Participatory Methods in Use

Catalogue of PRA Methods:

1. Review of secondary sources
• Many references are accessible in libraries, reports and databases
and many documents can be downloaded from the internet.
• Time must be allocated for prior documentary studies in research
and development work
• There are 2 major types of resources:

Documents Folklore

➢ research and other official ➢ Mythology

and unofficial studies and ➢ Oral tradition
reports on socio cultural, ➢ Local and topical
political, ecological stories
conditions ➢ Proverbs and poetry
➢ national and area specific
stats
➢ tropical and area specific
articles from journals and
newspapers, archives and
files, aerial and satellite
photos and maps

• Examples: UN and World Bank Reports, figures oh human

development and poverty, women’s and men’s participation in
education, access to health services, etc

2. Direct Observation
• Observation of physical structures, social differences, behaviour,
action and symbols in solitude or with others with whom
observation are discussed provides important information for
posing Central questions
• Observation during all faces of a study contributes information on
persistence and change
• The shift in Development cooperation from top down
interventions towards grassroots participatory perspective
 provides a great demand for up to date process to appreciate
indigenous knowledge in a globalising world

3. Key Indicators
• An indicator is a qualitative or quantitative factor or unit of
information that provides a basis for assessing importance,
achievement, change or performance
Types of indicators:

Local indicators- local stakeholders’ National and global indicators- since indicators for objectives, for
criteria for what is more and less development studies are set in contexts achievements, outputs and
significant, eg. criteria for priority where social groups, geographical performance are integral tools when
crops, of poverty or well being, of areas, environment zones etc are logical Framework is applied in Planning
gender roles,etc analyzed and compared, it is necessary and monitoring development
to be familiar with the indicators that interventions
are applied at National and global level.

4. Semi structured interviews

• Question answers are open ended
• Interviewees are typically:
(a) key individuals
(b) focus groups or mixed groups

key individuals are people Focus groups, homogeneous or mix groups are relevant
anticipated to have particular when the Dynamics of the group situation is considered to
insight into or opinions about the provide additional Useful information. a group interview
topic under study. They may be with specialist may provide more and better information
ordinary people and not than could be obtained through a much more time
necessarily professional consuming exercise of individual interview with the same
specialists, the better educated. People.
those in power, or the officials.
For example- A mix group of young, Middle Aged and
For instance in participatory elderly women will provide more information about
poverty studies poor people knowledge attitude and practice of family planning than
themselves are the key people an homogeneous group
 5. ranking and scoring
• Ranking and scoring of problems and remedial action reflect
different interests between different people and power relation,
whether in small or large forums, wealth ranking of community or
National election influence the outcome
• There is a distinction between ranking (ordinal-putting in order)
and scoring (Cardinal- weighting differences). The scoring
techniques very between multiple choice, choosing between
alternatives with or without a fixed reference point graphical
techniques, etc
• The types of ranking that are most common in connection with
development studies include:
a. problem, preference and opportunity ranking
b. pairwise ranking
c. Matrix ranking or scoring
d. wealth and well being ranking or grouping

6. Construction and analysis of maps and models

Participatory mapping is used for Construction of Models Transects are cross sectional
providing distribution information i.e three dimensional maps or diagrams of an area.
relating to Limited physical space models of villages, they are constructed as a joint
and settlements housing and water exercise with local informants
sources etc maybe during walks through the area
Example- information on popular
preferred if the exercise for observing discussing and
distribution, demographic data,
has the objective of registering the endowments
infrastructure, natural resources
longer lasting and problems of the area
and social service distribution
demonstration

7. Diagramming
• Participated diagram is used for
a) summarizing empirical information for example in timeline
b) summarizing analysed information for example bar charts
and pie chart

• Types of Diagrams:
 Timelines are rough overviews Force field analysis is a simple Trend analysis emphasizes changes
of events of significance for the visual technique used to identify in local resource endowments,
history of the group or the area and analyse on the one side cropping patterns, Ecology, climate,
in question ‘driving forces’ and on the other physical and social infrastructure,
side ‘restraining forces’ which settlements, population distribution
affect the problem or situation migration, wealth, quality of life etc

Seasonal diagrams indicate annual Activity profiles and daily

variations or variations during other routines are made to summarise Venn diagrams are used to depict
relevant periods for vital factors of major activity trends for the participants sense of relations
production and reproduction. For individuals or groups on a daily between local groups or
example rain, labour availability, basis or over a longer time organisations
food availability, or prices periods

8. Case studies and stories

• Case studies concentrate on special cases. A critical case can be
defined as having strategic importance in relation to the general
problem for example in development studies. A critical case
should be a flagship intervention like poverty reduction promotion
or gender equality and the focus be on learning the maximum
lessons about intervention parameters, their relations, context, etc
from in-depth analysis.
• Case studies often container substantial element of
narrative. Narrative inquires develop descriptions and
interpretations of a phenomenon from the perspective of
participants, researchers and others.
• Life histories, oral or written stories told by key people function as
supplementary information or as in-depth case studies of
households, of groups and of events.

9. Drama, Games and role play

In many cultures drama is deeply ingrained and used to act out Games may be designed in accordance with social
sensitive issues often relating to violation of rights of marketing principles if the objective of the game is
minorities, poor people, dalits, the landless, woman widows, to motivate participants for an idea, a product or an
HIV/AIDS victims and on how to defend and reclaim rights aid package

Speaking in images and proverbs can sometimes bring one

closer to the truth while doing role plays can enrich
communication and be useful as training exercises
 10.Workshop, scenarios and possible futures
• Workshops have become a most favored method of
communication with different stake holders for collecting data and
sometimes for jointly analysing data.
• There are many types of workshops with different forms of
participation some resembling focus group discussions:
a) SWOT
b) AIC
c) Possible future workshops
d) Scenario workshops
e) Consensus conferences
f) Public hearing

SWOT- strength weakness AIC- appreciate influence In possible future workshops the
opportunities and threats control is a workshop based participant develop the scenarios and opt
workshop originate in method which brings for planning along the lines of one of
organizational analysis but diverse stakeholders these. they follow a standard sequence of
can easily be adjusted to suit together. AIC typically phases:
other purposes. SWOT is the involves three phases-
1. critical assessment and prioritization of
useful way to elicit looking at present realities
the main critical issues
participants’ ideas and the reason for present
retrospectively on what has issues and problems, 2. phase of imagination- brainstorming of
been the strength and brainstorming ideas about ideas and prioritization of the main
weakness of an intervention, the ideal situation and positive Idea
a learning process and for jointly discussing strategies
identifying priorities with of how to get from present 3 preparation of an implementation plan
due considerations to reality to the ideal vision after selection and Critical assessment of
threats ideas for solutions

Scenario workshops differ Consensus conferences have Public hearing, are a long
from future workshops in become a popular form of public established approach to involve
bringing people together to consultation using a technique the public in commenting on
discuss and priorities intended to bridge the gap forthcoming plans. hearing may
scenarios which may have between the general public, use the public media but will
been prepared by specialist experts and also often include public
or outsider. the scenarios are politicians. Consensus meeting arrangements where
used as visions and spur for conferences are often initiated dialogue takes place between
discussion. the topic should by politician who want civil decision makers, experts and
not be too narrow to deal evidence about sensitive issues public audience
with assessment and of public concern before taking
choices. political decisions.
 11.Triangulation
• It means looking at things from different point of view. it is a
method to overcome the problems that stem from studies relying
upon a single theory, a single set of data, from a limited sample
and from a single investigator .
• Triangulation helps to validate observations and information
• There are at least five types of triangulation:

Investigator Discipline
triangulation data triangulation can be divided triangulation
means that into Theory means that a
more than methodological triangulation problem is studied
one person (1) time triangulation- the by different
triangulation involves in which
Examines the influence of time is considered in disciplines. it
‘within method’ alternative or
same study design optimises the
triangulation that is completing
situation the same method (2) space triangulation- a typical theories are experience of the
used on different form of comparative study used in any different
occasions and one situation perspective if
(3) person triangulation- combined with
‘between method’
comparison of reactions at 3 levels investigator
triangulation when
of analysis: triangulation
different methods are
used in relation to the • the individual level
same object of the • the interactive level among
study people
• the collective level

12.Continuous analysis and reporting

• Continuous data analysis in the field and reporting on the spot can
be done in concert with local people, if not by and for people
themselves.
• The advantage of early continuous data analysis is that data gaps
surprising perspective worth pursuing are discovered at an early
age
13.Participate planning, budgeting, monitoring, evaluation and other self
surveys
• Participatory approaches to development work rest on all the
assumptions that:
a. ordinary people’s knowledge is different from but counts as
much as the expert
 b. people’s support for a development activity increases when
they are actively part of the decision making process
• Aim- people develop their own plan or product.
Eg- Map or a model showing physical structures, a narrative
document, a report, a prioritized budget or a time chart
• Self survey Methods used for participatory monitoring and
evaluation may include quantitative and qualitative data. Self
surveys entail community members undertaking the basic Data
Collection typically under the guidance of facilitator.
14. Do it Yourself
• Do it yourself rivers the classical Role i.e outsider-insider, observer-
observed, of the researcher and the researched.
• The outsider gets hands on knowledge from trying the activities
under the insider's instruction, the reversal of roles between the
insider and outsider prompts dialogue