‫‪Working cell‬‬

‫)‪)Cell membrane structure and function‬‬

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‫الرقم اجلامعي ‪4454557 :‬‬

‫مي وعدو‬ ‫دكتورة املادة ‪:‬‬

‫‪1444‬هـ‬
cell membrane structure and function

Introduction

The boundary layers between two cellular compartments are formed by cell
membranes. In the metabolism of cells, membranes are incredibly crucial. In
some cells, membranes account for up to 80% of the dry weight. In this essay, I
want to draw attention to certain key distinctions in the chemical makeup of a
few representative and well-studied membranes, which may help to partially
explain certain features of their structure and function.

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cell membrane structure and function

Chapter I

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cell membrane structure and function

Plasma Membrane

A plasma membrane surrounds the interior of all living things, including

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and acts as a semi-permeable barrier to the
outside world. The membrane serves as a barrier, keeping the components of the
cell together and preventing the entry of outside chemicals.
The cell membrane is only selectively permeable due to the way the
phospholipids are arranged in the lipid bilayer. That is, only specific molecules
can pass through the lipid bilayer. The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to water
to some extent as well as to small, uncharged molecules. Ions and polar
molecules are repelled by the nonpolar region in the bilayer's middle. As a result,
the membrane cannot be easily penetrated by such chemicals. However, the
plasma membrane is permeable to particular molecules, enabling the entry of
nutrients and other vital components as well as the exit of waste products from
the cell. Larger molecules, such amino acids and carbohydrates, are strictly
regulated while smaller molecules, like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, can
move through the membrane somewhat easily.(1)

Lipids, which are oily compounds present in all cells, are divided into two layers,
or bilayers, to form the plasma membrane. It is more accurate to refer to the
majority of the lipids in the bilayer as phospholipids, or lipids with a phosphate
group at one end of each molecule. At their phosphate terminals, phospholipids
are typically hydrophilic (or "water-loving") and hydrophobic (or "water-
fearing") at their lipid tail regions. The hydrophilic phosphate groups are
arranged so they face outward in each layer of a plasma membrane, either toward
the aqueous cytoplasm of the cell or the external environment. The hydrophobic
lipid tails are orientated inward.
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cell membrane structure and function

Many different proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer that makes up
the plasma membrane, whereas other proteins merely cling to its surfaces. These
proteins include some that have carbohydrates linked to their exterior surfaces
and are referred to as glycoproteins. These proteins principally include those that
are at least partially exposed on the membrane's external side. The hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions on the surfaces of the proteins also play a role in how
they are arranged, with hydrophobic regions interacting with the hydrophobic
interior of the plasma membrane and hydrophilic regions extending past the
membrane's surface into either the interior of the cell or the outside environment.

Plasma membrane proteins serve a variety of purposes. By serving as active

transport molecules or channels, several proteins participate in the selective
transport of particular chemicals across the phospholipid bilayer. Others serve as
receptors, binding chemicals that provide information, including hormones, and
sending matching signals to the cell's interior based on the information they have
gathered. Membrane proteins may potentially have enzymatic activity, catalyzing
a variety of plasma membrane-related processes. (1)

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cell membrane structure and function

Chapter II

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cell membrane structure and function

Cell structure

The "fluid mosaic model" is most frequently used to describe the composition of
cell membranes. According to this hypothesis, the cell membrane is made up of a
phospholipid bilayer that is dotted with proteins and cholesterol. The cell
membrane is 'fluid' because individual phospholipids can move about freely
inside the layer and'mosaic' because the many membrane constituents have a
variety of sizes and forms.

Phospholipids

A hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail are the two different areas that make
up phospholipids. Water from the intracellular cytoplasm and the external
environment interact with the polar hydrophilic head. As it is attracted to water,
the nonpolar hydrophobic tail creates a core inside the membrane. This is due to
the fatty acid chains that make up the tail. As a result, two phospholipid layers
combine to form a bilayer.

The tails of the fatty acids might be saturated or unsaturated. No double carbon
bonds exist in saturated fatty acids. Straight fatty acid chains are the result.
Unsaturated fatty acids, however, have 'kinks' because they have at least one
carbon double bond. These kinks are minute bends in the chain of fatty acids that
separate the adjacent phospholipids. Membranes of cells.

Membrane proteins

The phospholipid bilayer contains two different kinds of membrane proteins

scattered across it:

Transmembrane proteins are another name for integral proteins.

supplementary proteins

Integral proteins run the entire length of the bilayer and play a significant role in
membrane transport. Channel proteins and carrier proteins are the two different
categories of integral proteins.

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cell membrane structure and function

Polar molecules, like ions, can penetrate the membrane using a hydrophilic
channel created by channel proteins. These are typically involved in osmosis and
assisted diffusion. The potassium ion channel is an illustration of a channel
protein. Potassium ions can move through the membrane in a specific manner
thanks to this channel protein.

For molecular transit, carrier proteins alter their conformational shape. These
proteins play a role in active transport and facilitated diffusion. The glucose
transporter is a carrier protein that is involved in assisted diffusion. As a result,
glucose molecules can cross the membrane.

Because they can only be located on one side of the bilayer—either the
extracellular or intracellular side—peripheral proteins are distinct from other
types of proteins. These proteins can serve as enzymes, receptors, or help keep
cells in the proper form.

Glycoproteins

Proteins with a carbohydrate component attached are known as glycoproteins.

They primarily serve as receptors for cell communication and aid in cell
adhesion. For instance, glycoproteins serve as insulin receptors. Storage of
glucose is aided by this.

Glycolipids

Glycolipids are lipids with a carbohydrate component, analogous to

glycoproteins. They are excellent for cell attachment, much like glycoproteins.
Additionally serving as antigen recognition sites are glycolipids. Your immune
system can identify these antigens to establish if a cell is your own (self) or
comes from a different creature (non-self); this process is known as cell
recognition.

The various blood types are likewise made up of antigens. This means that the
type of glycolipid located on the surface of your red blood cells—also known as
cell recognition—determines whether you are type A, B, AB, or O.
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cell membrane structure and function

Cholesterol

As with phospholipids, cholesterol molecules have hydrophobic and hydrophilic

ends. This enables interaction between the hydrophilic end of cholesterol and the
phospholipid heads while allowing interaction between the hydrophobic end of
cholesterol and the phospholipid core of tails. There are two main uses for
cholesterol:

preventing the escape of ions and water from the cell

control of membrane fluidity

Due to cholesterol's strong hydrophobicity, the contents of the cell are kept from
leaking. As a result, it is less probable that ions and water inside the cell will leak
out.

When temperatures are excessively high or low, cholesterol shields the cell
membrane from destruction. Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity at higher
temperatures to stop wide gaps from forming between different phospholipids. At
the same time, when it gets cooler, cholesterol will. (7)

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cell membrane structure and function

Cell membrane composition

A lipid bilayer can be found in every cell membrane. The hydrophobic effect,
which also regulates protein structure, plays a significant role in determining the
structure of the lipid bilayer. In particular, the water structure repels the lipid
hydrocarbon chains, pushing them into an environment where they are
sequestered from water. The bilayer structure is therefore directly determined by
the amphipathic structure of the polar membrane lipids, which creates a
hydrophobic environment for the hydrocarbon chains in the centre of the bilayer
while exposing the polar head groups of the lipids to the aqueous phase. The lipid
bilayer often functions best in the liquid crystalline condition in cell membranes.
As implied by the phrase "liquid crystal," a lipid bilayer's interior differs
significantly from liquid. The lipid bilayer dynamically exhibits significant
anisotropy; the inside of a bilayer is largely well organized, with only a small
area in the middle resembling a liquid. The conformation of the lipid
hydrocarbon chains in the bilayer is well defined, as is the conformation of many
of the lipid head groups. In every cell membrane, there is protein. The membrane
proteins may simply be linked to the membrane or integrated into the lipid
bilayer. The majority of the transmembrane amino acids in membrane proteins
are hydrophobic, which makes the transmembrane segment compatible with the
hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer when the membrane proteins are
integrated into the bilayer. The a-helical conformation may be adopted by these
transmembrane regions. There is typically a disproportionately high prevalence
of charged amino acids towards the end of these hydrophobic transmembrane
sections. The hydrophobic effect as a result keeps the transmembrane proteins
securely locked in place in the lipid bilayer since the charged sections of the
protein cannot enter the hydrophobic interior of the membrane and the
hydrophobic regions are incompatible with water. Proteins and lipids can diffuse
in the membrane's plane. This may include relatively free diffusion across vast
distances, or the membrane proteins may only be able to diffuse inside a certain
portion of the membrane. Another possibility is that some plasma membrane
proteins are attached to the membrane skeleton and have low lateral diffusion
capacity. The fluid-mosaic concept was introduced early in the contemporary era
of membrane studies to describe a structure that was simultaneously dynamic and
organized. (14)

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cell membrane structure and function

This was a significant theory that served as the foundation for a lot of fieldwork.
Recently, we have learned more about this dynamic yet organized mem- brane
structure in-depth. The representations that are frequently used to depict
membrane structure do not adequately illustrate the majority of cell membranes.
Most biological membranes have enough protein that the amount of surface area
that the membrane proteins occupy is equal to or greater than the amount of
surface area that the lipids in the bilayer occupy. At the point where non-
aggregated membrane proteins are closest to one other in many biological
membranes, it is thought that just three layers of lipid stand between the proteins.
Therefore, most illustrations of biological membranes depict an excessive
amount of lipid. is an attempt to schematically represent a more precise
interaction between the lipids and integral membrane proteins in a cell
membrane. A hypothetical top view and side view are both shown. (16)

Fatty acid composition is also a major variable (8) : Myelin has a high
concentration of saturated and a-hydroxy fatty acids, while 3-hexadecenoate is
only found in chloroplasts and other photosynthetic membranes, branched-chain
fatty acids are almost exclusively found in Gram-positive bacteria, and fatty
acids are entirely replaced by phytol alcohol in halophilic bacteria. Although the
structural and functional relevance of these differences is unclear, any hypothesis
of membrane organization must take them seriously. extreme membrane
compositions found in nature, such as those of halophilic bacteria (5) and
Mycoplasma (12) provide potentially helpful experimental tools for structure-
function connection. Experimental changes can be made to the lipid composition
of cell membranes as well. For instance, yeast grown aerobically and
anaerobically have different mitoehondrial lipids. (4) Fatty acids are neither
synthesized nor metabolized by Mycoplasma strain Y, and it will only integrate
the fatty acid supplied to the growth media into its membrane. (11) ; The amount
of fatty acids introduced to the medium affects the unsaturated fatty acid content
for growth. (13) Moreover, when Bacillus subtilis is cultivated at an acid pH,
glucosaminyl phosphatidylglycerol becomes a significant component, and
modifications in the protoplast membrane's physicochemical characteristics
follow. (10)

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cell membrane structure and function

Generally speaking, membranes are made up of both catalytic and non-catalytic

proteins, though opinions on which, if any, is crucial to the membrane's integrity
vary. Enzymatic composition is often assessed using intact membranes, and less
frequently, the enzyme itself after it has been extracted from the membrane.
Since there is no specific assay available, non-catalytic proteins are difficult to
identify and resistant to purify. Treatment with detergents can easily result in the
total solubilization of membranes, but it is challenging to count the individual
components in such solutions. These theoretical and experimental issues also
affect the majority of the known membrane proteins, the plasma membrane, and
the endoplasmic reticulum.

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cell membrane structure and function

Chapter III

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cell membrane structure and function

Plasma membrane function

LIPID REGULATION OF PROTEIN FUNCTION IN MEMBRANE It is well

known that proteins and lipids reside in cell membranes as close neighbors. Most
cell membranes have a complex and metabolically tightly controlled lipid
content. In this situation, it would make sense to assume that cell membrane
lipids would affect the function of cell membrane proteins. However, testing this
theory has not been simple. Large hydrophobic areas are present throughout
membrane-bound enzymes, which typically need a lipid bilayer to sustain
function. Detergent micelles can occasionally take the place of the lipid bilayer,
preventing the hydrophobic transmembrane portion of the membrane proteins
from coming into touch with the aqueous medium. Therefore, it is challenging to
separate membrane enzymes from their natural environment in order to pinpoint
the precise lipid needs for an enzyme, which has slowed down research in this
area. As a result, it has been challenging to establish an absolute necessity for a
certain lipid to maintain the activity of a membrane-bound enzyme. One
prominent exception is 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, for which the choline
head group is absolutely necessary. (3) This section will cover recent
developments in our comprehension of how two membrane lipids, cholesterol
and phosphatidylethanolamine, influence the function of membrane proteins.

Modulation of ion pumps by cholesterol Na,KATPase and Ca2-ATPase are two

ion pumps whose cholesterol regulation has been extensively researched. Plasma
membranes' Na,K-ATPase is the enzyme in charge of pushing sodium out of the
cell and potassium in against the corresponding concentration gradients. The
Na4/K ratio in the erythrocyte membrane is 3:2, making the pump electrogenic.
Due to these characteristics, this enzyme plays a crucial part in several cellular
activities, such as the creation of electrical potentials throughout the plasma
membrane and sodium cotransport systems.

the erythrocyte-derived enzyme from humans. Early research suggested that

cholesterol could block the enzyme. (6). Studies on NaF,K+ATPase in human
erythrocyte membranes later revealed that membranous cholesterol at high
concentrations inhibited the enzyme's ability to function. (2, 15)

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cell membrane structure and function

The cell is shielded by the plasma membrane. Additionally, it maintains a

constant environment inside the cell, and the membrane serves a variety of
purposes. One is to move chemicals out of the cell that are harmful and to move
nutrients into the cell. Another is that there will be proteins on the cell's
membrane, which is its plasma membrane, that interact with other cells. These
proteins may be lipid proteins, which contain both a fat and a protein, or they
may be glycoproteins, which have both a sugar and a protein moiety.
Additionally, those proteins that adhere outside of the plasma membrane enable
cell-to-cell communication. Additionally, a cell's membrane offers some
structural support. Additionally, there are many types of plasma membrane in
various types of cells, and the lipid component of the plasma membrane
generally contains a lot of cholesterol. This membrane is distinct from a few
others found inside the cell. Currently, there are several plants and
microorganisms, such as bacteria, with various defense systems. They actually
have a cell wall surrounding them that is more structurally robust and far more
(9)
resilient than a plasma membrane.

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cell membrane structure and function

The factors affect the cell membrane structure

We previously spoke about how the cell membrane controls what enters and
leaves the cell. We must preserve the shape and structure of the cell membrane in
order to carry out these essential tasks. We shall investigate the variables that
may impact this.
Solvents
The hydrophilic heads of the phospholipid bilayer face the aqueous environment,
while the hydrophobic tails create a core that is away from the aqueous
environment. Only when water is used as the primary solvent is this setup
feasible.
Because water is a polar solvent, cells can become damaged if they are
submerged in less polar solvents. For instance, the nonpolar solvent ethanol can
disintegrate cell membranes and kill cells by dissolving them. This occurs when
the structure of the cell membrane weakens and becomes highly permeable,
allowing the contents of the cell to flow out.
Temperature
perform optimally at 37 °C, the ideal temperature. Cell membranes become Cells
more fluid and porous at higher temperatures. The phospholipids move more and
have higher kinetic energy as a result. This makes it easier for chemicals to pass
through the bilayer.
Additionally, if the temperature is high enough, the membrane proteins involved
in transport may also become denatured. This also aids in the structure of the cell
membrane deteriorating.
As the phospholipids' kinetic energy decreases at lower temperatures, the cell
membrane stiffens. Cell membrane fluidity declines as a result, and drug
transport is impeded. (9)

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cell membrane structure and function

REFERENCE
1. Deamer, D., Dworkin, J. P., Sandford, S. A., Bernstein, M. P., & Allamandola,
L. J. (2002). The first cell membranes. Astrobiology, 2(4), 371-381.
2. Giraud, F., Claret, M., Bruckdorfer, K. R., and Chailley, B. (1981) Effects of
lipid order and cholesterol on the internal and external cation sites of the Na-K
pump in erythrocytes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 647, 249-258
3. Isaacson, Y. A., Deroo, P. W., Rosenthal, A. F., Bittman, R., McIntyre, J. 0.,
Bock, H. -G., Bazzotti, P., and Fleischer, S. (1979) The structural specificity of
lecithin for activation of purified D--hydroxybutyrate apodehydrogenase. J. Biol.
Chem. 254, 117-126
4. J’ollow, D., Kellerman, G. M., Linhang, A. W., J. Cell Biol., 37, 221-30
(1968).
5. Kates, M., Yengoyan, L. S., Sastry, P. S., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 98, 252-68
(1965).
6. Kimelberg, H. K., and Paphadjopoulos, D. (1974) Effects of phospholipid acyl
chain fluidity, phase transitions and cholesterol on the Na,K-ATPase from
erythrocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 249, 1071-1080.
7. Korn, E. D. (1969). Cell membranes: structure and synthesis. Annual review
of biochemistry, 38(1), 263-288.
8. Korn, E. D., Federation Proc. (In press, 1968).
9. Nagy, I. Z. (1979). The role of membrane structure and function in cellular
aging: a review. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 9(3-4), 237-246.
10. Op den Kamp, J’. A. F., Van Iterson, W., Van Deenen, L. L. M., Biochim.
Biophys. ,4cta, 135, 862- 84 (1967)

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cell membrane structure and function

11. Rodwell, A., Science, 160, 1350-51 (1968).

12. Shaw, N., Smith, P. F., Koostra, W. L., Biochem. J., 107, 329-33 (1968)
13. Silbert, D. F., Rueh, F., Vagelos, P. R., ]. BacterioL, 95, 1658-65 (1968)
14. Singer, S. J., and Nicholson, G. L. (1972) The fluid mosaic model of the
structure of cell membranes. Science 175, 720-731.
15. Yeagle, P. L. (1983) Cholesterol modulation of (Na + K) ATPase ATP
hydrolyzing activity in the human erythrocyte. Biochim. Biophys. Ada 727, 39-
44.
16. Yeagle, P. L. (1987) The Membranes of Cells, Academic, Orlando, FL.

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cell membrane structure and function

Content

Introduction 2
Chapter I: 3
Plasma Membrane 4

Chapter II: 6
Cell structure 7
Cell membrane composition 10
Chapter III: 13
Plasma membrane function 14
Reference 18

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