
many zero bits are transmitted
end may lose synchronization consecutively, the receiving
because too much
Therefore, in long strings time has passed without sensing
of zeros, a set of bits that voltage
timing signal is "stuffed" into begins with a 1 and functions as
the stream of zeros
at certain intervals.
a

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PHYSICAL LEVEL
LMultiple Choice Type Questions
WBUT 2013]
.. Oriented protocol. d) none of these
1. PPP is a b) c) byte
a) phase bit
Answer: (C) each node?
implements at least two paths to and from [WBUT 2014]
2. What network topology d) star
ring c) mesh
a) bus b)
Answer: (b) WBUT 2015]
hub
a central controller orring d) bus
3. In this topology there ismesh c)
a) star b)
Answer: (a) WBUT 20171
4. The topology with
highest reliability is c) ring topology d) mesh topology
topology b) star topology
a) bus
Answer: (d)
WBUT 20171
DTEs are to
5. Protocols are
agreemnent on how communication components and
a)
communicae channels used for transferring data
b) logical communication used for transferring data
c) physical communication channels
d) none of these
Answer: (a)
Answer Type Questions
Short
impairments
impairment? How many types of transmissionWBUT 2013]
1. What is transmission
themn.
are three? Discuss OR, WBUT 2015]
types of transmission impairments.
Discuss about the different
be lost in a signal.
Answer: Impairments is a condition that causes information toAttenuation. Signals
Transmission
are some aspects of transmission impairments: (1) they travel, with the
The following (2) Dispersion. Signals
tend to spread as
velocity of
power in time.
loose dependent on the frequency. (3) Delay distortion. Due to a signal
amount of spreading frequency. Thus, various frequency components ofThermal,
propagation that varies with from
at different times. (4) Noise; sources
receiver
arrive at the Crosstalk.
Intermodulation,

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
2. We have a channel with a 1MHz bandwidth.
is the bit rate and signal level? The SNR for the channel is 63. What
WBUT 2015].
Answer:
First, we use the Shannon formula to find
the upper limit.
C= Blog:(1+SNR)=10° log, (1+63) = 10° log.64 = 6 Mbps
Thc Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the
upper limit. For better performance we
choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then
we use the Nyquist formula to find
the number of signal levels.
4 Mbps=2x1 MHzxlog, L L= 4

3. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of mesh topology. [wBUT 2016
Answer:
Advantages of mesh: Since every end station is connected to every
other directly, the
communication path between any pair is dedicated and unhampered by the traffic in
the
rest of the network.
Disadvantage: Requires much more cabling. Also. fallback strategies when a link goes
down, is not very vell-defined.

4. What are the drawbacks of mesh topology? [WBUT 20171

Answer:
Refer to Question No. 3(2 Part) of ShortAnswer Type Questions.
5. Differentiate circuit switching and packet switching. [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
Circuit switching Packet
switching
Circuit switching establishes fixed Packet switching is a communication in
bandwidth circui/channel between nodes which packet are routed between node
and terminals before the users may over data links shared with other traffic.
communicate In each network node, packets are
queued in buffered. resulting in variable
delay.
6. Why circuit switching is preferred over packet switching in case of real time
communication? [MODEL QUESTIONJ
Answer:
Circuit switeching is faster than packet switching since during communicatiqn. the channel
always remains established. Because of this, there is no overhead in circuit switching to
either packetize data or use other neans to guarantee delivery of the data. In circuit-
SWitching, the data bits arrive at the receiver in the same order they were transmitted. The
Sae can not be assured in packet switchng. This leads to more computation
in packet
Switching for re-arranging received packets to get back the transmitted stream.
Whiie packet switching can not overcome the speed disadvantage, it can overcome the
guaranieed delivery" and *in-order delivery of data using protocols. Several protocol
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

ACK mechanisms using sliding windows

features like sequencing numbering and be used to
(mostly used'in transport and data-link layers) can
protocols at different layers a complicated
in-order deliver. For cxample, TCP achieves this using
ensure guaranteed
protocol.

Long Answer Type Questions

[MODEL QUESTION]
1. a) What is composite signal?
logarithmic forms. What is the actual reason behind this?
b) We measure decibel in
become virtually error-free. Is the data link layer
c) Suppose transmission channels
still needed? Explain.
signals that are
Answer:
sigmal which actually carries multiple other
a) A Composite Signal is
a a comp c signal is the
other. On the nmost common examples of
television set. Composite video
is
often related to each an analog
is fed to
"composite video" signal that NTSC. PAL. and SECAM. is
It a composite
formats such as
usually available in standard (together referred to as YUV) with sync
pulses.
called Y, U and V synchronizing
of three source signals luminance of the picture and
includes
the brightness or represent
Y represents
be displayed as a monochrome picture. U and V
pulses. so that by itself it could
hue and saturation or chrominance.
magnitude of
logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the
b) The decibel (dB) is a or implied
(usually power or intensity) relative to a specified is a
a physical quantity
expresses a ratio of two quantities with the same unit, it
reference level. Since it
dimensionless unit.
of merits:
The use of the decibel has a nunbermeans that a very large range of ratios can be
nature
The decibel's logarithmic in a similar manner to
scientific notation. This
convenient number,
represented by a
huge changes of some quantity.
allows one to clearly visualize logarithms mean that the overall decibel gain of a multi-
properties of summing
The mathematical consecutive amplifiers) can be calculated simply by
(such as
component system individual components, rather than needing to multiply
the
the decibel gains of
amplification factors. or light, is, roughly speaking,
such that a
of, for example, sound same
The human perception causes perceived intensity to always increase by the
doubling of actual intensity level. The decibel's logarithmic scale, in which
a
the original
amount, irrespective of always causes an increase of
approximately 3 dB,
power or intensity
doubling of
corresponds to this perception.
the
channels become error free, there would still be a need for
transmission it receives from
c) Even if the is responsible for breaking up the data
link layer
data link layer. The data and decide upon the most appropriate time to put such a frame
a higher layer into
frames is
physical layer. Address management of network interfaces
through the
on the network
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
also the responsibility of the data
link layer. In other words,
network possibly, does away the absence of errors in the
with the LLC functionality but
responsibilities remain. Without the MAC layer
the MAC layer functionalities,
become independent of the physical the network layer cannot
nature of the transmission medium. For example,
without 'a data link layer, an IP
layer for Ethernet (CSMA/CD protocol)
different from the IP layer for WLAN would be
(CSMA/CA).
2. Distinguish among the
working principles of circuit switching, message
switching and packet switching
techniques. [MODEL QUESTION
Answer:
Different types of switching techniques
are employed to provide communication
two computers. These are: Circuit switching, between
message switching and packet switching.
Circuit Switching: In this technique, first
the
computers is established and then data are complete physical connection between two
transmitted from the source computer to
destination computer. That is, when a the
computer places a telephone call. the switching
equipment within the telephone system seeks
out a physical copper path all the way from
sender telephone to the receiver's telephone.
The important property of this switching
technique is to setup an end-to-end path (connection)
between computer before any data
can be sent.
Message Switching: In this technique, the source
computer sends data or the message to
the switching office first, which stores the data in its
buffer. It then looks for a free link to
another switching office and then sends the data to this
office. This process is continued
until the data are delivered to the destination
computers. Owing to working principle,
its
it is also known as store and forward. That is,
store first (in switching oflice), forward
later, onejump at a time.
Packet Switching: With message switching, there is no limit on
block size. in contrast,
packet switching places a tight upper limit on block size.
A fixed size of packet which
can be transmitted across the network is specified.
Another point of its difterence from
message switching is that data packets are stored on the disk in
message switching
whereas in packet switching, all the packets of fixed size are stored in
main memory.
This improves the performance as the access time (time taken
to acces a data packet) is
reduced, thus, the throughput (measure of performance) of the network is
improved.
3. a) Find the NRZ-I, Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding for the
binary Data 100110111.
b) Suppose that a signal has 2" times the power as a
noise signal that is added to
it. Find the SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) in decibels. [MODEL QUESTION]

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

Answer:
a)

A/2

2- A/2

b) SNR =10log,, 2" =10n log, 2 3.01ndB

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

DATA LINK LAYER

Multiple Choice Type
9uestions
1. Flow control in OSI
a) data link layer reference model is performed in
c) session layer WBUT 2013]
b) network layer
Answer: (a) d) application layer

2. Checksum is used for

a) error detection
WBUT 2013, 2016]
c) error encapsulation b) error correction
Answer: (a) d) both (a) and (b)

3. Which channel access method is used in

a) CSMA/CD IEEE 802.5 network?
b) token bus WBUT 2014]
Answer: (6) c) token ring d) all of these
4. The hamming
code is used for
a) error detection WBUT 2014]
c) error encapsulation b) error correction
Answer: (d) d) both (a) and (b)

5. Which channel access method is used

a) CSMACD in Ethernet network? WBUT 2014,
b) token bus c) token ring 2016]
Answer: (a) . d) all of these

6. Which one of the

following task is not done by data
a) framing link layer? WBUT 2015]
b) error control c) flow control
Answer: (d) d) channel coding

7. Flow control is the responsibilities

of the WBUT 2016]
a) Data link layer
b) Transport layer
c) Both of these d) none of these
Answer: (C)

8. For stop-and-wait flow control, for n data

packets sent, how many
acknowledgements are needed?
a) n WBUT 2017]
b) 2 c)n-1 d) n+1
Answer: (a)

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What is the minimum window
size required for selective-repeat ARQ protocol
and howw?
WBUT 2013]
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

be equal and half

the maximumn
Answer: receiving windows must
The size of the sending and to n-1) to avoid
sequence numbers are numbered from 0
sequence number (assuming that this, consider the
packets being dropped. To understand
miscommunication in all cases of
destroyed. some,.
case when all ACKs are
than half the maximum sequence number,
is larger that are not
If the receiving window that are resent after timeouts are duplicates
possibly even all, of the packages is acknowledged.
The sender moves its window for every packet that
recognized as such.
HDLC? Why bit
mean by Data transparency? What is Bit stuffing in2013, 2016, 2017]
2. What do you WBUT
stuffing is needed?
Answer:
place to
1s Part:
(DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved from one
The data transfer rate
another in a given time.

2md&3rd Part: asynchronous links. Those links

transmitted over synchronous or
HDLC frames can be and end of
mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so the beginning
have no
is done by using a frame delimiter,
or flag, which is
each frame has to be identified. This sequence
sequence of bits that is guaranteed not to be seen inside a frame. This
a unique begins and ends with a frame
'01111110, or, in hexadecimal notation, 7E. Each frame
is frame may also mark the start of the next
delimiter. A frame delimiter at the end of a
7 or more consecutive 1-bits within a frame will cause the frame to
frame. A sequence of
be aborted.
the check sum and the transmitted frame for
3. Applying CRC algorithm, determine
the bit stream 11010111 and for the
generatorpolynomial x+x+1. WBUT 2013]
Answer:
Frame: 11010111
Generator G(x) of degree 3, r
+x+1:-1101
T(x) is the frame with 3 attached 0-bits: 11010111000
Divide T(x) by G(x) by using XOR,
1101 11010111000|1000010
1101
0000
01110
1101
000110Remainder
Theremainder R(x) = 110. The Transferred frame: 11010111 110

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
4. A 12 bit data bit block 011101010111
detection and correction. Show is to be set using hamming code for error
6th bit position how the receiver corrects an error
from right. that occurs in
Answer: WBUT 2013]
We need 5 parity bits
of positions 1,2,4, 8 and 16 from the
being I. Thus we have P,P,0P,||IP,0101011P;1. Ieft- the left most position
So, P=091919009011=0(i.e., Ex-or of bits 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17)
P, = 011S1e011=l(i.e. Ex-or of bits 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14
and 15)
P =
1111001e1=0 (Ex-or of bits 5,
6,7, 12, 13, 14 and 15)
P,
=010919001®1 =0(Ex-or ofbits
9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14 and 15)
P =1 (Bit 17)
So, transmitted code is 01001110010101111
If Sixth bit from right has error, the received data is 01001110010001111
In receiver, we calculate Pi Pa again try
-

calculating the parity as in the transmitter

and the ex-or with the received parity bit. side
P =0
P=0
P =1
P1
P=0
This gives 01100, = 12-the position from left
as the position of this erroneous bit. So, the
received data can be corrected to 010011100101111, which is
the same as the transmitted
code. Stripping off the parity bits, we get the transmitted
data word.
5. What is the difference between Flow
Control & Error Control. WBUT 2016]
Answer:
Flow control and Error control are the control mechanism
at data link layer and transport
layer. Whenever the sends the data to the receiver these
two mechanisms helps in proper
delivering of the reliable data to the receiver. The main difference
between the flow
control and error control is that the flow control observes the proper flow the
of data from
Sender to receiver, on the other hand, the error control observes that the data
delivered to
the receiver is error free and reliable. Let's study the difference between Flow
control and
Error control with a comparison chart.
Basis for comparison| Flow control Error control
Basis Flow control is meant for the Error control is meant for delivering
proper transmission of the data the error-free data to the receiver.
from sender to the receiver.
Approach Feedback-based tlow control Parity checking, Cyclic Redundancy
and rate-based flow control are Code (CRC) and checksum are the
the approaches to achieve the approaches to detect the error in data.
proper flow control. Hamming code, Binary Convolution
codes, Reed-Solomon code, Low-

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control
control
Error Check codes are the
Basis for comparison Flow Density Parity error in data.
approaches to correct the
cTOr occurred
reccivers Detects and corect the
Avoid overrunning of
Impact
buffer the data loss.
in thedata.
Find the CRC.
1010011110 and a divisor of 1011. WBUT 2016]
6. Given a 10 bit
sequence

Answer: data and divide.

divisor is 1101, we append from 0-s to the
Since
100100011
101110100111100000
1011

1011

1011

I100
1011

1110
1011

1010
1011

Remainder > 0010

0111 1000 10
Data with CRC is 1010
WBUT 2017]
7. Discuss the function
of data link Layer.
Answer:
Functions of data link layer:
frames to bits and vice versa.
i) Converting the
CRC check.
ii) Error detection by
ii) flow control collision detection the channel before transmission and is
responsible for
iv) Sensing and
reception of frames.

Long Answer Type Questions

WBUT 2014]
with an example.
1. a) Explain CRC code
Answer: checksum is a hash function
redundancy check (CRC) or polynomial code
A cyclic to raw computer data and is
commonly used in
detect accidental changes
designed to
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
digital networks and storage
calculates a short, fixed-lengthdevices such as hard disk drives. A CRC-enabled
binary sequence, device
each block of data and known as the CRC code or
sends or stores them just CRC, for
received the device repeats both together. When a block
the calculation; is read or
calculated carlier, then the if the new CRC does not match
block contains a data
error and the device may take
the one
action such as rereading or corrective
requesting the block
assumed to be error frec. be sent again, otherwise
the data is
Applying the CRC algorithm,
here we determine the
11010111 and for transmitted frame for the data
the generator polynomial +x'
We append 000 (since highest x' +1.
power of generator polynomial
1101) 1101 01110
00 (10000 10 1 is 3) to get 11010111000.
1101

1110
1101

1100
1101

001-Remainder
So, transmitted string is 11010111001
When the received string is again divided
by 1001. we get remainder 000
below: as shown
1001) 1010 00 0 1 1 1 1 (10 1 10 1.1 1
1001

1100
1001

1010
1001

1111
1001

1101
1001
--

1001
1001

000 Remainder
DHow does a single bit error differ from a burst error? WBUT 2014]

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Answer:
in transmissions
There are two main types of errors
1. Single bit error
2. Burst error Eror

Burst Error
Single Bit
Types of erors
to 0 or from 0 to
1

changed from I
unit is
Single i error: It means only one bit of data
as shown in fig. OODDD Data Sent

Change bit
Data Received

Single Bit Error

transmitted
can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are
Single bit error
Single bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial
using separate wires.
transmission.
1

bits in data unit are changed from

1
to 0 from 0 to
Berst Error: It means two or more
as shown in fig.
Data Sent

Bits changed by burst error

Data Received

Length of burst error=8

Burst ErTor
necessary that only consecutive bits are changed. The length of
In burst error, it is not length
is measured from first changed bit to last changed bit. As shown in Fig.
burst error is most
error is 8, although some bits are unchanged in between. Burst erTor
of burst noise occurring for a longer duration affects
likely to occur in a serial transmission. The & duration of noise.
multiple bits. The number of bits affected depends on the data rate
1/100 second can affect 10 bits.
For e.g. if data rate isI kbps, a noise of
WBUT 2015]
2. Discuss in detaH about different framing techniques.
Answer: between two computers or devices consists of a
wire in
A point-to-point connection into
bits. However, these bits must be framed
which data is transmitted as a stream of
function of the data link layer. provides
It
discernible blocks of information. Framingi a
for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. Ethernel,
a way

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 cOMfUTERNETwoRiKS
token ring, frame relay, and
other data link layer
structures. Frames have headers technologies have their own främe
Therc arc three different types
that contain information
such as crror-chécking codes.
tell the receiver where the
of framing, each of which
block of data begins provides a way föfthe señder to
Byte-oriented framing: and ends:
characters that are encodedComputer data is normally stored as alphanumeric
framing differentiates with a combination
one byte from another.
of 8 bits (1 byte). This type of
was used in the terminal/mainframe It is an older style
of framing that
framing include IBM's environment. Examples
BISYNC protocol. of byte-oriented
Bit-oriented framing: This
string of bits at one time. type of framing allows the sender to transmit á'löng"
IBM's SDLC(Synchronous
HDLC (High-level Data Data Link Clntrol) and
Link Control) are examples
Most LANs use bit-oriented of bit-oriented protocols.
framing. There is usually
For example, Ethernet has a a maximum frame size.
maximum frame size.of
and end of a frame is signaled 1.526 bytes. The beginning
with a special bit sequence
If no data is being transmitted. (01111110
this same sequence is continuously for HDLC).
the end systems remain synchronized. transmitted so
Clock-based framing: In a clock-based
used to maintain a constant system, a series of repetitive pulšes
bit rate and keep the digital aré
stream. SONET (Synchronous bits aligned in thë data"
Optical Network) is a synchronous
which al the clocks in system in
the network are synchronized
reference. SONET frames are back
then positioned within the clocked
to a mšteFcl6ekna
3. a) Explain in detail stream.* 2
how an error.could be detected
for error detection. using the Checksum method
b) What do you mean
by flow control problem?
c) What is an ARQ?
Wait ARQ.
Discuss about the different opèratiöns
performed by Stop &
Answer -- WBUT 2015]
a) A checksum is a simple
type of redundancy check that is used
Erors frequently occur in data when to detect errors in data.
it is written to a disk, transmitted across
or otherwise manipulated. a network,
The errors are typically very
incorrect bit, but even such small errors small. for.example. a single,
make it useless. can greatly affect the quality of data..
and even
In its simplest
form, a checksum is created by calculating -
other block of'data using some algorithm the binary yalues in a-packet
and storing the results with ehe or,
or received at the other end of a network. dat, Whe the
data is retrieved from memory
IS calculated
and compared with the existing checksum.A a new checksum
match does not necessarily mean ngn-magh.indieates an.errgrAay
was not able to the absence of errors, but only that
the simple algorjthm,
detect any.
'Among the types of errors that cannot be detected
by simple.checksum algorithms are
reordering of the bytes, inserting
or deleting zero-valued bytes and.
cancel each other out. Fortunately, muljple.errors that
however, these errors can be detected
Sophisticated methods, such with, more
as cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
Although such
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resources (in the form of
disadvantage of requiring greatcr system unimportant
techniques have the become an increasingly
this has
processor time and bandwidth), continued increases in processor speed and
the
consideration in recent years as a result of
bandwidth.
the rate at which a
sender is transmitting is
mechanism that ensures
b) Flow control is the
receiving capabilities.
in proportion with the receiver's manage the flow of
data/packets
communications to
Flow control is utilized in data where the sending device
can send data
especially in cases
among two different nodes.
much faster than the recciver can digest.

c) 1st Part: transmission.

(ARQ) is a protocol for error control in data
Automatic repeat request requests the transmitter to
receiver detects an error in a packet, it automatically
When the
resend the packet.

2d Part: send information between two

connected
Stop-and-wait ARQ is a method used to
and that packets are
ensures that information is not lost due to dropped packets
devices. It repeat-request (ARQ)
order. It is the simplest kind of automatic
received in the corect case of the
one frame at a time; it is a special
method. A stop-and-wait ARQ sender sends 1.
protocol with both transmit and receive window sizes equal to
general sliding window receives an
each frame, the sender doesn't send any further frames until it
After sending an
signal. After receiving a good frame, the receiver sends
acknowledgement (ACK)
ACK does not reach the sender before a certain time, known as the timeout,
ACK. If the
the sender sends the same frame again. B

frame irans
mission time
Propagation time ACK Irans
CKI niission time

frane
1
ACKO

frane
c
Time-out intenval

Frame lont:
A retranniits

CNET-EE-32
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
4. a) Discuss about the
b) What do you mean bydifferent modes of operations performed by HDLC.
c)Whatis bandwidth-delaydata transparency and bit
product? stuffing in HDLC?
Answer: WBUT 2015]
a) The HDLC protocol is
a general purpose data
supporting a range of modes link control protocol capable of
of operation. The two most
The best-clfort or datagram prevalent modes are:
service: In this mode, the packets
frame, and a best-effort are carried in a Ul
delivery is performed (i.e. there
packet carried by the frame will is no guarantee that
be delivered.) The link the
recovery of lost frames. This layer does not provide error
mode is
protocol which itself uses datagram used for point-to-point links carrying a network
packets (e.g. IP). The control field
follows the address field and is of HDLC
the second part of all HDLC frames.
service is provided through the use The best-efftort
of U (un-numbered) frames consisting of a
byte with the value of Ox03. single
The Asynchronous Balanced Mode
(ABM): This provides a reliable data
point data link service and may be used point-to-
to provide a service which supports either
datagram or reliable network protocol. In a
this mode, the packets are carried in
numbered I-frames, which are acknowledged
by
supervisory frames. Error recovery (e.g. checkpoint the receiver using numbered
or go-back-n eor recovery) is
employed to ensure a well-ordered and reliable
flow of framnes.
b) Refer to Question No. 2 of Short Answer Type Questions.

c) The Bandwidth Delay Product, or BDP for short determines

the
can be in transit in the network. It is the product of the available amount of data that
bandwidth and the
latency, or RTT. BDP is a very important concept in a Window
based protocol such as
TCP.It plays an especially important role in high-speed / high-latency networks,
such as
most broadband internet connections. It is one of the most important factors
of tweaking
TCP in order to tune systems to the type of network used.
The BDP simply states that: .
BDP (bits) = total_available_bandwidth (bits/sec) x round_trip_time (sec)
or, since RWIN/BDP is usually in bytes, and latency is measured in milliseconds:
BDP (bytes) = total_available_bandwidth (KBytes/sec) x round_trip_time (ms)

5. a) What is the basic difference between CSMA and CSMAJCD? WBUT 2016]
cWhat do you mean by back offfactor in case of CSMA/CD protocol?
de) What is the working operation of stop and wait ARQ for lostacknowledgement?
Selective Repeat ARA of the window size must be at most 2/2. Explain it.
Answer:
a) CSMA/CD is a protocol that can detect collision where as CSMA is unable to detect it.

b) If a collision is detected, the transmitting station stops sending the frame data and
sends a 32-bit "jam sequence". If the collision is detected very early in the frame
transmission, the transmitting station will complete sending of the frame preamble before
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ensure that
transmission of the jam sequence. The sequence jam is transmitted to
starting transmitting stations.
length of the collision is sufficient to be noticed by the other
the time
trans tting station waits a random period of
After sending the jam sequence the process over
using a random number generator before starting the transmission
chosen The probability of a repeated
from step above. This process is called "backoff. random period of time before
1

wait a
collision is reduced by having the colliding stations
retransmitting.
c) it.
it discards
If the sender receives a damaged ACK, retransmits frame 1.
When the timer of the sender expires, the sender
0 (R=0).
Receiver has already received frame and expecting to receive frame
1

1.
Therefore it discards the second codv of frame Receiver
Sender

S= 0 Frame 0 R=0
ACK.
S=1 Frame R=1

--
ACKO

Los R=0
Time-out S=1 FrameI
Expecting frame 0,
ACK 0 frame 1 discarded
S=0

Time Time

Sender Recelver

Frame
0
Sender Recelver

Frame OEEBO Frame

0
S
Frame Frame
OD 1 O330 2
Frame
Time-out
Time-out
E30 0
Correctly Erroneously
Discarded accepted
Time Time Timie
Time
b. Window size> 2m-
a. Window size = 2m-

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 cOMPUTER NETWORKS
Size of the sender and receiver
windows must be at most
window size should be 2 ^m /2 2. one-half 2 m. If m 2,
Fig compares a window size 2 of
of 3. Window size is 3 and all ACKs are lost, of with a window size
sender sends duplicate
ofhe receiver expect to receive frame 0 (part the of frame 0, window
Ist frame ofthe next cycle an error. of window), so accepts frame 0, as the
-

6. Write short notes on the following:

a) Hamming Code
b) Go back-N ARQ WBUT 2015]
Answer: WBUT 2015]
a) Hamming Code:
Hamming code can be applied to data
units of any length and uses
between the data bits and redundant bits as discussed. the relationship
11 10 7
5 4 3 2

d d d

Redundant bits
Figure Positions of redundancy bits in hamming code
Basic approach for error detection by using Hamming
code is as follows:
To each group of m information bits k parity
bits are added to form (m+k) bit
code as shown in above figure.
Location of each of the (m+k) digits is assigned a decimal
value.
The k parity bits are placed in positions 1, 2,.., 2k-1 positions.-K
parity checks
are performed on selected digits of each codeword.
At the receiving end the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value
parity bits provides the bit-position in error, if any.
of thek

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Position number
Error pos!lion c3 c2 e1
1
7 6 5 4 3 2 o (no error) 0 00
d d d r, d, a 0 01
010
T 1.3,5.7 011
2.3 3,6,7
4, 5, 6,7
100
1
01
110
1
7 6 5 4 3 2 111
d, d, dar di z
Data 1010
1O1EOE
101EDE0 Addingr

101ED10 Adding r
110 11 100 10 Adding r
o0 10 Data sent
10 1corrupted
Rocolvod Data
1110 010
=6
Error position CC
110
1O 110 0l10 cormected data

Figure Use of Hamming code for eror comection for a 4-bit data
corréction for 4-bit numbers
Figure above shows how hamming code is used för
example data 1010,
(dedsdzd) with the help of three redundant bits (rrri). For the 1, 5
3, and 7. Then
first ri (0) is calculated considering the parity of the bit positions,
2, 3, 6 and 7. Finally, the
the parity bits r2 is calculated considering bit positions 7 as shown. If any
parity bits r4 is calculated corisidering bit positions 4, 5, and
6
in error can
corruption occurs in any of the transmitted code 1010010, the bit position
be found out by calculating r32ri at the receiving end. For
example, if the received
code word is 1110010, the recalculated value of rsrzr is 110, which indicates
that bit
position in error is 6, the decimal value of 110.

b) Go back-N ARQ:
Receiver sends Ack for the correctly received frame
An Acknowledgement field has a meaning of "next expected sequence number
(Example: Ack 2 means "next expected packet sequence number is 2 and a
packets up to 2(0, 1) are-received)
keep>
Sender keeps on sending frames (limited to the Window size) and receiver
on acknowledging.
When a frame is damaged, receiver sends a Reject control packet (Nak)

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Sender goes back to the Rejected
rejected one even if those frames frame and sends all the frames starting with the
Sender's buffer size = Window are already sent to the receiver
size
Receivers buffer size = 1

Timeout
frane
0
RRPhil
RR
Jrame
1
frane

a Ci-buck-N ARQ

7. a) Is Bit stuffing needed in the control field of HDLC

data frame?
b) Briefly discuss the Token management using priority
in IEEE 802.5.
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
a) HDLC frames can be transmitted over synchronous or asynchronous links.
Those links
have no mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so the beginning and
end of
each frame has to be identified. This is done by using a frame delimiter, or flag, which is
a unique sequence of bits that is guaranteed not to seen inside a frame. This sequence
be
is '01111110', or, in hexadecimal notation, 7E. Each frame
begins and ends with a frame
delimiter. A frame delimiter at the end of a frame may also mark the start of the next
frame. A sequence of 7 or more consecutive 1-bits within a frame will cause the frame to
be aborted.

b) Token Bus was a 4 Mbps Local Area Networking technology created by IBM to
connect their terminals to IBM mainframes. Token bus utilized a copper coaxial cable to
connect multiple end stations (terminals, wokstations, shared printers etc.) to the
mainframe. The coaxial cable served as a common communication bus and a token was
created by the Token Bus protocol to manage or 'arbitrate' access to the bus. Any station
that holds the token packet has permission to transmit data. The station releases the token
when it is done communicating or when a higher priority device needs to transmit (such
as the mainframe). This keeps two or more devices from transmitting information on the
bus at the same time and accidentally destroying the transmitted data.
Token Bus suffered from two limitations. Any tailure in the bus caused all the devices
beyond the failure to be unable to communicate with the rest of the network. Šecond,
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more stations to the bus was somewhat difficult. Any new station that was
adding communicate and all devices beyond it
improperly attached was unlikely to be able to
seen as somewhat unreliable and
were also affected. Thus, token bus networks were
difficult to expand and upgrade.

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MEDIUM ACCESS SUB

LAYER
Multiple Choice Type Questions
1. When host knows its IP address but not
its physical address, it can use.
a) RARP b) ICMP WBUT 2016]
c)ARP d) IGMP
Answer: (c)

2. Anetwork which is used for sharing

users owning microcomputers is calleddata, software and hardware among several
a) WAN b) LAN WBUT 2017]
c) MAN d) VAN
Answer: (b)

3. What is the minimum size of a IP packet?

a) 16 byte. b) 10 byte
WBUT 2017]
c) 20 byte d) 32 byte
Answer: (c)

4. In the Random-access method there is no collision.

[MODEL QUESTION
a) ALOHA b)CSMA l CD c) CSMA l CA d) Token-passing9
Answer: (d)

5. The 1-persistent CSMA/ CD can be considered as a special

case of p-persistent
approach with p equal to MODELQUESTION]
a) 0.1 b) 0.5 c) 1.0 d) None of these
Answer: (c)
6. IEEE 802.5 standard is [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Token Ring b) Token Bus c) LLC d) FDDQ
Answer: (a)

7. How much channel throughput of slotted ALOHA will be in comparison to pure

Aloha? [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Same b) Double c) Three times d) None of these
Answer: (6).

8. In which OSI layers does FDDI protocol operate? [MODEL QUESTION]

a) a) Physical b) Data link c) Network d)(a) & (b) both
Answer: (b)

9. PPP is a .. .. oriented protocol. [MODEL QUESTION]

a) phase b) bit c) byte d) none of these
Answer: (c)

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not use the token passin

10. Which ofthe following network architectures does MODEL QUESTION
access method? c) CSMA/CD d) IEEE802.5
a) IEEE 802.4 b) FDDI
Answer: (c)

Short Answer Type Questions

WBUT 2014
What do you mean by MAC and LLC? Explain.
1.
Answer:
In any broadcast network, the stations must ensure
that only one station transmits
at a time on the shared communication channel.
channel are called
The protocol that determines who can transmit on a broadcast
Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol.
which is the lower
The MAC protocols are implemented in the MAC sublayer
sublayer of the data link layer.
Logical Link Control
The higher portion of the data link layer is often called
(LLC).
To Network Layer

Logical Link
Control

Medium Access
Control

To Physical Layer

upper-level
Layer 2 uses Logical Link Control (LLC) to communicate with the
layers.
will
Layer 2 uses Media Access Control (MAC) to decide which computer
transmit.
LLC serves to communicate upward to Network layer, independent of
the

specific LAN technology used and Upper layer.

MAC serves to access and communicate downward to the technology-specifnc
Physical layer.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

2. Discuss CSMA/CA with the help of a flowchart.

Answer: WBUT 2016]

START

Assemble Frame

Channel Wait for Random

idle? Backoff time

Send RTS

CTS
Received?,

Transmit Frame

The flow chart for CSMA/CA is given above.

When station receives data to transmit, it converts it into frames
of appropriates size.
Then it waits to see if the channel is idle and backs of for a random time
if not idle. When
the channel becomes idle, the station transmits a special sequence called
"Request to
Send" (RTS) to the receiver and awaits for a short while for the receiver in turm
to send
the special "Clear to Send" (CTS) sequence. Only upon receiving a CTS does
the station
transmits frames. Or else, it again backs off.

3. Find the expressions for average delay and throughput for

both pure ALOHA
and slotted ALOHA. Compare their performances as well. WBUT 2016]
Answer:
Suppose the stations generate frames following a Poisson distribution of mean S frames
per second. Also, the probability of k transmissions attempts per time frame is a
Poisson
distribution with mean G per frame time, i.e.
P(k)= Gke/k!
Thus, P(No frames generated in frame duration) = e
Now, throughput = G* P(transmission is successful)
Hence, S= GP(0)
Collision happens if another frame is generated during twice the time duration of a frame.
This is P(0) =e
Solving for S we get
S Ge26
Maximum throughput occurs at G = 0.5, where S = 1/2e =0.184
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frame becamuse
for collision only within duration of
check only). Thie
In slotted ALOHA, we need to (collision can happen at the beginning
that time
no new frame can start within
gives us: = 0.368
Ge-2G where maximum S= 1/e
S= ALOHA is discrete time ime
Comparison: time system whereas Sloted
Continuous
a) Pure Aloha is a
transmission.
system.
whether the channel is busy before
b) Pure ALOHA doesn't check beginning of timeslot.
Slotted ALOHA send the data at the Slotted ALOHA divided in to time
Pure ALOHA not divided in to time.
WBUT 2017]
CSMA/CD. What is its usage?
4. Explain
Answer: sense multiple access
(CSMA). CSMA/CD
modification of pure Carier as collision
CSMA/CD is a
performance by terminating transmission as soon a
is used to improve CSMA a second collision
on retry.
reducing the probability of intervals,
is detected, thus
wvill cause all transmitters to back off by random
A jam signal is sent which when the first retry is
attempted.
reducing the probability of a collision
model.
layer 2 access method, not a protocol of the OSI
CSMA/CD is a
There is data from
user to send.
Start

Assemble a frame
Phys. Addresses are used
(MAC addresses)

Attempt-1

Is same other station

transmitting? Yes

No
Transmit 1* bit of
the frame Recovered

Yes Collision recovery

Transmit next bit of
Collision detected? subalgorithm
the frame
No
Not
Recovered
Transmission finished?
No
Yes failed
Frame transmission
Frame transmitted End End many collisions)
(too
successfully.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
5. Discuss the principles
of operation of a
Answer: wireless LAN. [MODEL QUESTION
A wireless LAN (or WLAN,
LAWN, for local area for wireless local
arca network, sometimes
wireless network) is referred to as
local area network (LAN) one in which a mobile
through a wireless user can connect to a
of standards specify the technologies (radio) connection. The IEEE
for wireless LANs. 802.11 802.11 group
Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA standards use
for path sharing and include (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance) he
an encryption method,
algorithm. the Wired Equivalent Privacy
High-bandwidth allocation
for wireless will make
classrooms, in the United States. possible a relatively low-cost
A similar frequency wiring of
Hospitals and businesses allocation has been made in Europe.
are also expected
existing LANs are not already to install wireless LAN
in place. systems where
Using technology from the Symbionics
made to fit on a Personal Computer Networks, Ltd., a wireless LAN
adapter can
for a laptop or notebook
Memory Card Industry Association (PCMCIA) be
computer. card

6. Explain the difference between

Point to Point and Multi-Point
connection?
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
A point to point connection is
one in which data can flow from
unidirectional or bi-directional manner. one point to another in a
A telephone connection or RS
of point to multi-point connections. In 232 are examples
a point to multi-point connections,
are simultaneously connected to several hosts
each other in one or more shared
connection, for example a bus data paths. Such a
connection as in Ethernet allows
simultaneously send data to all hosts (broadcast) one host to
or a subset of hosts (multicast).
7. What are the basic differences
between Pure ALOHA and Sloted ALOHA?
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
1) Pure Alohu is a Continuous time system whereas
Slotted Aloha is discrete time
system.
2) Pure ALOHA doesnt check whether
the channel is busy before transmission.
Slotted ALOHA send the data at the beginning of timeslot
3) Pure aloha not divided in to time. Slotted
aloha divided in to time
8. a) Differentiate between FHSS
and DssS spread spectrum. [MODEL QUESTION]
b) Why address field is always set to all
1's in PPP frame format?
Answer:
a) FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum) is typically
used by wireless mobile
devices such as blue tooth and wireless phones. The transmission distance
shorter and not very reliable. DSSS is used by wireless immobile of FHSS is
devices. The
transmission speed of DSSS is faster than FHSS and is more reliable.

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frame. Now
which recipient receives the
PPP header indicates recipient. Hence the address
b) The address field of be only one
point-to-point protocol, there can
PPP being a
must always be all 1-s. [MODEL QUESTION
implemented in WLAN?
9. Why is CSMA/CD not corrupted while
Answer: know whether its dala got
transmitter never gets to Hence, CSMA/CD,
which is based on
In Wireless LAN, a collision.
can detect in WLAN.
on way. That is, it never collision detection, is not used
collision detection, is based on [MODEL QUESTION]
frame?
10. i) Why bit stuffing is
needed in HDLC CSMAlCD?
ii) What is the purpose of
the jam signal in
Answer: bits into a transmission unit as a way to
insertion of one or more knows how to detect and
i) Bit stuffing is the The receiver
information to a receiver.
provide signaling synchronized
bits.
remove or disregard the stuffed T-carrier system signals is constantly
bit rate of repeaters. The
For example, the timing or adjacent repeater or between any two
and an in the data
between any terminal device detecting the transition in polarity for bits
l

synchronization is achieved by with a value of 1

signaling, where each successive bit

bipolar Bits with a value
stream. (T-1 signaling uses reverse polarity from the previous bit.
voltage with a with
is represented by more than 15 bits in a row are sent
no-voltage time slot). If synchronization may be long
of 0 are represented by a depends on for
in bits that the system
1

To handle this situation

(the
a 0 value, this "lull" synchronization.
become out of pattern
enough for two end points to signal is "stuffed" with a short, unique bit
bits), the pattern. The
sequence of more than 150 is recognized as a synchronization
bits) that
1
sequence.
(which includes some bits and restores the bit stream to its original
stuffed ends with
receiving end removes the standard HDLC packet begins and
stuffing, a
In another example of
bit
doesn't appear again before the end ofthe packet,
sequence
01111110. To make sure this consecutive Is.
every five is the addition of bits
to a
a 0 is inserted after include bit padding, which
by some to from
Bit stuffing is defíned transmission unit conform to a standard size, but is distinct
transmission to make the
in-band signaling.
bit robbing, a type of
sense and
medium access control protocol requires carrier
the
ii) A network in which transmission by sending a jam signal; if there is
no collision
where a station always starts stations, it begins sending data; otherwise, it
stops
with jam signals from
other
transmission and then tries again later.

Long Answer Type Questions

WBUT 2014]
operation technology.
of CDMA
1. a) Explain the
format. Why padding is required?
b) Describe 802.3 header
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 COMPUTERNETNORKS
Answer:
a) In cellular service there are two
main competing network technologies: Global
for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code System
One of the basic concepts in data Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
communication is the idea of allowing
transmitters to send information simultaneously several
This allows several users to share a band of over a single communication channel.
called multiplexing. CDMA employs frequencies (see bandwidth). This concept is
spread-spectrum technology and a special
scheme (where each transmitter is assigned coding
multiplexed over the same physical channel. a code) to allow multiple users to; be
By contrast, time division multiple access
(TDMA) divides access by time, while
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
divides it by frequency. CDMA is a
form of spread-spectrum signaling, since the
modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data
communicated. being

b) Ethernet traffic is transported in

units of a
beginning and end. Theform of theframe is theframe, where each frame has a definite
Preamble in
Dest Addr Src Addr Type
figure below.
Data CRC

.
The Preamble Field (8 bytes, 64 bits) is used
for synchronization. The first
seven bytes contain the bit pattern 10101010
and the eighth contain the pattem
10101011.
Destination Address specifies the Ethernet address of
bits the destination station, 48-
Source Address specifies Ethernet address of the
Type field specifies the type of data encapsulated,
source station, 48-bits
e.g. IP, ARP, RARP, etc, 16-
bits.
Data Field carries 46-1500 bytes.of data. If data length is
must be padded to 46 bytes.
lower than 46 bytes, it
CRC or Cyclical Redundancy Check, used for error
detection
The reason why there is an upper limit to the length
so that each station gets a fair chance with the of the data field, is fairly obvious
channel. The lower limit, and the reason
for padding in case that limit is not met, is as follows:
Suppose a station at one extreme of sends a very short frame. Before this
the other extreme, another station starts frame reaches
transmitting since it saw that the channel was
free. This of course leads to collision but the
fact that collision happens must travel back
to the first station for it to realize that and
that must happen before it has tinished with
transmitting the frame. Thus the minimum frame size is of duration
signal takes to travel from one end of the netwvork to twice the time a
the other, which is roughly 5 micro-
seconds on a Km long cable. 802.3 standard therefore specifies
1

length is 46 bytes which must be padded up if not present. that the minimum data

2. Explain in detail the concept of

connection establishment using LCP in case of
PPP
WBUT 2015]
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Answer:
that negotiate option settings, acknowledgements
PPP starts with LCP configure packets
is an iterative process. One endpoint proposes to a peer the
and rejects. PPP negotiation rejects the proposal, this endpoint
the peer to use. If the peer
ist of PPP options it wants agreement is reached. Figure illustrates
revised one. This continues until an
must send a Link options are
sequence and the LCP packets involved. Link
the PPPnegotiation connection. Each endpoint actively
independent for each direction of a point-to-point
for its receiving direction. Thus, both Host A and Host B begin by
negotiates options the call, since PPp
configure-request packet. It doesn't matter who initiated
sending a
shows negotiations separately in time for
operates peer to peer. Although the diagram
each direction, in practice, these events are intertwined.
1
PPP Connection

(1) Configure-request,
with list of options
(on/off) and values
(2) Configure-reject.
With unacceptable options, or
configure-nak, with altermate
(3) Configure-reques
values
with revised options
and revised values (4) Configure-ack.
Link parameters established
in the direction of Host B to
Host A

(5) Configure-request
(6) Configure-ack,
Link parameters
established in the
direction of Host A to (7)
Host B Establishment state complete.
Transition of Authenticating or networking state

Fig: PPP Negotiation

The LCP configure packets are:
Configure-Request (code-1)
The PPP endpoint sending the configure-request places the list of all options (zero or
more) it wishes to negotiate into the LCP data field. All configurable options m
negotiated simultaneously.
Configure-Ack (code-2)
If all the options listed in the configure-request are recognizable and acceptable to the
peer, the peer replies with a configure-ack. The acknowledgment includes the options as
requested in the original configure-request message.
Configure-Nak (Negative Acknowledge) (code-3)
If the peer recognizes all options, but some options have unacceptable values, the peer
responds with a configure-nak. This response contains
the offending option and hinis
regarding acceptable values. A peer can also reply with
configure-nak if it requires an

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
option omitted in the original
configure-request. The PPP
configure-request must now endpoint originally sending tne
send a revised configure-request
Configure-Reject (code-4) based on this reply.
If the peer doesn't recognize some
options or refuses to accept some
the peer replies with a configure-reject, "do this" options,
unacceptable options. The This reply includes the list of unrecognized or
sender of the original configure-request
revised request based on this reply. must now a
Send
A configure-request LCP
packet embeds multiple PPP options.
changed from their default values Only those that need to be
are included in this packet. When PPP operates
default settings, the configure-request with all
sender doesn't include any options in the
field. A PPP peer responding to a LCP data
configuration request responds with
reject, configure-nak, or contigure-ack. LCP contigure

3. Write short note on IEEE 802.11.

Answer: WBUT 2016]
IEEE 802.11:
The original 802.11 standard had two variations
both offering the same speeds but
differing in the RF spread spectrum used.
One of the 802.11 used FHSS. This 802.11
variant used the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band and
operated with a I or 2 Mbps data rate.
Since this original standard, wireless implementations have
favored DSSS.
The second 802.11 variation used DSSS and specified a
2 Mbps-peak data rate with
optional fallback to 1 Mbps in very noisy environments. 802.11, 802.1
lb and 802.11g use
the DSSS spread spectrum, this means that the underlying modulation
scheme is very
similar between each standard, enabling all DSSS systems to coexist
with 2, 11 and 54
Mbps 802.11 standards. Because of the underlying differences between
802.1 la and the
802.11b/g, they are not compatible.
Distributed coordination function (DCF) is the fundamental MAC technique
of the IEEE
802.11 based WLAN standard. DCF employs a CSMA/CA with Binary
expónential
backoff algorithm.
DCF requires a station wishing to transmit to listen for the channel status for a
DIFS
interval. If the channel is found bust during the DIFS interval. the station defers its
transmission. In a network where a number of stations contend for the wireless medium..
If multiple stations sense the channel busy and defer their access, they will also virtually
simultaneously find that the channel is released and then try to seize the channel. As a
result, collisions may occur. In order to avoid such collisions, DCF also specifies random
backoff, which forces a station to defer its access to the channel for an extra period.
Point coordination funetion (PCF) is a Media Access Control (MAC) technique used in
IEEE 802.1l based WLANs. It resides in a point coordinator also known as Access Point
(AP), to coordinate the communication within the network. The AP waits for PIFS
duration rather than DIFS duration to grasp the channel. PIFS is less than DIFS duration
and hence the point coordinator always has the priority to access the channel.
The PCF is located directly above the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF), in the
EEE 802. Il MAC Architecture. Channel access PCF mode is centralized and henc
in

the point coordinator sends CF-Poll frame to the PCF capable station to permit it to
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case the polled stations does not have any frames to send, then it
ransmit a frame. In
must transmit null frame.
How is the
Differentiate between non-persistent and l-persistent CSMA.
a)
chance of collision reduced in CSMA/CD?
in token ring9?
b) How does the receiver acknowledge a frame
ring?7
c) What is the function of wire center in token
d) How a new station is introduced in token bus? [MODEL QUESTION]
e) Describe the frame format in HDLC.
Answer: anyone
first distance to the channel to see if
a) In CSMA. a solution having data to send the
transmitting at that moment. If the channel is busy, the station waits till it finds
else is
free in 1-persistent CSMA, it transmits a
channel idle. If the station finds the channel CSMA, the station does not
with probability 1). In non-persistent
frame (i.e., it transmits busy when it tried to transmit.
continually sense the channel if it found the channel
Instead, it waits for a random period of time before trying
again.
1-persistent CSMA, the transmitting station
In CSMA/CD. which is a special case of
collision, and backs off for a random time.
stops transmitting immediately upon sensing a
the entire frame is not transmitted incase of
This way channel bandwidth is saved because
collision.
patterm called a "token" circulates around an
idle
b) In 802.5 token ring, a special bit
the token to start transmitting. The
network. A transmitting a station must first seize
to zero during transmission. The
frame format keep a bit reserved for ACK, which set to one but also re-adjusts the
is
this bit
destination station ACK-s the frame by setting
checksum.
is that a cable break anywhere kills the entire
c) One problem of any ring network
wire center solves this problem. Through logically a ring, physically each
network A
least two twisted pairs, as shown in
connected to the wire center using at
end station is
Station
the figure.
Cable
Bypass relay
Connector

Wire center

Four stations connected via a wire center

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Inside the wire center there are bypass
relays driven by currents frorm
ring breaks or a station goes down, the station. If the
the relays do not get the drive current
released, carrying the problematic station to and are
be passed.
d) In 802.4 token but is physically linear
or free shaped but logically organized
Just after power on, a station is as-a
methodology for such a station to
not in the ring. The 802.4
standards rin
specify a complex
join the ring. Periodically, the
sOLICIT-SUCCESSOR frame token holder sends a
to solicit bids from stations
bids to enter within a "response window", willing to join. If no station
normal business follows.
station bids, it is included in the ring. If exactly on new
If more than one station bids, there will
collision. The token holder then runs be
an arbitration algorithm that
a RESOLVE-CONTENTION starts with broadcasting
frame.

8
e) Bits 8
20 16
01111110 Address Control Data Checksum 01111110
Fig: Frame format for bit-oriented
The HDLC frame has a starting flag byte protocols
(7EH) followed by an 8-bit Address
a terminal in a multi-terminal ine. The 8-bit to identify
control field is used for sequence numbers,
acknowledgements etc. The data field is
arbitrarily long. After the data is
field based on CRC-CCITT generator a 16-bit CRC
polynomial. The frame ends with
There are three kinds of frames Information, a flag byte.
-
Supervisory and Unnumbered.
5. a) How is CSMA a clear
improvement over ALOHA? How is it
by implementing SMA/CD? further improved
b) Suppose in a CSMA/CD LAN,
the maximum
usecond. If the LAN is operating in 10OMbps, end to end propagation delay is 25.6
length (in bytes) of the LAN? then what will be the minimum frame
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION
a) In both slotted and pure ALOHA,
a node's decision to transmit is made independently
of the activity of the other nodes attached
to the broadcast channel. In particular,
neither pays attention to whether another a node
node happens to be transmitting when it
to transmit,' nor
stops transmitting if another node begins begins
transmission. to interfere with its
Listen before speaking:
If someone else is speaking, wait until they are done.
channel before transmitting a frame To the
if from another node is currently being
transmitted
into the channel, a node
then waits ("backs off") a random amount of time and
Senses the channel. If the channel is then again
sensed to be idle, the node then begins frame
ransmission. Otherwise, the node waits another random
process. amount of time and repeats this
n CSMA, the "listen before speaking" principle is
employed. A node listens to the
nannel before transmitting. If a frame from another node is
d node currently being transmitted,
"backs off" for some (random) time before sensing if the
and so on. channel has become idle

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 POPULARPUBLICATIONS
additionally checke
employed. A node
"collision-detection" is another
In CSMA/CD, additionally with another frame transmitted by
channel "collides" repeats listening before
speaking.
whether a frame put on the again "backs off" and
channel. In such a case the node
octets.
RTT= S1.2 jusecond = 5120 bits 640
=
bMinimum frame length = (100 Mbps* 51.2 us)
oriented protocols?
between bit oriented and byte [MODEL QUESTION
6. What is the difference
put, you have a flag
Answer: is used to frame the bits sent. Simply transmission
flag and you end the
In bit oriented Protocol, a after the flag
are sent any length.
(OA111110) and the required bits can send any number of bits of
method you
again with a flag. Using this used. Say for example, you want
to
zero insertion method
as a flag.
Another important fact is the cannot do this because it will be interpreted
You stream can be
send the bit string 01111110. 5 consecutive l's as a standard, this bit
However, by adding a zero after as 011111010 and the receiver removes the
zero
the string
send. The transmitter sends
stores the data as 011
11110.
and bits at a
after 5 consecutive l's
oriented protocol) the receiver considers 8
(character communicating
In byte oriented protocol character. This system is used when
relevant ASCIl
time and figures out the which use ASCII characters exclusively. (All the
COP is
with printers and keyboards bits (256 characters). The main disadvantage of
characters can be covered by 8 arbitrary bits. Furthermore, in COP there are special
10 bits, synchronize
that you cannot send 9 or characters, e.g. SYN character which is used to
characters channel control They will
-

These characters cannot be transferred as data.

transmitter.
the receiver and the
characters.
be misread as control
[MODEL QUESTION
channel utilization?
What do you mean by techniques required? List three popular
b) Why are medium
access control
medium access control
techniques. of 200 m/u sec.
Data
CSMA/ CD LAN has a propagation speed
c) A 1 km 10 Mbps 'including 32 bits of header, checksum and other
frames are 256 bits long after a successful transition is reserved for the receiver
overhead. The first bit slot a 32 bit acknowledge frame. What is the
affective
to capture the channel t2 send
rate excluding overhead assuming there is no collusion.
data
Answer:
means channel throughput. average rate o
a) Channel utilization throughput or network.throughput is the
lncommunication networks,
over a communication channel. This data
may be deliveru
successful message, delivery
logical lik, or pass through a certain network node. The throughput
over a physical in or
measured bits , er second (bit/s or bps), and
sometimes in data packetsPo
usually
slot.
second or data-packets per time
also
communication protocol sub-layer,aA
Control (MAC) data
b) The Media Access speciieu
Control, is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer
known as the Medium Access
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 COMPUTERNETWORKS
the seven-layer OSI model
mechanisms that make (layer 2). It provides
it possible for addressing and channel access
within a multi-point several terminals control
network, typically or network nodes to communicate
network (MAN). a locäl area network
(LAN) or metropolitan area
CSMA
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA

c)Round trip propagation time=00mtrx

*=10m/usec
Transmission can 200
be divided into 6 stages.,
) Sender size cable 7, =
round trip propagation
time =10 usec.
ii) Data frame transmission 256
T=Mbps = 25.6 Mbps.
ii) Delay for last bit to reach the end
7000mtr
T=
200 -=5usec
mtr/ysec
iv) Acknowledgement frame
transmission, 7, =32bit/10Mbps=
v) Delay for last bit to reach 3.2 usec.
end
TT =5 uséc.
T=T +T, +T, +7, +T, +T, = 10+25.6+5+10+3.2+5
=58.5
usec.
Effective data rate26-32)bit
3.8=3.8 Mbps.
58.8 usec

8. Write down about IEEE

802.5 and FDD.
Answer: MODEL QUESTION
IEEE 802.5:
Token Ring is a LAN
protocol defined in the IEEE
in a ring and 802.5 where all stations
each station can directly hear are connected
neighbor. Permission transmissions only from
to transmit is granted by a message its immediate
the ring. (token) that circulates
around
Token Ring as defined
in IEEE 802.5 is originated
technologies. Both from the IBM Token
are based on the Token Passing technologies. Ring LAN
minor ways but generally compatible While them differ in
with each other.
Token-passing networks
move a small frame, called
Possession of the token a token, around the
grants the right to transmit. a node network.
information to send, it If receiving the token has
seizes the token, alters 1 bit no
into a start-of-frame sequence), of the token (which turns the
appends the information that token
Sends this information it wants to transmit, and
to the next station on the ring.
Circling the ring, While the information
no token is on the network, which means that frame is
ransmit must wait. Therefore, collisions other stations wanting to
cannot occur in Token Ring
networks.

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The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station,
which copies the information for further processing. The information frame continues to
Circle the ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The sending
station can check the returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and subsequently
copied by the destination.
Unlike Ethernet CSMA/CD networks, token-passing networks are deterministic, which
means that it is possible to calculate the maximum time that will pass before any end
station will be capable of transmitting. This feature and several reliability features make
Token Ring networks ideal for applications in which delay must be predictable and
robust network operation is important.
The Fiber Distributed-Data Interface (FDDI) also uses the Token Passing protocol.

FDDI:
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on fiber optic
lines in that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the
token ring protocol. In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network
can support thousands of useTs.
An FDD network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the primary ring
fails. The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity. If the secondary ring is not needed for
backup, it can also cary data, extending capacity to 200 Mbps. The single ring can extend the
maximum distance, a dual ring can extend 100 km (62 miles).
FDDI is a product of American National Standards Committee X3-T9 and conforms to the
open system interconnect (OSI) model of functional layering. It can be used to interconnect
add
LANs using other protocols. FDDI-II is a version of FDDI that adds the capability to
circuit-switched service to the network so that voice signals can also be handled. Work is
underway to connect FDDI networks to the developing Symchronous Optical Network..

alsesNbts)}

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