EA 302

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL

ADMINISTRATION
MODULE 1: Introduction to Educational Management Concepts
Basic concepts i) Management
ii) Educational management
iii) Administration
iv) Educational administration
v) Organization
vi) Educational organizations
Management
The term management can be defined in various ways
a) As an activity, implies directing and instructing employees to do
an activity in order to achieve the predetermined organizational goal
or objective.
b) As a process, it is the process of planning, organizing,
coordinating, controlling and so on. Henry Fayol defined
management as to forecast and plan, organize, command, coordinate
and control.
Brech defined management as a social process which constitutes
planning, controlling, coordinating and motivating.
c) As a group is a group of people within the organization primarily
concerned with directing activities of the organization in order to
achieve organizational goal.
d) As a discipline, is a science and art which deals with knowledge,
techniques and principles which managers use in management.
Okumbe (1998) management is the process of designing, developing
and effecting organizational objectives and resources so as to achieve
the predetermined organizational goals. The manager determine the
goals of the organization, designs and develop the objectives and then
determine both human and material resources required for attainment
of these goals.

Educational Management
Educational management refers to the application of
management theory and practice to educational institutions. Or it is
the process of designing, developing and effecting educational
objectives and resources for the achievements of organizational goals.
Administration
Is the process of acquiring and allocating resources for the
achievement of the organizational goals. It is a delegated aspect of
management. It is concerned with interacting and controlling human
energy.
Management and administration are sometimes used interchangeably.
For example, Henry Fayol has used the term administration to
mean management because they all refers to controlling, coordinating
and supervising the activities of the organizations
Educational Administration refers to the process of acquiring
resources for the achievement of educational goals.

The differences between management and administration

Management is widely used in private sector where as administration
is used in public sector where work is done as a service to the society
with no profit motives.
Administration is restricted to professional areas such as teaching,
law, medicine and personnel are well trained in their areas of
specialization while Management is restricted to the areas which do
not require highly trained manpower and where on – the- job training
a major role play in the staff development
Organization
Chester Barnard defined organization as a system of
consciously/intentionally coordinated activities of two or more
persons. Etzion defined organization as a planned units deliberately
structures for the purpose of attaining specific goals. From these
definitions organization is defined as a group of people with common
interests who have come together for the purpose of achieving
specific goals. E.g. bank, church school, university, mosque

The Educational Organizations

Is a group of people in a given place whose efforts are deliberately
coordinated for the purpose of imparting knowledge, skills and
attitudes to students or pupils in order to achieve predetermined
educational goals. For example, schools, universities, colleges of
education.

The important factors/ components of organization

i) People
ii) Objectives/ goals
iii) Structures (i.e. the way organization is made)

The success or failure of the organization will depend on the

interrelationship between people, objectives/goals and structures
together with sufficient use of available resources.
General Functions of the Educational Manager
i) Planning i.e. setting goals and deciding how to achieve them
For example the goal the university is to educate students. The role of
the manager is to decide the best way to achieve the goal including --
determining the kind of programmes to be offered,

type of students to be recruited, kind of faculties to be hired,

The kind of buildings and equipments needed.

amount of money to be spent

Setting departmental objectives i.e. each department must have
objectives which together form school objectives.

Setting daily routine of the school. These daily routine may
include school general time table, school menu as well as school
calendar
ii) Organizing i.e. arranging tasks, people and other material
resources so as to accomplish the task/work
For example determined the tasks to be done by who determine
reporting hierarchy, departments, nature of instructors- full time or
part time lectures, who should teach what.

Employing teachers and non teaching staff

Appointing the heads of departments and other positions such as
academic, health, store keeping, sports and games.

-Specifying duties and responsibilities of the appointed officials

Purchasing supplies of food and teaching/ learning materials.

Conducting staff meeting, school assembly, school committee
meeting.
iii) Leading i.e. motivating, directing and influencing employees to
work hard to achieve the organization’s goals.

-to motivate faculty, staff, students, alumni/graduates, donors,
and the surrounding community to help the college
realize/understand its goals.

-to resolve conflicts

iv) Controlling i.e. monitoring performance, compare it with goals

and take corrective measures as needed.

Making sure that teaching and learning is conducted effectively.
That is teachers attend classes regularly, prepare scheme of work
and lesson plan

Taking disciplinary actions e.g. verbal warning, suspension and
dismissal of employees and students who misbehave.

Making frequent inspection of teaching and learning process

Making frequent testing and checking students healthy e.g.
pregnancy

Introducing remedial classes so as to ensure that the final
performance is good.

Establishing cut of points/passes marks.

Controlling the selection of personnel by setting qualification for
selecting someone into the job.
Drucker maintained that managers are the basics and scarcest
resource in an enterprise. Not every person in the organization can be
a manager, not everybody in the school can be a principal or head
master/mistress. The school administrators develop and establish
administrative processes, procedures and techniques that bring
together human and material resources so as to achieve educational
objectives in their organizations.
Therefore administration is an executive activity different from
policy making since it is concerned with implementation of the policy.

The most visible and critical functions of administration in

educational organization are;
i) Personnel administration
ii) Instructional programme administration
iii) Support service administration

Personnel Administration
Personnel administration refers to the management of human
resource in the organization. It involves administrative processes like
manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction,
staff development, appraisal of personnel, compensation and
collective bargaining.

Instructional Programmed Administration

The core function of the educational administrators is to ensure that
the programme of instruction is delivered. To give support to the
personnel (teachers) so as to enrich the curriculum. It refers to issues
of timetable, examinations, school calendar, scheme of work, lesson
plan.

The Support Service Administration

It is not the core administrative service, but it supports the
administration. It includes transport, food and catering services,
stores and storage functions, financial aspects, cleanliness, power
supply, water supply and tenders.
PERSPECTIVES THAT HAVE INFLUENCED MANAGEMENT OF
EDUCATION AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

The evolution of Management Thought

The industrial revolution marked the beginning of professionalization
of management. The invention of machines and the use of modern
means of transport brought workers together as employees in the
factories. The coordination of men and materials emerged as a
problem. It is that context that the idea of management was evolved
and pioneered by early writers such as
i) Adam Smith provided idea of management techniques for
coordinating men, money and materials in large scale organization
ii) Charles Babbage, an English Mathematician proposed that
certain principles of organization must exist that will apply to every
type of human enterprises that involves coordination of people and
resource so as to achieve the shared goals.
iii) Other influential people demanded more scientific management
methods. For example John Wharton financed the establishment
of the first school to train managers such that by 1911 management
was becoming a recognized area of academic study. It was out of this
idea that scientific management movement emerged.
Why study theoretical perspectives
i) To understand the present. When you view current management
practice, an understanding of history will help you understand why
they are still in favor whether for the right reasons or the wrong one.
ii) Guide to action. Knowing management perspectives help you
develop a set of principle, a blue print that will guide your actions.
iii) Source of new ideas. Being aware of various perspectives can
provide new ideas when you encounter new situations.
iv) Clues to meaning of your managers decision. It can help you
understand the focus of your organization, where the top managers are
coming starting.
v) Clues to meaning of outside events. It may allow you to
understand events outside organization that could affect it or you.

Classical school of thought

i) Scientific Management
Scientific management connotes the process of approaching
various aspects of the organization scientifically by using scientific
tools such as research, measurements and analysis. It arose due to the
need to increase productivity of workers. Scientific management
emphasized the scientific study of work methods to improve
productivity of individual worker. Frederick Winslow Taylor
(the father of scientific management) as a factory labour, supervisor
and chief engineer spent most of his time doing experiments on the
ways of increasing efficiency on the shop floor. From his experiments
he noticed that:
i) Management had no clear concept about worker-management
responsibility.
ii) Effective work standards were not applied
iii) No incentives were used to improve labour productivity
iv) Workers performed dual functions i.e. planning and performance
of their duty. This situation led to too much waste and inefficiency.
v) Systematic soldering or loafing existed on every hand i.e. people
worked at less than full capacity.
vi) Management decisions were based on past experience or rule of
thumb
vii) Workers were assigned work for which they had little or no
ability
viii) Management disregarded the truth that excellence in performance
and operation would mean a reward to both management and workers.
Assumptions of Scientific Management
i) Workers are motivated by economic incentives and limited by
physiology therefore they need constant supervision and direction to
make them work.
ii) Individuals could be programmed to be efficient like a machine.
In his book “Principles of Scientific Management of 1911, Taylor
developed principles of management which he believed that if used
properly managers would eliminate soldiering and hence increase
productivity.
Principles of Management
i) Evaluate a task by scientifically studying each part of the task
ii) Carefully select workers with the right abilities for the task
iii) Train workers and give them incentives to do the task with the
proper methods.
iv) Cooperation between workers and management to ensure that
work is done according to devised procedures
v) Equal division of work between management and workers each
group taking the work for which it is best suited for.
vi) Standardized conditions. Workers should be given standardized
conditions and appliances to accomplish the task.
vii) High pay for successful completion of tasks
vii) Loss in case of failure. Failure should be personally cost to
individual worker.
viii) Expertise in large organization. As organization become complex
tasks should be made so difficulty that it is accomplished by first rate
man
ix) Each person in the establishment should have a clearly defined
daily task which can be measured at the end of the day
Weaknesses of Scientific Management
i) He concentrated on repetitive muscular tasks
ii) Concentrated on the problem of workers and failed to deal with the
management.
iii) Based much on physiology ignoring the role of psychological and
sociological factors in making workers do their work better.
iv) The view that worker is an economic being who work for
economic gain is misleading because a worker is a social being with
social needs and other aspects like interests, aspiration, and goal
apart from organizational goal
v) Defining work and responsibility in a clear cut manner can result
into mindedness and unquestioned attitudes among employees
because it lets them know what is not expected of them.
Vi) Standardization and specialization reduces initiatives on the
part of workers (ability to imitate from others- the power or
opportunity to act before others do).
vii) One best way of managing organization. Psychologists argue
that workers differ from one another and there cannot be one best way
for all.
viii) Scientific management reduces worker to a machine. However in
today’s world there is a limit in production no matter how productive
you are.
ix) The approach creates organization difficult in adapting the new
circumstances i.e. changes. This is due to formalization that is often
unable to deal effectively with changes.
The influences of scientific Management Theory in the
management of education and school administration
Some of the principles advanced by Taylor and other contributors to
scientific management are practiced in educational organizations. For
example:
i) Specialization, teachers are assigned work according to their
areas of specialization
ii) Training; teaching profession requires both preliminary and
ongoing training in order to update teaching skills and knowledge.
iii) Standardized conditions and appliances. School
inspection is used as a major way of maintaining/controlling
education quality. Teachers are supplied with syllabuses, books and
other materials to facilitate their work.
iv) Economic motivation. In education institutions salary
increment and promotion are used as incentives to make employees
work hard.
v) Division of labour. In educational organizations departments
are created so as to ensure that each member has a role to play which
contribute to the attainment of organization goal
vi) The best way of performing a task. Educationists are
continually looking for the best way of teaching hence improving
performance.
vii) Discipline. In educational organizations teachers code of
conduct, terms of service and school rule are stipulated so as to
enhance teachers discipline. Deviant behavior are dealt with
accordingly
viii) Recruitment based on the ability and expertise. The
government hires teaching and non teaching staff on the basis of their
specialization and competence.

Administrative Theory
Another contributed to scientific management was Henri Fayol
(1841- 1925), a French mining engineer who occupied a top-
management position in the industry. He studied management
behavior and he was the first to identify the functions of management
/ administration i.e. planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating and controlling. Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick
modified Fayol’s functions and came up with seven functions;
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and
budgeting ( POSDCORB). Fayol also was the first to systematize
management. In his book General and Industrial Management /
Administration Industrielle et Generale of 1916 he provided the 14
principle guidelines to effective and efficient administration of the
organization.
Generally Fayol addresses two important questions
a) What are the basic functions of management?
b) What are the basic principles which guide the design, the creation
and the maintenance of the organization structure?
Fayol’s 14 Principles of Administration or the
Universal Principles of Administration
1. Division of work or specialization. Every employee should
be assigned only one type of work for which he/she is competent.
2. Authority and responsibility. I.e. ability to give lawful order
and to exact obedience. Authority is based on ones position in the
organization as well as personality of individual e.g intelligence,
knowledge, experience etc.
3. Discipline. This implies obedience and respect between
management and employees based on clear and fair agreement e.g.
observance of established rules and regulation.
4. Unity of command (one man one superior). Employees should
receive order from one superior at a time.
5. Unity of direction. Organization activities should have one
central authority and one plan of action.
6. Subordination of individual interests to general interests.
The interests or goal of the organization must prevail upon the
individual goal or interests.
7. Remuneration of personnel. Salaries as the price of services
rendered by employees should be satisfactory to both employees and
employer.
8. Span of control. Each superior at any level of the organization
should have limited number of subordinate to control.
9. Scalar chain. Refers to chain of superiors ranging from the
highest rank to the bottom or it is the unbroken chain of command
from the top to the bottom of the organizational structure.
10. Order. Proper arrangement of material resources and personnel
in the organization while each aspect placed in its right position for
proper functioning of the organization.
11. Equity. Equity and equality of treatment of employees.
Discrimination should not prevail when dealing with employees.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Enhancement of job
security improves performance of employee. Employee requires some
time to get used to the new so as to do it well.
13. Initiatives. Allowing subordinates to provide suggestions for
improvement of the implementation of the organizational plan/plans.
14. Esprit de corps. Team work is important in the organization.
Administrator should harmonize individual interests so as to achieve
organizational goals.

QN
What is the Utility of the Administrative Theory?
What are its strengths and weaknesses?

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
The concept of bureaucracy has been defined in various ways.
i) According to Weber bureaucracy is a type of administrative
structure developed through rational authority. It is a form of
organization which is characterized by;
a) Functional specialization
b) Clear line of hierarchical of authority
c) Expert training of managers and administrators.
d) Decision making based on rules and regulation
e) Appointment and promotion based on merit rather than favoritism
Bureaucracy is a formal system of organization and administration
designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.
ii) It is an organization of non elected officials of a government or
organization who implements the rules, laws, and functions of their
institutions. It is characterized by red tape .i.e. excessive use of
administrative procedures. For example for one thing to be done it
has to pass through different heads of departments.
iii) It is an administrative structure with offices arranged in a
hierarchy with a higher hierarchy having authority to supervise lower
hierarchy and each office is run by definite rules and regulations
which are impersonal.
THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY
The concept of bureaucracy as we know it today is attributed to Max
Weber (1864 – 1920) a German sociologist also known as the father
of bureaucracy. He wrote this theory during industrial revolution
when Germany was striving to become a World power. For the
purpose of increasing productivity in the organization Weber
developed principles of bureaucracy to ensure efficiency and
effectiveness of the organization.
i) A well defined hierarchy of authority. Bureaucratic
organization is divided in levels such that the higher level controls the
lower level. This provides a clear chain of command which facilitates
control and order throughout the organization.
ii) Formal rules and standardized procedures and norms.
Rules and regulations govern the behavior of employees. They ensure
compliance/conformity, uniformity of actions and the continuity of
the organizational activities.
iii) A clear division of labour and specialization. Tasks,
duties and responsibilities are divided and each individual has a task
to perform based on his/her area of specialization.
iv) Impartiality (unbiased) or impersonal orientation.
Equality of treatment of all employees by ruling the organization on
the basis of rules, regulation and procedures and not on personal
feelings.
iv) Competence. Technical knowhow, knowledge, and expertise
form the basis of decision making, job assignment, and promotions.
v) Security of employment. Employment in the formal
organization is a permanent career. Therefore employees have to be
protected from arbitrary dismissal from job and denial of promotion.
vi) Separation of official and private property. Each
official neither owns part of the organization property nor use the
office for private gain.
Note: These principles are called ideal type because in practice it is
difficult to achieve them but each organization is expected to work
towards maximization of these.
NB
Authority is power to hold people accountable for their actions and
to make decision concerning the use of organizational resources. It
gives managers the right to direct and control behavior of
subordinates.
Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken
under different circumstances to achieve specific goal. It is a set of
written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task.
Norm’s unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how
people should act in a particular situation and are considered
important by most members of a group or organization.

HUMAN RELATION APPROACH

Human relation was defined by Ogunsula in 1973 as the
integration of people into a work situation in a way that motivates
them to work together productively, cooperatively and with
economic, psychological and social satisfaction. It was developed in
1930s as a reaction to scientific management. The theory focused on
factors that influence human behavior at the work place. It states
that increased productivity is attributed to specific attention the
worker receives. Human relations also emphasizes that productivity of
the worker is a product of psychological and socio-psychological
influences. Hence productivity, efficiency and effectiveness are
social and not mechanical issues. It emphasizes on group dynamic,
democratic supervision, employer interaction with employees,
involvement of workers in decision making and personnel
relations.
The most influential people were, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker
Follet, Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger. Other contributors were
Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor.

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

It focused on how managers should behave to motivate employees
and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed
to the achievement of organizational goals.
Pioneered by Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Packer Follet and
Elton Mayo

I. Hugo Munsterberg (a psychologist, also a father of industrial

psychology)
He suggested three ways of improving industrial production
a) Study the job and identify the right people to do the job
b) Identify psychological conditions under which employees do their
work best
c) Design strategies to make employees follow management interests.
2. Mary Parker Follet (An American social worker and social
philosopher). She emphasized on democratic ways of leading
employees. She was writing in response to scientific management
which ignored the human side of the organization. She emphasized
that organizations should be democratic with managers and workers
working cooperatively. That is workers should be involved in job
analysis and be allowed to participate in the work development
process
His contributions
a) Organization should be operated like communities. I.e.
management and workers should work together in harmony.
b) Integration in solving conflict management and workers should
talk over differences and find solutions to the problems that would
satisfy both parties.
c) Authority should go with knowledge that is work process should
be controlled by knowledgeable workers while managers act as
facilitator and not monitor or supervisor.

3. Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger are known for the research

at the Western Hawthorne Electric Plants. The aim of the research
was to determine factors influencing productivity in the organization.

Experiments at Western Electric Hawthorne Plant/ Hawthorne

Studies
a) Experiment one determined the relationship between lighting and
workers productivity. Or investigated into whether workplace lighting
level affected worker productivity.
The results of the findings indicated that productivity increases as the
lighting level decreased until employees were unable to see what they
were doing after which the performance naturally declined.
b) Later on other variables were altered. Five women were supervised
and were given privileges such as right to leave the work place
without permission, rest periods, free lunch, and variation in pay level
and work day.
The result was that production increased leading Mayo and colleagues
to hypothesize what came to be known as the Hawthorne
effects
The Hawthorne Effects
Employees worked harder if they received added attention, if they
thought that managers cared about their welfare, and that
supervisors paid special attention to them.
Other Contributors to Human relation Approach
Douglas McGregor and the theory X and theory Y held
McGregor revealed that managers hold two attitudes towards workers
i.e. negative/ pessimistic view which he called theory X and
positive/optimistic views which he called theory Y.
In theory X managers view workers as
i) Irresponsible/ dislike work and will avoid it if they can,
ii) Lack ambitions and wish to avoid responsibility.
iii) Want to be lead rather than to lead.
Because of his dislike for work must be closely controlled, directed
and supervised by means of “the carrot and stick” reward and
punishment to make them work.

Its implication to Management

Theory X manager
• Design work setting to maximize their control over workers and
minimize workers control of their work.
 • They develop rules, standard procedures and a system of reward
and punishment to make people do their work.
• They give little or no autonomy to workers because they believe
that workers do not desire cooperation
• Managers’ role is to closely monitor, control and to supervise
workers to contribute to the production process.

These assumptions explain part of human behavior in the

organization. There are other behaviors that need to be explained.

Theory Y represents the outlook of Human relation proponents i.e. an

optimistic view of workers
i) An average human is capable of accepting responsibility
ii) Workers exercises self direction and self control
iii) Commitment to objective is a function of rewards associated with
achievements
iv) Workers are imaginative/inventive and creative and so they can
contribute towards achievement of the organizational goals.
The organization is seen as a social entity/unit with supportive
interaction which makes members feel that organizational objectives
are of personal importance to them.
Implication to Management
Theory Y manager
• Create a work setting that encourages commitment to the goal of
the organization
• Decentralize authority and give more control over job by workers

Abraham Maslow and the Hierarchy of Human Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow in 1943 was one of the first researchers to study
about motivation and developed his hierarchy of needs theory. He
contended that human being is a wanting animal. As soon as his
need is satisfied, another appears in its place and that these needs are
arranged in levels according to their importance in the hierarchy.
1. Physiological needs. Are the basic human physical needs like food,
shelter, clothing, comfort and protection, In the organization
employer can offer adequate ventilation, heat, water, base pay
2. Safety needs. Needs related to physical safety, protection against
threats, danger and deprivation. In the organization these needs
include safety working conditions, job security, health, and retirement
benefits.
3. Social needs. The needs to belong, to give and receive friendship,
acceptance and affection. In the organization these needs include
offering interaction with others, participate in workgroup, good
relations with supervisors.
4. Esteem needs. Status, self respect, reputation, recognition and self
confidence. The organization offer recognition, merit pay, and
employee participation in making decisions.
5. Self-actualization needs. Include needs for self fulfillment,
increasing competence, using abilities to the fullest. The organization
can offer training, creativity, promotions, employee control over jobs.
Importance of Maslow hierarchy of needs theory to
motivate employees.
It shows that workers have needs beyond that of paying salary. The
managers need to meet level 1 and 2 needs to make employees not to
preoccupy them. And then give chance to employees to fulfill their
higher level needs in a way that also advance the goal of the
organization.
Conclusion
The HRA rejects simplistic approaches to motivation at the lower
level of human needs. It contents that management should be
concerned with the whole person and should recognize the complex
aspects of human motivation and satisfaction.

ASSUMPTIONS OF HUMAN RELATION APPROACH

i.) Mechanistic approaches are inadequate in managing people in the
organization because human beings are motivated and de-motivated
by the environment
ii) Understanding human factor is very important in improving
productivity
iii) The average employee in any organization has complex of needs,
values and attitudes which affect job performance and ultimately
productivity.
iv) The threats of punishment are not the only way to achieve the
goal. People on their own achieve goals if they are committed

THE INFLUENCES OF HUMAN RELATION APPROACH TO

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Human relation approach calls for democratization of educational
administration. The administrator should promote relationship of
employees by creating harmony and morale of the staff through.
Being accessible, take prompt action on request, feedback on
employee performance, willingness to listen to employees problems,
being cheerful, polite, and considerate and offering assistance to settle
problem.
In the school the school master must: ensure security of teachers
and students, improve work environment, ensure sense of
belonging, give fair treatment, make employee feel important
and be part of the policy formulation, maintain respect.
 MODULE TWO
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES

A: The System Theory

What is a system?
The concept of system was first used by a biologist Ludwig Von
Bertalanffy who described biological system as an entity which has
relationship to their environment and consists of interacting and
interdependent subparts that contribute to the purpose of the whole.
Kaufman defined a system as the sum total of parts working
independently and working together to achieve the required
results/outcomes.
Granger defined a system as a whole that consists of parts and sub
parts which have dynamic (active) relationship among them and with
the whole. The idea of hierarchy of parts – whole relationship is
fundamental to the understanding of the system theory and
organization as system.
Generally a system is a set of interrelated parts that operate together to
achieve a common purpose.
System Theory
System theory view organization as a system which is formed by parts
with specific functions but depend each other. A change in one part
may result in a change in the other part. The system theory discusses
the organization in terms of:
i) Synergy (cooperation and interaction of parts).
ii) Communication flow among and within sub system and the larger
system
iii) Feedback
iv) The degrees of openness or closeness against external
environment
A system is made up of four parts
i) Inputs i.e. people, money, information, equipment and materials
required to produce an organization’s good or service Whatever goes
into the a system in input.
ii) The transformational processes. The organizations
capabilities in management and technology that are applied to convert
inputs into outputs.
iii) Output are the products, services loses employee satisfaction,
discontent and the like that are produced by the organization.
Whatever comes out the system is output.
iv) Feedback is information about the reaction of the environment to
the outputs which affects the inputs.

B: School Organization and External Environment

Schools are seen as systems, sub system,
A school is a system by itself since it is made up of a number of sub
systems such a classrooms/grade levels, subject departments,
students friendship/social groups and school committees.
A school organization is a subsystem of the District school system.
There is interaction between schools at the district level but the
interaction does not always lead to interdependence among schools.
Therefore the synergy between schools is low. This situation is
referred to as loosely coupled system. However within the school
and its sub systems such as classes, departments, school
committees, the interaction is very strong. The cooperation and
interaction of teachers, parents and the community is high which
enable the school to function well.

Systems are either closed or open

Nearly all organizations are at least open systems
• Closed system is the one which self contained and thus not
affected by changes occurring in its external environment. It
ignores the external influence that may affect the behavior of
workers hence productivity.
• Open system continually interacts with its environment. It is a
system which takes in resources from its external environment
and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are
sent back to the environment where they are bought by
customers.
Schools are described as open system since they depend on
environment for several things e.g. the flow of information, personnel
and other resources. A school as a system is divided into four parts
Inputs =students, Teacher, Support staffs, Community norms and
values, Financial resources, an appropriate curriculum, physical
resources,
Process= curriculum organization, teaching methods, decision
making, communication, financial allocation, facilities, effective use
of time, order and discipline, consideration of individual learning e.g.
slow learners, assignments attendance, quality of examinations,
Output= students attitudes, skills, knowledge, staff attitude
(morale), satisfaction, motivation
Feedback Are the customers buy or not buy the products?
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN SYSTEM
1. Environmental awareness. They recognize the
interdependence between the system and the external environment.
That when you change the organization the environment is affected
and when there is a change in the environment the organization is
affected more.
2. Feedback. The open system continuously receives information
from the environment which helps it to adjust.
3. It is cycle of events where there are inputs, process, output and
feedback.
4. It works hard to avoid entropy (state of death or destruction) it
manifests a negative entropy i.e ability to maintain itself/repair
5. Equilibrium/ steady state (dynamic homeostasis) or balance
of maintenance and adaptive activities. Open system want to
maintain their form and when there is a change of environment the
organization adapt to a new situation or changes in the environment.
6. Equifinality means there are different ways towards achieving
goals
 MODULE 3
EVOLVING CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
A: Processes and Tasks
Educational management can be defined as a process
Educational management refers to the process of designing,
developing and effecting educational objectives and resources for the
achievements of organizational goals. If management is made up of
processes we can raise a question.
What are essential processes for designing, developing, effecting
educational objectives and resources for the achievement of
organizational goals?
In answering these questions we have to look at
management as a process
Henri Fayol was the first theorist to describe the process in
which administrator/managers perform their tasks, that is planning,
organizing, coordinating, controlling and commanding.
Luther Gullick examined administration in terms of the
functions performed by chief executive in the organization i.e.
planning, organizing, staffing, directing coordinating, reporting, and
budgeting.
Gregg (1957) examined management process in education and
concluded that management process in education is decision-making,
planning, organizing, influencing, coordinating and evaluating.
Koontz (2005), examined managerial processes carried out by
managers and concluded that managerial processes were Planning,
Organizing, Staffing, Leading, Controlling.
Therefore management has been conceptualized as a process which is
present in all organized activities.
Educational management can be defined as task area
Also we can define management in terms of tasks which are done by
the administrators so as to achieve the goals of the organization.
Campbell et al (1971) identified seven task areas i.e. school-
community relationship, curriculum organization, pupils’ personnel,
staff personnel, physical facilities, finance and business management,
and organization structure.
Hoy and Miskel (1996) listed seven task areas: curriculum
and instruction, negotiation, physical facilities, finance and business,
pupil personnel, evaluation and supervision, staff development and
public relations.

PUPIL/STUDENTS PERSONNEL
• Admission of pupils/students
• Orientation of new pupil’s i.e showing the school facilities,
educating the on school rules and regulations, their rights and
responsibilities.
• Maintaining student discipline, reporting pupils’ progress,
organizing classes.
• Maintaining students record
• Guidance and counseling
• Maintaining pupils attendance register
SCHOOL CURRICULUM
It includes instructional programmes and extra-curricular activities
like clubs and societies. Activities involved in implementing school
curriculum are:
• Designing and developing courses
• Determining goals or purpose of the course
 • Promoting changes in the curriculum and instructions
• Forming subject associations or clubs
• Preparation/acquisition of materials for implementation of
curriculum
• Division of teaching load among the teaching staff
• Preparing the school time-table and teaching schedules
• Monitoring and supervising the teaching and learning process
• Measurement and evaluation- preparing examinations/test,
administering, marking and reporting
SUPPORT SERVICES
• Ordering and purchasing instructional materials and other
supplies such as books, food, cooking utensils
• Storing materials
• Providing recreational, health and security services
• Keeping record of receipts and distribution of materials
• Accounting for funds, equipments and other materials received
FINANCE
• Mobilization of financial resources
• Establishing policies for distribution of fund
• Budget preparation
• Administering the budget
• Acquisition of financial resource for education
• Appraising the budget
SCHOOL PHYSICAL FACILITIES
• Determining specific needs for school facilities
• Providing required facilities
• Keeping school facilities clean e.g. school buildings,
furniture
 • Ensuring proper use of school facilities
• Constant maintenance of school facilities
• Construction and renovation of school buildings to meet
required standards
STAFFING AND STAFF RELATIONS
Activities done by the educational manager include:
• Recruiting and selecting staff
• Induction of new staff
• Providing in-service training
• Maintaining good staff relations
• Supervising non academic and academic staff
SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS
The managerial tasks involved are:
• Involving community members in school affairs
through the school boards
• Informing parents/community about the progress of
the school
THE ROLES OF ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL
Personnel administration is the field of study which
deals with management of people at work. It is concerned with
procurement, developing, maintaining and utilizing a labour
force so as to achieve the goal of the organization.
1. PROCUREMENT i.e. hiring the required number of suitable
persons to fill the various positions in the organizations. It
involves: manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement
of personnel.
i) Manpower planning
These are activities that personnel administrator performs so as
to determine the current and future human resource needs.
The projection of the needed staff depends on:
 The demographic structure of the population
 The number of children who expect to start schooling or
move from one level to another
 Trends in previous demands of school opportunities
 Programmes expected to be introduced
 Teacher-pupils/students ratio to be achieved
ii) Recruitment
Is the process of locating and attracting qualified applicants
for jobs open in the organization. It involves identification
and description of the positions to be filled, advertising and
encouraging persons to apply and collecting information on
applicants. There are two sources of recruitment:
a) Internal source- promotion i.e. shifting employee to a
higher level. Transfer- shifting employee from one section
or branch to another of the same rank. It involves no
significant change in the pay, status and responsibility of
the employees
b) External source- advertisement in newspapers,
iii) Selection
Refers to the process of screening job applicants to hire the best
candidate. Selection procedures include:
a) Background information (education level, working
experience etc,
b) Interviews
c) Paper and pencil tests which measure the ability to do
the job.
d) Physical ability test to measure physical strengths and
stamina of applicants,
e) Performance tests measure the ability of applicant to perform
a task e.g. a secretary is given a typing task.
e) Reference test i.e. applicants are required to provide
references from formers employers or other knowledgeable
persons (college instructors, advisors) who knows the applicants
abilities, skills and other personal characteristics.
iv) Placement
Is the process of matching the candidates with the job in the
organization. That is every selected candidate is assigned a job
most suitable to him. The aim of placement is to increase
efficiency of work and employee satisfaction. Correct placement
helps to reduce labour turnover and absenteeism.

v) Training, appointment and orientation

Training helps the new members to acquire knowledge, skills
they need so as to be effective performer of their current job.
Two types of training classroom instruction and on-the-job
training.
If the selected have the required qualification they will be
appointed and provided with orientation to the work
environment, to the equipments, to the fellow workers and to the
policies guiding their appointment and performance.
Personnel development, promotion and termination
2. Development
Includes improving the knowledge and skills of personnel for
efficient performance of their jobs. This includes in-service
training, work shop and seminars. Two types of development:
varied work experience and formal education.
i) Performance Appraisal
Is the evaluation of employee’s job performance and
contribution to the organization. The types of performance
appraisal:
Trait appraisal, that is assessment of employees’ personal
characteristics like skills, abilities or personality;
Behavioral appraisal that is assessment of how workers
perform their jobs, the actual action and behavior that workers
exhibit/show on the job.
Results appraisal that is assessment of the actual
results/outcome of work behaviors.

Objective and subjective appraisal

Objective appraisal is based on number e.g. number of
students passed or failed, number of times late, numbers of
topics taught etc.
Subjective appraisal is based on manager’s perception of
traits, behaviors’ or results. Since it is based on managers
perception there is a chance of being inaccurate.
Who appraise performance?
Individual worker (self), Peers, Customers/clients, Supervisors,
subordinates.
ii) Promotion
Promotion should base on both performance and professional
development.
3. Compensation
Involves determination of equitable remuneration (payment) of
personnel for their contribution to the objectives of the
organization through job evaluation, wage and salary
administration, bonus. Compensation can be paid in monetary or
non monetary units
Termination
To be fair both professional skills development and performance
should be given equal weight when making decision for
promotion and termination. Personnel administrator should
assist people who retire.
4. Integration
Implies reconciling (merging) the interests of personnel with the
organization objectives through collective bargaining, grievance
procedures, discipline, suggestion scheme so as to create mutual
understanding and cooperation. (Collective bargaining is
the negotiation between labour unions and managers so as to
resolve conflicts and disputes about important issues such as
working hours, wages working conditions and job security).
5. Welfare, which is protecting the physical and mental health
of employees. Various benefits and services are provided for the
health, safety, and welfare of personnel. Good working
conditions, cafeteria, rest rooms, education of children,
recreational facilities, insurance, house loans are examples of
welfare measures.
6. Keeping personnel records regarding the attendance,
seniority, performance of personnel
 MODULE 4
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES IN EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEMS
PLANNING
Is a course of action to be taken in the future. It identifies the
objective to be achieved in future and steps necessary to achieve
them. Henry Fayol defined a plan as the study of the future
and the arrangement of the plan of action.
Characteristics of planning
1. Planning is goal oriented, that is it seeks to achieve certain
objectives of the organization
2. Planning is looking ahead that is it is done for the future
3. Planning is an intellectual process. It is not mere guess work
for it involves rational thinking or critical thinking
4. Planning involves choices. That is a process of choosing
among alternatives.
5. It is designed for efficiency. Sound planning leads to
accomplishment of desired objectives at minimum cost.
6. It is pervasive/Omnipresent. Planning is the function of every
manager irrespective of his position and level in the
organization.
7. It is a continuous process/ functions. Planning is a never-
ending function due to the ever changing environment of
business.
RATIONALE FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
1. Scarcity and uneven distribution of resources. Therefore
planning is needed so as to select the most important activity in
which the available resource could be directed into and to
equitably distribute it.
2. Planning facilitate management by objective because it guide
the action to be followed for achievement of goal. It eliminates
aimless activity.
3. It brings order in place of chaos. Planning makes systematic,
integrated and orderly efforts possible and avoids random
activity, duplication of work and overlapping efforts.
4. Planning minimizes uncertainty and risk as it enable
educational organizations to assess the future and get prepared
for meeting future challenges.
5. Increases efficiency of educational management and
administration. It helps eliminate all wastes and achieve
optimum utilization of available resources because through
planning goals are set, problems are identified, solutions are
developed and decision on strategies for the implementations
and means of accountability are made.
6. It facilitates control i.e. provides the standards against which
the actual performance can be measured and evaluated
7. Attraction of both local and foreign investors into the
educational sector. Many investors put their money in areas
where policies and goals are clear or where the educational plan
aims at promoting efficiency, transparency, accountability and
responsibility.
PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Political barrier
Educational planners in developing countries are rarely given
opportunity to offer expert input before politicians make overly
pronouncements. For example in 1970s Tanzania and Nigeria
made decisions to attain Universal Primary Education (UPE) in
less than five years. However they failed to translate the policies
into action. As a result the process has taken over 30 years
without achieving the target.
External vs. internal experts
Many developing countries underutilized their local experts in
favor of foreign experts because they supplied funds. The
problem is most of the foreign experts lacked expertise in
education planning and when the external experts are withdrawn
local experts lack capacity to implement and sustain externally
supported plans and programmes.
Lack of leadership
In many developing countries appointment of strategic position
in the ministry of education are not based on transparency
criteria of merit as a result the planning sections are staffed by
people who never care the significance of expertise in preparing
sound educational plans.
Tenure is not secure for example in Tanzania between 1997 and
2001 there were four changes of permanent secretaries and five
changes of Directors of Planning Section. This affects official
commitment to the plans or programmes because the tenure is
insecure and this tempts many officials to promote personal
interests over the public interests because of uncertainty of their
future.
Lack of information and Data
Education planning in many developing countries lack reliable
demographic, economic and social indicators data. Reasons for
this state of affairs:
i) Lack of sufficient fund to conduct comprehensive surveys
upon which we can build data banks that can be relied upon
planning. Many developing countries do not have accurate data
about number of teachers employed, or on payroll funds,
number of children enrolled, dropouts, and deaths.
ii) Lack of adequate means of communication and transport
affects the collection and updating of data due to inaccessibility
of some areas by car or by telephones.
Over-centralization of the education system
Over-centralization of the education system hinders effective
implementation of plans. In bigger countries like Tanzania,
Nigeria with good number of schools.
The introduction of multi-party system
iv) The introduction of multi-party system has influenced the
promotion of democracy but also has affected educational
planning and development in the third world countries. Some of
the political parties have been influencing their members from
participating in community activities by saying that the
government can provide those needs if only resources are
located rationally.

ORGANIZING
To organize is to divide tasks into manageable units and
defining formal relationship among persons (structures) so that
they work as one body for attainment of common objective. It is
the process of assigning activities to individuals and defining
authority and responsibility.
Is to create a structure of working relationship that allows
organizational members to interact and cooperate so as to
achieve the organizational goals.
Steps that are involved in organizing
1. Determining activities to be performed so as to achieve
the goal. The activities to be done will depend on the nature of
the organization. In educational organization the activities may
include teaching, learning, research, and consultancy
2. Grouping activities into manageable units so that they can
be assigned to individuals. In educational organizational
related activities are grouped into the same departments.
While grouping activities the following things should be taken
into consideration:
i) Specialization so that work is done efficiently
ii) Grouping activity should facilitate coordination among
departments
iii) It reduces administrative expenditure
iv) It facilitates control over the performance of individuals
v) Adequate attention to be paid to every activity
vi) The nature of activity should be considered
vii) The number, needs, preferences and limitation of employee
should be taken into account.
3. Assigning duties to different individuals. Each person
should be given the job best suited to him/her.
4. Delegation of authority. Each person should be given the
authority to perform the assigned task.
5. Coordination of activities. The activities and efforts of
individuals should be coordinated and the relationship between
different positions should be defined and each individual should
understand a person whom he/she is supposed to receive or give
order.
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZING
Organization is the framework through which managers operate.
Sound organization ensures:
i) Efficient administration. Enable the management to delegate
responsibility to lower levels for routine functions. It avoids
confusion, delays and duplication of work and overlapping of
efforts.
ii) Growth and diversification. It helps the organization to
keep various activities under control. It increases the capacity of
the organization to undertake more activities without dislocation
iii) Optimum use of human resources. Sound management
ensures that every employee is placed on the job for which
he/she is best suited. Such a matching of jobs and individuals
helps in better use of human talents.
iv) Coordination and communication. Organization creates
clear cut relationship among positions and helps to ensures
mutual cooperation among individuals. It also specifies channels
of communication among different members of the organization.
v) Training and development. It encourages initiatives and
creative thinking on the part on the part of employees. It
facilitates development of managerial talents at lower levels
through adequate delegation of authority.
COORDINATION
It is the orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of
action in the pursuit of common goals. It involves unifying,
integrating and harmonizing the activities of different
departments and individuals for the achievements of common
goals.
Techniques of coordination
The following techniques can be used for achieving coordination
i) Goal should be clearly defined so that every employee
understands the overall objectives and the contribution of his job
to these objectives.
ii) Proper policies and programmes help to create uniformity
of action which facilitates coordination.
iii) Effective communication. Good communication is key to
coordination Formal communication channels should be clear
and informal contacts should be encouraged.
iv) Effective leadership and supervision helps to unite the
actions by guiding the efforts of individuals.
v) Clear line of authority (order giver and order receiver)
facilitates mutual cooperation which is essential for effective
coordination.

COMMUNICATION
What is communication?
Is the sharing of communication between two or more
individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.
Meaningful understanding is possible in a situation where the
people you communicate understand the language and that the
receiver is mentally and psychological able to receive that
information.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The process of communication consists of the following steps
i) The sender is a person who conveys the message. He may be
a speaker, writer or an actor. He formulates the message which
he wants to convey.
ii) The message is the information /ideas which the sender
wants to communicate.
iii) Encode is the process through which the sender translates
the message into symbols, words or other forms to make the
receiver understand the message.
iv) Channel/medium. The encoded message is transmitted
through channel which is called communication media. The
media could be phone call, letter, memo, or face to face
communication.
v) The receiver is a person who receives the message e.g. the
listener, reader, or observer.
vi) Decode is the process through which the receiver interprets
so as to draw meaning from it.
vii) The feedback is the response of the message from the
receiver to the sender. The receiver decides what message to
send to the original sender who becomes a receiver.
COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION
Organizational communication refers to communication which
takes place among groups of people within the organization.
THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are two types of communication
i) Formal communication
ii) Informal communication
FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Refers to the transmission of official messages through the chain
of command. The path of formal channel is determined by the
management and it is associated with the status, or position
between the communicator and the receiver. In most cases
formal communication is in writing such as letters, memos,
which involves transmission of order, instructions and decisions.
Formal communication flow in three directions:
i) Downward
ii) Upward communication
iii) Horizontal communication
Downward communication means transmission of messages
from higher authority to lower level in the form of order and
instruction.
Upward communication refers to transmission of message
from lower level to the higher level in the form of suggestions,
grievances, appeals, reports etc.
Horizontal communication refers to exchange of information
among persons of the same status or levels e.g. communication
between faculty deans or heads of department in educational
sector.
Advantages of formal communication
Formal communication has the following advantages:
i) Maintains authority and status of the senior staff
ii) It helps to fix responsibility to subordinates
iii) It keeps the management informed about attitudes and
performance of workers
iv) It helps in the coordination of different activities.
Disadvantages
i) It tends to be slow in the flow of information
ii) It is rigid and rule bound
iii) It leads to overload of work for higher authority
iv) It does not provide enough opportunities to workers to
express their opinion freely.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Informal communication refers to the communication among
people through informal channels. It is built around
interpersonal relations such as employees who share common
hobbies, hometowns, lunch breaks, family ties. It tends to be
spontaneous, implicit and flexible where as formal
communication is explicit, rigid and direct.
Advantages
i) It operates very fast. Therefore it is useful when information
is to be sent quickly
ii) It is flexible and dynamic and therefore reacts quickly to
changing circumstances
iii) It provides opportunity to workers for self expression i.e
during the period of insecurity or uncertainty people can express
their fears more freely through informal channels (grapevines).
iv) it helps to know what is happening in the organization.
Workers resort to informal communication when there are
barriers in the formal communication
v) it helps to fill gap in the formal communication system.
Managers use grapevines when they find it difficult to collect
information from workers.
Disadvantages
i) it is disorderly and unpredictable
ii) it often carries inaccurate information half-truths, distorted
information/facts and even rumours. Therefore, it is highly
unreliable
iii) It is not possible to pinpoint its origin and fix responsibility
for mis-communication
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Refers to the pattern of interpersonal communication among
members of the organization. There are five common
communication networks
i). Chain network communication flow either down wards or
upwards in a defined chain of command. For example
information moves from the principal to the deputy principal to
the heads of departments to the course coordinator to the course
instructor.

ii) Wheel network: information flow from the subordinates to

the centrally placed supervisor or from the spatially arranged
subordinates. There is no interaction between subordinates e.g
communication between permanent secretary and REO or DEO
and heads of schools

iii) Y networks: information flow from two spatially arranged

subordinates to the superior who in turn reports to his
supervisor. E.g information flow from heads of school to DEO
who in turn reports to REO.
Information flow from subordinate who have a chain of
communication linkage to the superior and the supervisor
reports to two supervisors who occupy similar level. This is the
case where the principal reports to two deputy vice chancellors.

iv) Cycle network: communication occurs between adjoining

members only. No interaction between members and others
outside the network. All members are at the same hierarchical
level. So horizontal communication is dominant. Eg interaction
between heads of school.

v) All channel. Members are free to communicate freely one

another without any restriction. Commutation is initiated from
one point to another since there is no leader and all members are
equal.

NB
Chain, wheel and Y represents the centralized networks since
subordinates’ reports to the supervisors
The cycle and all-channel represent the decentralized networks
where there is no formal leader.
Chain, wheel and Y is useful when the solution to the problems
is to be achieved fast so long as the tasks are relatively simple.
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
i) It is used to organize employees to fulfill organizational
objectives eg when the manager assigns duties to subordinates.
ii) Effective communication helps to promote efficiency of
educational organization e.g. when manager issues order,
instructions and regulations, plans, programmes, job changes.
Again employees bring their suggestions, difficulties, and
grievances to the notice of the management.

iii) It is used in relating educational organization with

external environment such as trade unions, the government and
the society.
iv) It is used to upraise members of educational organization.
v) Forms the basis of decision making. The quality of
managerial decision depends on the amount of information
available in the organization
vi) It is used to convince /attract the customers to purchase
the products or services.
vii) It is used by managers to persuade other members of the
organization to accept their decisions, plans etc.
viii) Good communication is necessary for managers to learn
about new technology, implement them, and train workers
on how to use them.
Students to find out barriers to effective communication
through private study.
DECISION MAKING
It is a choice among the available alternatives; OR it is a mental
process resulting in the selection of course of action among
several alternatives. It is a part of the functions of management
like planning, organizing and controlling.
It occurs when manager wants to improve performance of the
organization and when he responds threats hence analyses
options to determine specific ways of achieving organizational
goals.
TYPES OF DECISION MAKING PROCESS
i) Programmed decision making
ii) Non programmed decision making
Programmed decisions are decision that has been made so
many times in the past to regulate all routine organizational
activities. Rules or guidelines have been developed to be applied
when certain situations occurs. E.g decision to hire teachers, to
punish students who misbehave, buying stationary etc.
Non programmed decision making are decisions made in
response to unusual or unexpected events. It occurs when there
are no ready made decisions rules that managers can apply to a
situation. E.g. when dealing with unexpected events such as fire,
earthquakes. The managers rely on intuition in making decision
e.g. feeling, belief,

MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

1. Rational / the classical model of decision making
Is a model which specifies how manager will make logical
decision that will optimize the interests of organization. It
assumes that:
i) Decision makers possess all information about alternative
course of action and the possible consequences of different
alternatives.
ii) The decision makers possess mental ability to process
information i.e. ranking alternatives from the least preferred to
most preferred according to personal preferences
iii) The decision maker is capable of selecting alternative (best
alternative) that leads to desired future consequences of the
organization.
2. Non rational / the administrative model of decision
making

The model explains why decision making is always uncertain

and risky process. The model was developed by James March
and Hebert Simon in 1950s. March and Simon stated that a
manager is not truly logical/rational because their rationality is
affected by various restrictions including:
i) Bounded rationality i.e. cognitive limitations that constrain
one’s ability to interpret process and act on information.
Human intelligence constrains the ability of decision makers to
determine optimum decisions.
ii) Time and money constraints. Decision makers may not
have enough time and money to search for relevant information
about alternative solutions and evaluate the consequences of
those solutions. This may lead to incomplete,
imperfect/ambiguous and fragmented information about the
alternative solutions.
iii) Information overload. Occurs when the manager have too
much information to process.
iv) Different priorities. The manager may conceive some
information to be more important and others are ignored.
v) Conflicting goals a decision maker might have conflicting
goals which can affect his decision
vi) Complexity of the problem. This occur when the problem
is so complex that go beyond the understanding of the
manager
Because of the above constraints managers do not make
exhaustive search for the best alternatives instead they select the
first alternative that meets decision maker’s current level of
aspiration/goal. This is called satisficing
Another non rational decision making model is the incremental
model in which managers take small short term steps to alleviate
a problem rather than steps that will accomplish a long-term
solution. However over time a series of short term steps may
move towards a long term solution.
DECISION MAKING PROCESS
1. Outline the goal for making decision. Normally the changes
in the organizational environment results in new kind of new
opportunities and threats.
2. Generate alternatives solutions so as to respond to
opportunities and threats
3. Assess the alternatives by listing advantages and
disadvantages of each alternative. While you list them you can
eliminate the solutions that have more cons than pros, making
your decision easier. Some of the criteria for evaluating the
disadvantages and advantages of alternatives include:
i) Legality of alternative such that it does not violet both
domestic and international law;
ii) Ethicalness i.e alternative selected should not harm any stake
holder;
iii) Economic feasibility alternative chosen should be less
costful;
iv) Practicality i.e ability of the organization to implement the
alternative given the resources available and it should not
harm other projects.
4. Choose among alternative(s)
After careful evaluation of alternatives using various criterions
the next step is to rank the alternative from the best to the least
and then the alternative which has more advantages than
disadvantages is chosen.
5. Implement the chosen alternative: once the best alternative
has been chosen it is implemented while by manager delegating
authority to the lower levels for effective implementation.
6. Learn from, and reflect on the decision making. This step
allows the decision makers to see if he/she did right or wrong
when coming up with the decision and implementing it. This
can be achieved through:
i) Comparing the actual results from the expected results as a
result of the decision made
ii) Finding out why the expected results were not met
iii) Developing guidelines that will help in the future decision
making process.
GROUP DECISION MAKING
Refers to decisions made by a group/team of managers in order
to solve problems.
Advantages of Group Decision Making
i) Allow drawing a combined skills, competence and
accumulated knowledge of group members hence improve
ability to generate feasible alternatives and make good decision
ii) Allows managers to process more information and correct
one another’s errors and come up with good decision.
iii) Increase commitment among decision makers in the
successful implementation of decision made.
iv) Better understanding of decision rationale. Team
members understand the reason behind the decision and its
advantages and disadvantages.
v) improves the quality of decision because it is made up by
people with different perspectives
vi) Intellectual stimulation. A group of people can brainstorm
and bring greater intellectual stimulation and creativity to
decision making process than is usually possible with one
person acting alone
Disadvantages Associated With Group Decision Making
i) It is time consuming because it may take longer time to agree
on the decision because of divergent interests and preferences
among decision makers.
ii) it can be undermined by biases or groupthink. Groupthink
is a pattern of faulty and biased decision making that occurs in
groups whose members strive for agreement among themselves
at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to a
decision.
iii) Satisficing. This can occur because groups have limited
time, lack the right kind of information or are unable to handle
large amount of information
iv) Goal displacement. This occurs when members compete to
win an argument as a result of rivals the primary goal may be
subsumed by a secondary goal.
 MODULE 5
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

LEADERSHIP
Is the ability to influence/persuade employees to voluntarily
pursue organizational goals. Leadership style refers the ways the
leader interacts with his employees, how he makes decisions,
how he treats employees and how he reacts to events or
issues in the organization. It also refers to particular
behavior applied by a leader to motivate his/her
subordinates to achieve the objectives of the organization.
There are three common types of leadership styles
i) Authoritative or autocratic style
ii) Participative or democratic style
iii) Laissez-Faire or Free reign style.
AUTHORITATIVE OR AUTOCRATIC STYLE
In this style all decisions are made by the leader and he is never
questioned. The leader does not consult the staff nor allow them
to give their opinions. He relies on threats and punishment to
make staff do their work. There is a structured set of reward and
punishment. Moreover the leader is very conscious of his
positions and has little trust and faith in employees, he also
believes pay as the only reward that will motivate employee.
However employees assume no responsibility as they only do
what they are told. Workers perform well in the presence of
leader and perform poorly when the leader is absent
ADVANTAGES
1) It works positively during emergency and in stressful
situations
ii) it is useful when implementing group project. Authoritative
leader is needed to make decision for a group.
iii) it is useful where members are not critical thinkers and not
innovative, hence they depend on managers for making
decisions.
iv) Permits quick decision making.

LIMITATIONS
i) It is not liked by members who are innovative, critical thinkers
and those who want transformations.
ii) Does not help the very future leaders of the organization
because creativity and innovatively of employees is discouraged.

In the school autocratic leader will show close supervision of

employees and the pattern of close supervision will be indicated
by the presence of strict rules and regulation, rigid relationship
between teachers and students, unilateral and downward flow of
information
DEMOCRATIC/PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP STYLE

Decision making is shared between the leader and the

subordinates. Criticism and praise are given objectively. A
leader allows subordinates to provide their opinions when
making decision. A feeling of responsibility develops among
employees.
i) it encourage staff to participate in decision making.
ii) it keeps the staff informed about the performance of their
work.
iii) Encourage staff to feel good about their involvement
iv) There is a two ways flow of information
ADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPATIVE STYLE
i) Members may feel more committed to group goal and less
resistant to managerial actions.
ii) Individual abilities can be developed through participation
iii) Increase motivation of the group members. The knowledge
and experience of group members can be used in decision
making
DISADVANTAGES
i) Individuals may dominate the decision making process.
ii) The approach consumes a lot of time because of the two ways
communication
iii) Compromise may result to a decision which is not the most
effective.
iv) The leader may be viewed as incapable in handling job
responsibility.
LAISSEZ FAIRE/ FREE REIGN LEADERSHIP STYLE
It is also known as hand-off or delegative style. The manager
provides little or direction. The manager gives staff more
freedom to determine goals, make decisions and resolve
problems on their own. However the leader is responsible for
what happens due to the decisions. A leader has no confidence
in his leadership ability hence he does not set goal for the group.
On part of employees decision is made by anybody willing to do
it as a result productivity is low. Employees have little interests
in their work. Workers morale and team work generally is low
ADVANTAGES
i) It is useful when the leaders has to do something else more
important than the task
ii) It is effective in a situation where group members are highly
qualified in an area of expertise
DISADVANTAGES
i) It leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation
ii) It can result into low productivity, cohesiveness and
satisfaction if the leader withdraws from their subordinates.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LEADERSHIP STYLE
(i) Time available
(ii) Relationship between the leader and subordinates whether it
is based on trust or mistrust
(iii) Level of knowledge of the leader and the employees’ i.e
who has the knowledge about the task.
(iv) Internal conflict between the leadership and the subordinates
(v) Stress level
(vi) Type of task. Whether it is structured, unstructured,
complex or simple

POWER
Power is ability of the leader to influence other so that they
respond to order. It is the ability to control action of others.
Power is key to leadership. The key component of effective
leadership is in the power the leader has to affect people’s
behavior and get them to act in a certain way.
Sources of power/types of power
There are five sources of power
I) Legitimate power is authority the manager has by virtue of
his/her position in the organizational hierarchy. All managers
have legitimate power over their employees derived from their
position. The followers accept the directives from their leaders
without resistance. This is because administrator has been
appointed by an organization to make decisions on certain
issues.
ii) Reward power is the ability of manager to give or withhold
tangible rewards (promotion, choice of job assignment, verbal
praise, respect). This depends on the extent to which a person
control rewards that are valued by subordinates. In the
organization such rewards may include salaries, promotions,
work assignment, bonus, as well as material rewards. In the
organization managers can use reward to make people do what
they want them to do. The power of the manager is reduced
when he/she has less control of valuable rewards.
iii) Coercive power. It exists when someone has the ability to
punish others. Punishment can range from verbal
reprimand/warning to reduction in pay or working hours,
suspension, and actual dismissal. When coercive power is often
used it may result to resentment and hostility. In most cases riot
are results of the use of coercive power. In education we are
advised not to depend on this type of power. Use it as a last
resort.
iv) Expert power is power which results from one’s specialized
information or expertise. E.g having computer or medical
knowledge, secretary. It is not exclusive to leaders; shop floor
workers may have it. In education system, people with expert
power are more respected than those who use coercive power.
v) Referent power It is a result of respect. Is power based on
personal characteristic of a leadership or personal attraction. It is
sometimes associated with charismatic behaviors. The more one
is respected by a group, the more referent power she/he
exercises over that group.
Conclusion: While legitimate, reward and coercive power are
position power, expert and referent power are personal power.
 AUTHORITY
Sometimes power and authority is used interchangeably but they
differ. Power is general and authority is part of power. It is
power associated with human relationship which enable those
higher up in the hierarchy to command those lower in the
hierarchy and which compels those lower in the hierarchy to
obey the command of those higher up. According to Max Weber
there are three sources /types of authority
i) Traditional authority
ii) Legal rational authority
iii) Charismatic authority

Traditional authority
It is the hierarchical structure of power derived from long
established customs and traditions and it passes from one
generation to another. People believe that somebody is our
leader or has the right to give command. For example the pre-
colonial authority of traditional African leaders, the right of
hereditary monarchies to rule, the right of family leader to rule
others.
Legal Rational Authority
It is power which is based on enacted laws hence the obedience
is towards the law which specifies what to comply on. The
power of legal rational authority is mentioned in the
constitution. The government officials are best example of legal
rational authority which is prevalent all over the world.
Hence legal rational authority is power system exercised
through legitimate/lawful channels of giving orders, channels of
setting decisions, reviewing decisions, allocating resource and
channel of establishing standards to guide general behavior of
members in the organization.
Charismatic Authority
Is power legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional/special
personal qualities or demonstrating of extraordinary insight
which inspire loyalty and obedience from the followers. It rests
entirely on the leader such that the absence of that leader for any
reason can lead to authority power dissolving. Examples of
charismatic leaders Jesus Christ, Mohammad S.A W., political
leaders like Fidel Castro of Cuba, Mao Tse Tung once a
president of China.

INFLUENCE
Refer to the ability to get others follow your wishes. There are
various tactics of influencing others
i) Pressure tactic, which is using threats, or
intimidation/coercion to gain compliance/conformity/agreement.
ii) Coalition tactic, getting others to support your effort to
persuade someone. E.g. everyone in the department agree on
this.
iii) Rational persuasion tactic, trying to convince someone by
using reason or facts.
iv) Consultation: Getting others to participate in decision or
change.
E.g. your ideas/opinions/suggestions are very important in
improving performance of college students.
v) Ingratiating tactic: E.g. acting humble or friendly or making
someone feel important before making a request.
vi) Personal appeals. Referring to friendship when making a
request. E.g. we have known each other long time and I ‘m sure
I can count on you.
vii) Exchange tactics: reminding someone of the past favor or
offerings to trade/get favors. I assisted you last time; can you
assist me now?
viii) Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on ones authority or
organizational rules or policies or implied support from superior.
E.g. this order comes from the above or this order has been
issued by the head of school.
SKILLS IN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT.
Leadership skills are important for continual growth and success
of the organization. The good leader must possess relevant skills
which will enable the organization to achieve its goal/s.
Planning Skills
It is one of the key functions of management. It deals with
setting and determining objectives, methods, resources and the
date to accomplish the task.
Problem solving and Decision Making Skills
Some of the most important role of educational leader is to solve
problems and make decisions. The problem is anything that
irritates an individual or the organization and affects its
performance. In solving the problem a leader has to follow
certain procedures such as;
Defining the problems. In defining the problem the
leader/manager may ask the following questions why it is a
problem. Why is it happening? How and when.
Identify the potential causes of the problem
Identify the alternative solution to the problem
Plan the implementation strategies of the solution
Monitoring the implementation of the solution
Evaluate if the selected solution was successful or not.
Motivating Skills
Educational leader must possess skills for motivating employees
so that they feel important in the organization. This can be
realized by keeping employees well informed about what is
going on and what is expected to be done, learning about what
people want from their job, recognizing employees since
recognition is more important than salary. Having regular
meeting with employees so as to exchange ideas
Delegation Skill
Is the process through which a leader or manager gives
responsibility and authority to subordinates to complete a task
and letting subordinate to figure out how the task can be
accomplished. It is one of the requisite of good leadership and it
supports trust and confidence in those supervised and enable
manager to be free to do more important tasks.
Tips for successful delegation
Understand the aims of delegation
Decide specifically what you can delegate
Delegate the task to the right person
State clearly your preferred results
Assign the task and not the methods of accomplishing a task
Make a follow up (ask subordinate to write a progressive
report).
Communication Skills
Communication is very important in any type of organization.
A leader or manager must have regular communication with
subordinates. There should be weekly, monthly meetings so as
to exchange ideas and to understand the progress of the
organizations.
Effective communication is an important management skill for
several reasons
i) It enables manager to direct the people who work for them
ii) It enables the manager to motivate people. Good leader use
their ability to get other people excited about their jobs
iii) Enable manager to convince customers to purchase a product
or services. Without good communication skill a leader or
manager will find it difficult to attract customers.
iv) Enable manager to absorb ideas of others. Good leader must
be able understand other peoples view points as he interacts with
customers, suppliers, co-workers.
v) Enable manager to persuade other people. Managers must
communicate effectively to persuade workers accept his/her
ideas
While communicating a good leader must understand his/her
audience i.e. their knowledge about the issue /information you
want to communicate, ability to absorb information, friendliness
or hostile audience, what do you want them to know. Leader
must develop good listening skills so as to absorb information
from the audience, recognize the problems of the audience and
understand other people’s viewpoints. Moreover the leader must
understand the importance of feedback
Meeting Management Skills
A good leader must possess skill in handling meeting and must
understand that the process used in meeting vary with the type
of meeting e.g. planning, problem-solving or staff meeting.
Basic skills for meeting management include:
Identifying participants, developing agenda with the key
participants, opening the meeting, establish ground rules for
meeting (e.g. full participation of members, get focused etc),
time management i.e. start meeting in time and end in time and
evaluate the meeting (get feedback from attend on how the
meeting was conducted so as to improve future meeting.
Disciplining
Is the act of dealing with employee/people when they fail to do
their job or they behave abnormally.
Strategies
Take the individual in private
Discuss the situation right after the incidence
Don’t embarrass the individual
Be friendly to individual. Listen the other side of the story
Weigh the fact before you constructively discipline.
Do not nag or harp a person over and over again. It will cause
irritation.
Don’t argue i.e to talk angrily to a person
ORGANIZING SKILLS
To organize is to divide tasks into manageable units and
defining formal relationship among persons (structures) so that
they work as one body for attainment of common objective. It is
the process of assigning activities to individuals and defining
authority and responsibility.
Is to create a structure of working relationship that allows
organizational members to interact and cooperate so as to
achieve the organizational goals.
Steps that are involved in organizing
1. Determining activities to be performed so as to achieve
the goal. The activities to be done will depend on the nature of
the organization. In educational organization the activities may
include teaching, learning, research, and consultancy
2. Grouping activities into manageable units so that they can
be assigned to individuals. In educational organizational
related activities are grouped into the same departments.
While grouping activities the following things should be taken
into consideration:
i) Specialization so that work is done efficiently
ii) Grouping activity should facilitate coordination among
departments
iii) It reduces administrative expenditure
iv) it facilitates control over the performance of individuals
v) Adequate attention to be paid to every activity
vi) the nature of activity should be considered
vii) The number, needs, preferences and limitation of employee
should be taken into account.
3. Assigning duties to different individuals. Each person
should be given the job best suited to him/her.
4. Delegation of authority. Each person should be given the
authority to perform the assigned task.
5. Coordination of activities. The activities and efforts of
individuals should be coordinated and the relationship between
different positions should be defined and each individual should
understand a person whom he/she is supposed to receive or give
order.
COORDINATION
It is the orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of
action in the pursuit of common goals. It involves unifying,
integrating and harmonizing the activities of different
departments and individuals for the achievements of common
goals.
Techniques of coordination
The following techniques can be used for achieving coordination
i) Goal should be clearly defined so that every employee
understands the overall objectives and the contribution of his job
to these objectives.
ii) Proper policies and programmes help to create uniformity
of action which facilitates coordination.
iii) Effective communication. Good communication is key to
coordination Formal communication channels should be clear
and informal contacts should be encouraged.
iv) Effective leadership and supervision helps to unite the
actions by guiding the efforts of individuals.
v) Clear line of authority (order giver and order receiver)
facilitates mutual cooperation which is essential for effective
coordination.
ETHICAL ASPECTS IN EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP.

ETHICS
Is derived from Greek word ethos which means a person’s
orientation towards life. It is a system of right or wrong. Ethics
assists an individual to decide when an act is moral or immoral.
Sources of ethics include religious beliefs, national and ethnic
beliefs, community standards, family practices, educational
experience. So as to help managers to respond to different
situation in educational organization code of ethics have been
developed. Code of ethics is a document that outlines the
principles of conduct to be used in making decisions within an
organization. Some of the contents of the code of ethics include
i. behaving honestly: an effective leader holds the truth as a
central value and fundamental of all other values. And a honesty
employee is the one who never steal from employer, never
falsify documents and never lie about reporting and hours
worked.
ii) People oriented /serve others. It is based on the principle of
doing for others as you would have them do it for you. An
ethical leader is aware of how their decisions impact others and
use their social power to serve the majority.
iii) Motivating the followers i.e. putting the needs and interests
of the group ahead of their own. It involves engaging followers
in various activities in the organization.
iv) Excellence in all work performed
v) Integrity i.e. having the courage to act and live by ones belief.
Or integration of outward action with inner belief.
vi) Persistence or being determined, i.e. if you fail into the first
time try again later.
vii) Commitment. I.e. the state of being dedicated to the work,
or spending whatever time and energy is necessary to
accomplish the task at hand.
viii) Autonomy i.e the right to make his/her own decision
ix) Confidentiality. The duty to respect privacy information of
others.
x) justice. The duty to treat all employees fairly i.e. distributing
the risks and benefit equally.
xi) tolerance /understanding. The duty to accept and understand
others view points if reasons dictate
others
Adherence to the law
Ensuring health and safety in the work place
Financial reporting
Security of employment
Protection of environment