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Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Cancer -A Research Review

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Journal of Technology ISSN: 10123407

Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Cancer – A Research Review

Jayarama Reddy* and Ronald Ryan Moirangthem

Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s University, 36, Lalbagh Road, Bengaluru-560078

ABSTRACT

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, despite advancements in health technologies and
therapies. While effective, the treatment, chemotherapy can come with huge side effects. This
review explores the diverse world of medicinal plants as potential cancer fighters. Numerous
plant extracts have shown impressive anti-cancer properties in laboratory settings, offering a
natural approach with potentially fewer side effects. However, further research is crucial to
evaluate their efficacy and safety in human patients. This review will study the various
medicinal plants and the chemical compounds that are promising as anticancer agents and will
outline their potential mechanism of action.

Introduction
Cancer is a leading cause of global death, second only to cardiovascular diseases [3]. It arises
from genetic mutations in a cell's DNA, causing abnormal reproduction and uncontrolled
growth. These abnormal cells disregard signals regulating cell growth, invade surrounding
tissues, and trigger changes within them [4]. Despite advancements, cancer remains a
significant contributor to global illness and death. One in eight deaths worldwide stems from
cancer, surpassing the combined tolls of AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria [2]. Current cancer
treatments, like chemotherapy, often come with the drawback of harming healthy cells due to
the non-selectivity of the drugs. The ideal approach would involve eliminating tumor cells while
preserving healthy ones [1]. To achieve this, researchers turn to natural resources like plants,
where testing cytotoxic compounds and screening raw extracts hold promise for the
development of anticancer medications [7].
The need for natural products with greater efficacy and fewer side effects is undeniable [8].
Medicinal herbs, with their diverse chemical compounds, offer a valuable source for discovering
novel anticancer agents [9]. Plants produce a unique class of chemical compounds, known as
secondary metabolites, that seemingly don't directly contribute to their growth. These include
alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, pigments, and tannins. Secondary metabolites possess various
biological effects, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, contraceptive, and influences on
blood cells [10], lipids [11], and the cardiovascular system [12].
Extracts from natural products and medicinal herbs containing these secondary metabolites
have shown promise in improving existing cancer treatments. The mechanisms by which plants
may exert their anticancer effects include suppressing enzymes that stimulate cancer growth,
repairing DNA damage, stimulating the production of antitumor enzymes within cells,
enhancing the body's immune system, and inducing antioxidant activity [13].
Cancer is not only a physically debilitating disease, but combating it is crucial for public health.
With the rapid progress in research on the phytochemical properties of herbal products, plants
are emerging as increasingly popular sources of anticancer agents. While initial tumors may be
treated with surgery or supplemental therapies, metastatic cancers often become resistant to

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treatment [14]. Chemotherapy's non-selectivity remains a concern, as it destroys healthy cells

alongside cancer cells. Interestingly, over 60% of currently used anticancer drugs originate from
herbal, marine, and microbial sources [1]. Extensive research has yielded positive results
regarding the effectiveness of plants in cancer treatment. Similar positive effects have been
observed in studies on plants for treating diabetes [16], fertility and infertility [17, 18], thyroid
disorders [20], anemia [21], and psychological disorders [22]. The ultimate goal lies in
identifying plants with cytotoxic properties that could replace chemotherapy and other
cumbersome cancer treatments [23].
This article delves deeper into the study of plants, their key compounds, and the mechanisms
by which they exert their effects.

fig. 1- Trigonella foenum-graecum L fig. 2- Achillea wilhelmsii

Results
The study gathered information on plants that might be effective in cancer treatment. Plants
have long been known for their anticancer effects. For instance, the extraction of
podophyllotoxin and related lignans from the mayapple led to the creation of medications for
treating testicular and small cell lung cancer. The National Cancer Institute has tested around
35,000 plant species for anticancer potential, with about 3,000 showing consistent anticancer
activity. Research is actively ongoing on 47 of these plant species, focusing on their anticancer
properties and how they work. The details about 44 medicinal plants that have used in the
treatment of cancer are given below.

Achillea wilhelmsii: The Achillea wilhelmsii plant, belonging to the Asteraceae family and
Compositaea genus, is commonly found in Iran and varies in height from 15 to 40 cm [1]. It is a
grassy, perennial herb. Studies have shown that the methanol extract and oil from its leaves can
destroy colon cancer cells (HT-29), with the oil being more potent. Additionally, this extract has
been effective against stomach and breast cancer cell lines. The plant’s methanol extract is rich
in phenolic compounds, particularly flavonoids, which halt the growth of cancer cells by
triggering cell death (apoptosis) [26]. Notably, monoterpenes like 1,8-cineole and a-piene found
in the leaf oil are key agents in causing apoptosis in human melanoma cells [28].
Allium sativum L: Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, belongs to the Aparagales order,
the Amaryllidaceae family, the Allioideae subfamily, and the Allium genus [1]. This herbaceous
and perennial plant has a stem reaching up to 40 cm in height2. Below ground, it features a bulb
divided into 5 to 12 segments, each wrapped in thin, pale gray-white layers. The leaves are
slender, dark green, and the small, pink flowers form an umbrella-like cluster at the top of the

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stem. Studies have indicated that garlic and its organosulfur compounds can lower the
incidence of various cancers, including those of the breast, larynx, colon, skin, uterus, esophagus,
bladder, and lung [29]. Allicin, a key compound in garlic, has been recognized for its tumor-
fighting properties, particularly against breast and prostate cancers. It triggers programmed
cell death, playing a role in cancer prevention. When garlic is crushed, an enzymatic reaction
converts alliin into allicin, which inhibits the growth of cancerous cells. Another garlic-derived
compound, ajoene, also hinders the proliferation of leukemia cells, leading to their programmed
elimination [33].
Ammi majus: The Ammi majus, a slender annual plant from the Apiaceae family, typically
reaches a height of 100 cm and thrives in moist, soft soils, including saline grasslands and
coastal regions. Widely grown across Europe, the Mediterranean, Western Asia, and India [35],
this plant is notable for its white blossoms. Studies on the ethanol extract of Ammi majus have
demonstrated its cytotoxic properties against HeLa and MCF7 cells [36]. The plant’s primary
bioactive components are coumarin compounds, particularly psoralens, which have been
recognized for their potential in cancer treatment by triggering apoptosis and inhibiting the
activity of cytochrome p450 enzymes [37].
Ammi visnaga: Ammi visnaga L is a perennial, fragrant plant that thrives in the Mediterranean
climate. It is categorized into three main types of compounds: alegrian, furanochromones, and
flavonoids [38]. This plant is found in northern Iran in areas like Geilan, Roudbar, and Manjil, as
well as in southern regions such as Bushehr and Shahbazan, growing at elevations around 800
meters. The plant is characterized by its deeply lobed leaves and white, umbrella-shaped
flowers. Belonging to the Apiaceae family, it is known for its antibacterial, antifungal, and vitiligo
treatment properties. Research has explored the plant’s extract for its ability to destroy T47D
cancer cells and its inhibitory effects on human pelvic rhabdomyosarcoma and mouse L20B cell
lines in a dose-dependent manner. Key compounds such as khellol, visnadine, cimitugin, and b-
sitosterol have been identified, with flavonoids like quercetin and kaempferol being extracted
from its aqueous solution, contributing to its potential anticancer benefits [38].
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) Nees: It is commonly known as bhunimba, kalmegha,
kiryat, king of pain and chiretta in different languages. It is known for its anti-HIV properties
[189]. It has also been shown that it stimulates the immune system and targets both specific
and immune responses [190], making it effective against viruses and carcinogens [190]. It also
plays a role in the detoxification process, which may prevent the development of cancer in mice
[191].
Annona atemoya Mabb./ Annona muricata Linn: The Annona atemoya / muricata plant is
native to the Caribbean, Central and South America, and is also grown in Southeast Asia,
especially Southeast India. The roots, bark, leaves and fruits of the plant, known as "mamaphal"
in Hindi and "caper" in English, are used medicinally. The fruit contains bullatasin, an acetyl
group with anti-tumor properties that causes chromatin marginalization, cell condensation,
and resulting apoptosis in tumor cells [200]. Additionally, the plant contains two anomomectins,
A and B, which have a cytotoxic effect on many types of cancer in humans, including lung, breast
and breast cancer. Other acetogenins in plants have been found to selectively induce cell death
in tumor cells, particularly human liver cancer cells. Bitter is a member of the Asteraceae family,
a group of 200 to 400 plant species known for their bitter flowers. This plant is found in large
areas of Asia, North Africa and America. It grows up to 80-120 centimeters tall and has yellow
flowers. Studies have shown that it has anti-cancer properties for breast cancer cells and other
cancer cells such as HeLa, HT-29, and MCF7 [201]. Compounds of this plant such as quercetin
and isorhamnetin can inhibit the growth of many types of cancer. Artesunate, an important
derivative of artemisinin, has anti-angiogenic effects and inhibits VEGF production in leukemia
cells. Other substances such as α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene and myrcene may prevent the
development of breast, liver, melanoma and cancer [202].

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Astrodaucus orientalis: This plant, which is a biennial member of the umbellate family, has
extracts from its root and above-ground parts that exhibit anti-growth properties against breast
cancer cells (T47D) [52]. The key compounds found in this plant include a-pinene, a-thujene, a-
copaene, fenchyl-acetate, anisole, myrecene, and sabinene [53,54]. The primary anticancer
action of this plant is through the disruption of the cell cycle and the initiation of programmed
cell death (apoptosis).
Astragalus cytosus: The perennial Astragalus cytosus, belonging to the Leguminoseae family,
can grow up to 75 cm tall and propagates through seeds. It features dark purple stems and
leaflets arranged in pairs of 11 to 30 along the stem. The plant’s flowers, which appear towards
the end of the branches, range in color from amethystine to blue and white [1]. Over 200
varieties of this species are found in Iran. Studies on HeLa cancer cells have demonstrated the
plant extract’s toxic effects on these cells [49]. Additionally, a clinical trial involving 24 lung
cancer patients revealed that 21 of them responded positively to the extract from this plant.
Other research indicates that flavonoids present in different species of Astragalus cytosus can
induce apoptosis in carcinoma cells [51].
Avicennia marina: Avicennia marina, a type of mangrove, thrives in saline environments and is
a key component of the Mangro ecosystem. Resembling a bush or shrub, it stands between 1 to
10 meters tall and features a bark that can be white, gray, or yellowish-green. The plant’s leaves
are either oval or pointed, and it blooms with flowers sporting four petals, colored white or a
yellowish-orange. Studies have revealed that flavonoids extracted from its leaves can combat
breast cancer cells (BT-20), and isolated naphthoquinone has shown similar effects against
laryngeal cancer cells (kb) [55]. Additionally, the extract’s cytotoxic properties against another
breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) have been verified [56].
Boswellia serrata: Boswellia serrata, also known as Olibanum or Frankincense, is a medicinal
plant from the Spindales order and Burseraceae family. Derived from species such as B sacara,
B frereana, and B serrate, its hydroalcoholic extract has been found to kill cervical cancer cells
in a dose- and time-dependent manner [57,58]. Additionally, its alcoholic extract disrupts the
synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins, thereby inhibiting tumor growth and triggering cell death
in cancerous cells [61]. The primary compounds in frankincense resin, including monoterpenes,
diterpenes, triterpenes, and boswellic acid, are known to induce apoptosis in cancer cells by
increasing reactive oxygen species and activating caspases.
Camellia sinensis: Camellia sinensis, a type of tea plant, is harvested for its buds and petals. The
minimal oxidation process during tea production preserves its natural caffeine, theophylline,
thiamine, and antioxidants. Studies have shown that green tea can block the enzyme 5-alpha-
reductase, which converts testosterone into a prostate cancer-promoting agent6. As a result,
green tea has demonstrated a protective effect against prostate cancer [63]. It contains
polyphenols like epicatechin and epigallocatechin, which exhibit anticancer properties. Green
tea’s cytotoxic impact on breast cancer cells has been observed, and habitual consumption at
lower temperatures and in larger amounts is linked to a decreased risk of gastric cancer.
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Ex. D. Don) G. Don: Cedar, also known as cedar or Himalayan cedar,
grows in the Western Himalayas, including eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and parts of
India and Nepal [210]. It is often grown for aesthetic purposes in parks and gardens because of
its cascading leaves. The word "Deodar" comes from the Sanskrit word "devdar" meaning "tree
of the gods". Its resin is capable of treating skin diseases and cedarwood oil has many uses such
as expectorant, anti-ulcer agent and reducing arthritis [210,211]. It is also used in household
products such as soaps and perfumes. Eating cedar poses no toxicity, and its resin is used to
prevent obesity and aid breathing. In India, this oil has been shown to have insecticidal and
antibacterial properties and can be used to preserve spices [213]. Laboratory studies have
shown that extracts from this tree have anti-cancer properties and are effective in reducing
tumors in animal models [214]. A unique combination of lignans from this plant has been

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patented for its ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells without harming the body,
demonstrating its potential in the treatment of blood-eating cancer [214].
Centella asiatica Linn: It is commonly known as mandukaparni, brahmananduki and asian
pennywort. Its traditional medical use is due to its healing properties that inhibit tumor cell
growth and prevent radiation damage. It contains bioactive compounds such as madecassoside,
hydrotheobromine, and other compounds that prevent lipid peroxidation and act as
antioxidants. It increases survival in cancer cells and protects against oxidative cell damage
[192].
Citrullus colocynthis: The Citrullus colocynthis plant is part of the Cucurbitales order and the
Citrullus genus1. The portion of the plant that is utilized is its yellow, extremely bitter fruit,
which is about the size of an apple [70]. Research has indicated that this plant’s extract might
have harmful effects on laryngeal cancer cells (Hep2) [71]. Studies have identified components
of this plant, like cucurbitacins, as potential anticancer agents for treating liver (HepG2) and
breast (MCF7) cancers [72]. Compounds such as quercetin and beta-sitosterol, known for their
tumor-fighting properties, have been extensively researched. These substances work by halting
the cell cycle at the G2/M phase and triggering cell death, thereby exerting anticancer effects.
Curcuma longa: Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric, is a plant whose rhizome is
used in cooking and contains the active compound curcumin, a polyphenol with cancer
prevention and treatment properties. Curcumin’s anticancer effects are linked to its ability to
suppress the growth of various tumor cells and down-regulate genes involved in inflammation
and growth. It also inhibits enzymes and proteins that contribute to cancer progression, reduces
tumor invasion and metastasis, and induces apoptosis by affecting mitochondrial functions and
protein expression. Furthermore, curcumin blocks angiogenesis and has shown protective
effects against colon and gastric cancers in animal models, as well as inhibiting the growth of H.
pylori strains [92].
Saffron (Crocus sativus L): The Crocus sativus L, commonly known as saffron, is part of the
Iridaceae family and originates from Khorasan in Iran1. It is a perennial herb that grows
between 10 to 30 cm tall, sprouting from bulbs with slender leaves2. The plant typically has one
to three purple flowers, and its stigmas, saffron [74]. Research has revealed that saffron extract
possesses properties that can combat cancer4. Studies, including those by Escribano et al., have
identified compounds like crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal in saffron that trigger
apoptosis in cancer cells5. Additionally, saffron extract and quercetin have been found to be
toxic to colorectal cancer cells and to inhibit angiogenesis in breast cancer cells[77,78], thereby
demonstrating its potential as an anticancer agent. However, high doses of saffron may be toxic
to normal cells, suggesting the need for caution in its use. Further research indicates that saffron
could significantly contribute to the death of certain cancer cells, suggesting its future use as a
chemotherapeutic agent [83].
Ferula assa-foetida: The Ferula assa-foetida plant, found across various regions in Iran
including Khorasan, Sistan, Baluchestan, and the southern areas like Kerman, Dasht-e Murghab,
Abade, and Nain, is known for its robust, fibrous stems. The resin from this plant, used as gum,
has demonstrated a cytotoxic impact on liver cancer cells (HepG2 category) [94] and has been
linked to a decreased risk of colon cancer [95]. Key components of this plant include sulfur-rich
coumarin compounds, beta-sitosterol, and oleic acid. These substances are believed to combat
cancer through several mechanisms such as preventing gene mutations, altering enzyme
activities, protecting DNA from damage, controlling cell growth, and modifying enzyme
functions [96]. Additionally, the initiation of programmed cell death is a crucial process in the
plant’s anticancer properties [98]. Studies have also observed a moderate cytotoxic effect of the
plant’s phytochemicals on various cancer cell lines, including ovarian carcinoma (CH1), lung
cancer (A549), and melanoma (SK-MEL-28) [99].
Glycyrrhiza glabra: Glycyrrhiza glabra, commonly known as licorice, is a wild plant belonging
to the legume family1. It is indigenous to the southern parts of Europe, North Africa, and the

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temperate zones of Asia. The plant is prevalent throughout Iran, notably in the eastern and
northeastern regions around Khatam Marvast, as well as in Azerbaijan and Eghlid. The plant
features compound leaves with 4 to 7 pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet, which is sticky due
to the secretion of a fluid. It blooms with blue flowers and produces fruits that carry 5 to 6
brown seeds. The roots and stems of Glycyrrhiza glabra are utilized for their medicinal
properties [101]. The compounds extracted from its roots cause structural changes in the 4T1
mammary cell line, leading to a decrease in cell viability. Similar to the drug Taxol, the root
extract of this plant can halt the cell cycle in the G2/M phase in tumor cell lines [102]. The
primary active component in the root extract is glycyrrhizin, a triterpene glycoside, which has
anti-proliferative effects on tumor cells, particularly the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and HEP-
2, by triggering cell death (apoptosis) [103,104]. The root extract also induces apoptosis in HT-
29 cells, making it a potential treatment option for colon cancer [105].
Lagenaria siceraria Standl: The bottle gourd, a type of Cucurbit, is recognized by its yellow
exterior and is not commonly consumed. It is characterized by a distinct shape with a large
upper portion, a smaller lower portion, and a slender middle, which has led to its comparison
to a pumpkin. Research on the plant’s extract has indicated its potential in inhibiting the A549
lung cancer cell line [106]. Studies have also shown that the methanol extract from the plant’s
aerial parts can combat tumors [107]. Additionally, a water-soluble polysaccharide extracted
from the plant has been found to have an effect on breast cancer cell lines (MCF7). The fruit of
the bottle gourd is rich in vitamin C, beta-carotene, B vitamins, saponins, and cucurbitacin—a
four-ring terpenoid known for its cytotoxic properties [109,110].
Lepidium sativum: Watercress, also referred to as Jrjizbastany and Rashad in traditional
Iranian medicine, is a yearly herb with pale green foliage and diminutive flowers that are either
red or white, emitting a mild scent and blossoming collectively at the tip of the stem. The plant
bears an oval fruit, measuring roughly 50 mm in length and 4 mm in width. Studies have
indicated that the methanol extract from watercress seeds exhibits cytotoxic properties against
the bladder cell line ECV-304 [111]. Research by Aslani et al has also highlighted the plant’s
aerial parts for their cytotoxic impact on K562 leukemia blood cells [112]. Further investigation
has revealed that the plant’s aqueous seed extract can trigger apoptosis in breast cancer cells
(MCF-7) [113]. Watercress is abundant in antioxidants, including vitamins E, C, B, A,
isotiocyanate, and omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid, as well as glucosinolates. These
constituents contribute to its anticancer capabilities by promoting antioxidant activity and
curbing cell proliferation [112,114].
Mappia foetida Miers. / Nothapodytes foetida Miers: Mappia foetida, also known as
Nothapodytes foetida, is found in tropical regions. This plant has received worldwide attention
for its medicinal uses. Its wood contains camptothecin, a powerful anti-inflammatory agent
used to treat leukemia [203]. Camptothecin is also produced by endophytic bacteria associated
with bad mold [204]. These drugs have antitumor effects both in the laboratory and in vivo. It
effectively blocks DNA synthesis in some cancer cells and is known to inhibit an enzyme called
topo-1 [205], which is important for DNA replication. Camptothecin and its derivatives are in
various stages of research and testing. A derivative, irinotecan, has shown promise in treating
tumors and cancer in mice [205]. Clinical studies have shown that camptothecin is effective
against many types of cancer, including lymphomas, leukemias, and prostate cancer. Topotecan
is a drug that can slow the growth of many types of cancer [205].
Medicago sativa L: Alfalfa, known scientifically as Medicago sativa L, is commonly found
worldwide and utilized in folk medicine to manage a variety of health issues, including liver
diseases [115]. The plant’s phytoestrogens and potent estrogenic properties make it beneficial
for treating cancers that are sensitive to hormones. Rich in an array of vitamins, flavonoids,
digestive enzymes, coumarin, alkaloid amino acids, and trepans, alfalfa is also advantageous for
breast cancer treatment and promoting lactation. The presence of the alkaloid compound

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triconlin in alfalfa, which acts hormonally within the plant, is thought to possess significant
therapeutic benefits, including anti-cancer capabilities [116,117].
Mentha pulegium: The European pennyroyal, scientifically known as Mentha pulegium and a
member of the Labiaceae family, is an herbaceous plant with shrubs that can reach up to 60 cm
in height. It commonly grows in the wild across various fields. The plant is characterized by its
oval-shaped leaves with distinct, sharp edges, and typically bears purple flowers on the upper
part of its stems. Research conducted by Aslani et al has identified the plant’s potential cytotoxic
effects on leukemia cells prior to its flowering stage. Pennyroyal contains several bioactive
compounds, including polygon, mentone, piperitone, limonene, isomenthone, and Octaan-3 ol2.
Studies have suggested that flavonoids present in Pennyroyal may inhibit the growth of cancer
cells by triggering apoptosis [118].
Myrtus communis: Myrtus, commonly known as Mort, belongs to the Murdian genus. It is a
type of evergreen shrub or tree, typically found in southern Europe and North Africa, with one
or two species under the Murdian genus. This plant is characterized by its evergreen nature,
sometimes growing up to 5 meters tall. The leaves are fragrant, measuring approximately 3 to
5 inches in length4. Myrtus produces white petals and spherical blue fruits [120]. Research has
highlighted its potential anticancer properties, particularly its cytotoxic effects on the MCF7
cancer cell line [121,122]. Key compounds in Myrtus include polyphenols, myrtucommulone,
semi-myrtucommulone, 1,8-cineole, alpha-pinene, myrtenyl acetate, limonene, linalool, and
alpha-terpinolene [120]. These compounds, especially mitocomolon, are believed to contribute
to the plant’s anticancer effects by inducing apoptosis in cancer cells through both external and
internal pathways [125].
Nigella sativa: The black seed, belonging to the Ranunculales Ranunculaceae family, is an
annual bloom native to Southwest Asia and thrives particularly in Arak and Isfahan, Iran.
Research has highlighted its antioxidant properties that protect the liver and combat cancer
[12]. Specifically, Nigella sativa has been shown to induce apoptosis in kidney cancer cells [126].
Its compounds, resembling thimoquinone [127], have demonstrated the ability to curb the
growth of colorectal cancer cells, trigger apoptosis, and alter cell morphology. These anticancer
effects are notably present in the alcoholic extract of the plant. Additionally, studies have
revealed the potential of black seed in treating breast and colon cancer [133].
Olea europae: The olive tree, scientifically known as Olea europae L, comprises around 35 to
40 varieties and is a member of the Oleaceae family1. It is widely distributed in warm to
temperate regions, including the Mediterranean, North Africa, Southeast Asia, southern China,
Scotland, and East Australia. The leaves of the olive tree are slender, dark green, and evergreen.
Its flowers form clusters with four petals and two stamens [134]. Research on olive oil’s
anticancer properties highlights oleic acid as a key component [26]. Additionally, pinoresinol in
olive oil has been shown to impact colon cancer. Oleuropein, a phenolic compound in olive oil,
is noted for its direct influence on the her-2 gene in breast cancer cells [136]. Studies also
indicate that acidic triterpenes in olive oil, particularly maslinic acid and oleanolic acid, can
suppress tumor growth and trigger apoptosis, effectively combating colon cancer in rat models
and inhibiting angiogenesis [137].
Pegaum harmala L: This perennial herb is part of the Zyqophyllaceae Nitrariaceae family and
thrives in Mediterranean areas like North Africa, Turkey, and Syria, typically in dry regions. It
reaches a height of 30 to 50 cm and resembles a plant with green foliage and slender, water-
retaining segments. The plant boasts sizable blooms with greenish-white sepals and expansive
petals3. Its extract has been found to diminish the survival of cells from epithelial cervical
carcinoma and colon cancer [138]. The plant primarily consists of alkaloids, which are known
for their anticancer properties5. Additionally, a study utilizing chemical analysis highlighted the
antioxidant effects of these alkaloids on human breast cancer cells [139].
Phyllanthus amarus: Phyllanthus amarus, commonly known as bhumyamalaki in Sanskrit,
jaramla in Hindi, and stonecutter in English, is native to tropical Asia, especially tropical India.

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All plants, including leaves, roots and shoots, are valued for their medicinal properties. It
contains lignans, flavonoids and tannins, and research shows that its extracts may have anti-
tumor properties [193]. When given orally, the extract has been shown to extend life and shrink
tumors in mice with certain types of cancer. It appears to work by blocking the activation of
carcinogenic bacteria, stopping the cell cycle, and interfering with DNA repair processes [193].
The extract has also been shown to reduce the incidence of tumors caused by certain
carcinogens [194,195], as well as reduce tumor markers and signs of liver damage [194]. It also
inhibits enzymes that are important for the replication of the hepatitis B virus and other related
diseases [196,197], as well as enzymes involved in cell regulation and DNA topology [198]. The
extract also has anti-angiogenic properties, affecting the migration of vascular endothelial cells
in mice with lung cancer [199]. The lignan-rich fraction of bitter almond hexane extract together
with pure lignans has been shown to inhibit P-glycoprotein function and together with
daunorubicin to reverse multidrug resistance in vitro [200].
Physalis alkekengi: This plant is a perennial herb with rhizome stems that resemble the
corners of a potato. The water-based extract from this plant demonstrated a positive cytotoxic
effect on U937 cells [140]. The primary substances in physalin plants are categorized as
triterpenoids. The cytotoxic properties of physalins B and M, derived from the plant, against
cancer cells, particularly the human HeLa cell line and Hepatum cell lines SMMC-7721 and HL-
60, have been confirmed [141].
Polygonum aviculare: The Caryophyllales Polygonaceae plant, part of the Polygonum genus, is
a perennial with a stem that can grow up to 50 centimeters. It features small, pointed leaves and
delicate pink blossoms. This species is found across Asia, Europe, Africa, America, and widely
in Iran. Research has indicated that its extract can significantly inhibit the growth of HeLa
cancer cells and also impact the growth and apoptotic gene expression in MCF7 breast cancer
cells by promoting apoptosis, leading to the destruction of these cancer cells [144]. The plant’s
primary bioactive compounds include tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Despite the presence
of phenolic compounds, the plant’s anticancer properties are primarily attributed to these
substances [142].
Rosa damascenes: The Rosa damascena, commonly known as the Damask rose, is a species
that thrives in various weather conditions and belongs to the Rosaceae family. The plant’s
flowers and leaves contain tannin, which is the active component1. This evergreen shrub can
grow up to approximately 5.1 meters tall and has a smooth, cylindrical shape. Studies have
shown that the essential oil of this rose has toxic effects on lung (A549) and breast (MCF7)
cancer cell lines. Additionally, the ethanol extract of the plant has been found to be lethal to
cervical cancer cells (HeLa) [146]. The essential oil of Rosa Damascena has a dual impact on
gastric cancer cells: it enhances cell viability in its soluble form but reduces cell survival when
in vapor form. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, has been identified as a key process in cell
mortality through flow cytometry analysis [147].
Silybum marianum: Milk thistle, a member of the Asteraceae family, originates from the
Mediterranean region and is widespread across Europe. Thriving in dry vegetative areas,
alongside roads, cultivated fields, and environments like beaches and mountains, this plant
typically lives for one to two years [4]. It can grow anywhere between 30 to 200 centimeters tall
and features cone-shaped flowers that range in color from red to purple [148]. Research has
also indicated that the compound silymarin found in milk thistle can halt the cell cycle and
induce apoptosis in the 4T1 breast cancer cell line [149].
Taverniera spartea D: The Taverniera spartea D, commonly known as Silver spartea, is a plant
species that thrives along Iran’s southern coastline, including areas like Bandar Abbas, Minab,
and Baluchistan. This shrubby, woody plant reaches heights between 50 to 110 cm and features
a fluffy base with short shoots2. It blooms with purple and pink flowers until March [23].
Studies have found that the methanol extract of Silver spartea, particularly its chloroform
fractions, exhibits cytotoxic properties against certain breast cancer (MCF-7 and BT474) and

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human prostate cancer (PC-3 and DU-145) cell lines, indicating its potential anti-cancer benefits
[23].
Taxus baccata L: The Yew tree, known scientifically as Taxus baccata L, belongs to the
gymnosperm family Taxaceae. Among the three species of yew trees, Taxus baccata L is
indigenous to Iran. Characterized by its evergreen nature, longevity, and slow growth rate, the
Yew tree features a smooth trunk and can reach heights of up to 30 meters with a diameter of
approximately 5 meters. Its natural habitat spans Europe, the Caucasus, North Africa, and Iran,
with a common presence in the northern Iranian forests around Azadshahr and Astara. The Yew
tree thrives in high-altitude mountainous regions, within deep, shadowy valleys, and on steep
slopes that vary from rocky and semi-humid to moist and chilly environments. Notably, the Yew
tree was among the earliest plants to be extensively studied for its potential in cancer
prevention. Taxol, a naturally occurring compound in the tree, is recognized for its anticancer
properties. Research has demonstrated that extracts of the tree, specifically those using acetone
and dichloromethane, exhibit cytotoxic effects on various cancer cell lines, including k562, HeLa,
and MDA-MB-468 [152].
Thymbra spicata: The Zufaee thyme, belonging to the Labiaceae family, thrives in arid, sunlit
environments and dune slopes. This species typically reaches heights between 15 to 40 cm and
produces purple blossoms. The presence of thymol and carvacrol contributes to its biological
activity. The essential oil derived from various parts of the plant is rich in antibacterial and
antioxidant properties. Studies have demonstrated the hydro-alcoholic extract’s ability to
inhibit lung cancer cells (SK-Mes-1). Thyme, along with its phenolic compounds thymol and
carvacrol, are notable for their antioxidant effects, which protect DNA from oxidative harm and
may consequently aid in cancer prevention [154].
Thymus vulgaris: Thymus vulgaris L, commonly known as garden thyme, is part of the
Lamiaceae family. It features a straight stem and can be either herbaceous or woody, reaching
heights of 20 to 30 cm. The plant’s stems are branched and covered in white fuzz, and it boasts
fragrant leaves that remain green year-round, with flowers ranging from pale purple to white.
Research on rats has demonstrated that thyme extract can suppress the development of
abnormal and pre-cancerous growths, as well as hinder the growth of squamous cell carcinoma
of the head and neck under lab conditions [156,157]. Thyme contains various compounds, such
as flavonoids, with thymol and carvacrol being the most significant phenolic compounds
beneficial in treating breast and colorectal cancers. Studies have confirmed that thyme extract
can prevent the spread and invasion of human colorectal cancer cells, as well as impede the
growth of both breast and colorectal cancer cells [159].
Tinospora cordifolia (Wild) Miers: Commonly known as guduchi in Sanskrit, giloya in Hindi,
and heartleaf moonseed plant in English, Tinospora cordifolia is a robust, smooth, climbing
shrub without bristles1. It is prevalent in India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and China. The stem,
commonly used for various ailments like weakness, indigestion, fever, urinary issues, and
jaundice [180], also treats skin conditions (181). The root is used as a snake bite antidote
alongside other medications [182, 183]. Recognized for its adaptogenic, immunomodulatory,
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, and anti-allergic effects, it is beneficial for skin
diseases, vomiting, anemia, piles, chronic fever, and weight loss [184]. Exhibits in vitro efficacy
against HeLa cells and increases survival in mice with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, indicating its
promise as an anticancer agent [185].
Trigonella foenum-graecum L: Fenugreek, also known as Shanblid and scientifically referred
to as Trigonella foenum-graecum, belongs to the Fabaceae family1. It typically grows to a height
ranging from 10 to 50 cm and features solitary flowers that display a vibrant yellow to brown
hue . Indigenous to Iran, fenugreek is widely cultivated across various regions including
Azerbaijan, Isfahan, Fars, Khorasan, Semnan, and Damghan, where it is consumed as a vegetable
[160]. Research on fenugreek’s crude extract has demonstrated its selective cytotoxic
properties against certain cell lines, such as MCF7, TCP (T-cell lymphoma), FRO (thyroid

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papillary carcinoma), and brain tumors [161]. Additionally, it has shown a protective effect
against breast cancer in mice, triggered by DMBA (7,12-dimethylbenz(a) anthracene) [162].
Another study highlighted the plant extract’s ability to suppress the proliferation of EAC cancer
cells. The plant’s flavonoids and alkaloids, including compounds like ginger, cadence, zingerone,
vanillin, and eugenol, are implicated in its anticancer effects [161,164]. The primary anticancer
mechanism attributed to fenugreek involves the induction of apoptosis [161,162].
Urtica dioica L: The nettle plant, known scientifically as Urtica dioica, is a perennial herb with
branching stems. Its shoots are erect and quadrangular, and its leaves are coated with a bitter
substance called Azkrk. This plant is commonly found in the wild in various regions of Iran,
including near Tehran, on the Alborz Mountain slopes in Karaj, in Shemiranat, and in the
northern provinces of Mazandaran, Gilan, and Azerbaijan, particularly on the slopes of Sahand,
Zanghab, and in Lorestan by the river [165]. Research has indicated that extracts from the nettle
plant, both aqueous and ethanol-based, can inhibit the growth of prostate cancer cells (LNCaP
and hPCPs) [166,168]. Additionally, there have been reports highlighting the plant’s potential
in combating esophageal cancer. The phenolic compounds in nettles, known for their
antioxidant properties, are believed to play a crucial role in cancer prevention. Specifically, the
nettle root extract has demonstrated an ability to hinder the proliferation of human prostate
cancer cells [170].
Vinca rosea: The Vinca and oleander genus includes a historically significant medicinal plant
that has garnered considerable attention. Research involving the human skin cancer cell line
A431 demonstrated that the methanol extract from the plant effectively reduced cell
proliferation [171]. The plant’s aerial parts contain alkaloids like vincristine, vindoline,
vinblastin, vinflunine, and catharantin, which differ from vincristine and vinblastine. Two of
these alkaloids are currently utilized as anticancer drugs due to their role in secondary
metabolism [172,173]. Studies on breast, prostate, and cervical cancer cells (MCF-7, PC3 1C,
HeLa) have shown that these alkaloids disrupt the structure of tubular proteins by hindering
cell division, thereby preventing the progression of cancer cells due to their antioxidant
properties [171,174].
Viola tricolor: The violet plant, known scientifically as Viola tricolor, is a hardy herbaceous
species that thrives in cold conditions year-round and can reach up to 25 cm in height. It blooms
in the spring and summer, producing small, vibrant flowers in shades of deep purple, white, and
yellow, which later develop into fruit capsules. Research indicates that the plant’s aqueous
extract significantly hinders the growth of cervical cancer cells, with ethyl acetate identified as
the key active component [175]. The plant is also rich in various compounds, including
flavonoids, which are recognized for their potent cytotoxic and anticancer properties [177,178].
Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal: Withania somnifera, also known as ashwagandha or winter
cherry, is a widely recognized small shrub used in Ayurvedic medicine. Its roots and leaves are
known for their extensive medicinal applications and are considered safe for therapeutic use
[206]. The plant’s extract is believed to influence various biological functions and has been
traditionally utilized for its numerous health benefits, including anti-aging, libido enhancement,
heart health support, thyroid regulation, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties
[207,208]. Notably, the compounds withanolide A and withaferin A are key constituents that
have shown effectiveness in combating cancer by inducing cell death in cancerous cells.
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine have developed a specialized
formulation combining root and leaf extracts that is particularly rich in these compounds [209].
This formulation has demonstrated the ability to kill cancer cells, enhance immune response,
and significantly reduce tumors in animal models. It also boosts immune system markers and
enhances macrophage activity, indicating its potential in both cancer treatment and immune
system modulation. The formulation’s efficacy is attributed to its high concentration of
withaferin A, which plays a crucial role in its anti-cancer and immune-stimulating effects.

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Zingiber officinale: Zingiber officinale, belonging to the Zingiberaceae family, is commonly

known as ginger. It is cultivated widely in India, particularly in warm and moist regions. The
rhizomes of ginger are used as a pungent and fragrant spice in various savory dishes [179]. The
plant features slender bright green stems growing from its bulbous base, and its flowers are
yellow-green with purple borders and light speckles. Studies have shown that the water-based
extract of ginger has a significant impact on breast cancer cells, specifically the MCF-7 and MDA-
MB-231 lines, causing morphological alterations that suggest the activation of cell death
mechanisms [180, 181].
Ziziphus nummularia Wight: Commonly known as bhukamtaka sukhsharanphala in Sanskrit,
harbor in Hindi, and wild jujube in English. It is a thorny bush or shrub with pale purplish or
grey-velvety stems and paired stipular prickles. It utilizes roots, bark, stem, flowers, and seeds
for medicinal purposes. Found across India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, and Israel.
Similarly, Betulinic Acid is found in the bark and stem, known for its antitumor activity [186]. It
exhibits selective toxicity towards cancer cells over normal cells. It induces apoptosis through
various pathways, including reactive oxygen species generation and topoisomerase I inhibition
[187]. It also strengthens the effects of other anticancer drugs and specifically targets tumor
cells [188].

Sl. no. Scientific Name Common Name Family

1 Achillea wilhelmsii Yarrow Asteraceae

2 Allium sativum L Garlic Amaryllidaceae
3 Ammi majus Bishop's Weed Apiaceae
4 Ammi visnaga Khella Apiaceae
5 Andrographis paniculata Green Chiretta, King of Acanthaceae
Bitters
6 Annona atemoya Mabb Atemoya Annonaceae
7 Astrodaucus orientalis Spiked Black Mustard Umbellate
8 Astragalus cytosus Milkvetch Leguminoseae
9 Avicennia marina Mangrove Tree, Grey Acanthaceae
Mangrove
10 Boswellia serrata Indian Frankincense Burseraceae
11 Camellia sinensis Tea Plant Theaceae
12 Cedrus deodara Deodar Cedar Pinaceae
13 Centella asiatica Linn Indian Pennywort, Gotu Apiaceae
Kola
14 Citrullus colocynthis Bitter Gourd, Bitter Cucurbitaceae
Apple
15 Curcuma longa Turmeric Zingiberaceae
16 Crocus sativus L Saffron Crocus Iridaceae
17 Ferula assa-foetida Asafoetida Apiaceae
18 Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice Fabaceae
19 Lagenaria siceraria Standl Calabash Gourd, Bottle Cucurbitaceae

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Gourd
20 Lepidium sativum Garden Cress, Common Brassicaceae
Cress
21 Mappia foetida Miers Foetid Mappia Mappia foetida Miers
22 Medicago sativa L Alfalfa Fabaceae
23 Mentha pulegium Pennyroyal Lamiaceae
24 Myrtus communis Myrtle Myrtaceae
25 Nigella sativa Black Cumin, Nigella Ranunculaceae
26 Olea europae Olive Tree Oleaceae
27 Pegaum harmala L Syrian Rue, Wild Rue Nitrariaceae
28 Phyllanthus amarus Bhumiamalaki Phyllanthaceae
29 Physalis alkekengi Winter Cherry, Chinese Solanaceae
Lantern Plant
30 Polygonum aviculare Knotweed Polygonaceae
31 Rosa damascenes Damask Rose Rosaceae
32 Silybum marianum Milk Thistle Asteraceae
33 Taverniera spartea D Desmodium Fabaceae
gangeticum
34 Taxus baccata L Yew Taxaceae
35 Thymbra spicata Thyme, Wild Thyme Lamiaceae
36 Thymus vulgaris Thyme, Common Lamiaceae
Thyme
37 Tinospora cordifolia (Wild) Miers Giloy Menispermaceae
38 Trigonella foenum-graecum L Fenugreek Fabaceae

39 Urtica dioica L Stinging Nettle Urticaceae

40 Vinca rosea Periwinkle Apocynaceae
41 Viola tricolor Pansy, Johnny-jump-up Violaceae
42 Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal Ashwagandha Solanaceae
43 Zingiber officinale Ginger Zingiberaceae
44 Ziziphus nummularia Wight Indian Jujube Rhamnaceae
Table:1- List of used in the treatment of cancer and considered in the present study.

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Plant Family Occurrences:

Fig. 3- Number of plants used in the treatment of cancer from different families.

Fig. 4- Types of plants used in the treatment of cancer from different families.

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Most common plants:

fig. 5- Camellia sinesis fig. 6- Allium saitva L

fig. 6- Curcuma longa fig. 7- Olea europae

fig. 8- Thymus vulgaris fig. 9- Mentha pulegium

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Conclusion:
Numerous cancer treatments exist, but they often come with unwanted side effects like
digestive issues, kidney harm, and more. These treatments involve various substances such as
alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and monoterpenes. Additionally, agents like vinblastine,
vincristine, curcumin, Taxol, boswellic acid, and umbelliprenin, along with compounds like
quercetin, catechin, cucurbitacin, kaempferol, thymol, carvacrol, 1,8-cineole, a-pinene,
myrecene, and b-sitosterol, are known for their cancer-fighting abilities. These substances are
antioxidants that protect DNA from damage, halt the cell cycle (particularly at the G2/M phase),
trigger cell death (apoptosis), prevent the formation of new blood vessels in tumors
(angiogenesis), and offer innovative and more potent anticancer benefits.

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