Real Analysis

Dr. B. Surendranath Reddy

&
Dr. Rupali S. Jain
Assistant Professor
School of Mathematical Sciences
Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded

Note: This notes is prepared based on the lectures delivered to our M.Sc.Students.
There may be some typographical errors or there may be some mistakes. You are
most welcome to send corrections or suggestions to bsreddy@srtmun.ac.in
Most of the content is based on the following text books:
Real Analysis, N.L. Carothers,Cambridge University Press A Basic Course in
Real Analysis, Ajit Kumar and S. Kumaresan, Taylor & Francis Group.

Contents
1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property 4

1
2 Sequences 10

3 lim sup And lim inf of an 18

4 Countability 22

5 Metrics and Norms 27

6 Open sets and Closed sets 30

7 Continuity 51

8 Connectedness 59

9 Totally Bounded 65

10 Completion of a metric/norm space 78

11 Compactness 81

12 Uniform Continuity 87

13 Equivalent Metrics 91

14 Sequence of functions 98

15 The Weierstrass Theorem 105

16 Equicontinuity 110

17 Infinitely Differentiable Functions 114

18 The Stone-Weierstrass Theorem 115

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 2 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

19 Inequalities 118

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 3 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

Definition 1.1. Upper Bound
Let A be a non empty subset of R. Then an element α ∈ R is said to be an upper
bound of A if x ≤ α ∀ x ∈ A.

Remark 1.2. 1. α ∈ R is not an upper bound of A if ∃ x ∈ A such that α < x.

2. If α is an upper bound of A and β > α then β is also an upper bound of A.

Definition 1.3. Bounded above Set

Let A be a non empty subset of R then A is said to be bounded above if ∃ α ∈ R
such that α is an upper bound of A (i.e. ∃ α ∈ R such that x ≤ α ∀ x ∈ A).

Remark 1.4. φ = A ⊂ R is said to be not bounded above if given α ∈ R, ∃ x ∈ A

such that α < x i.e. ∀ α ∈ R ∃ x ∈ A

Definition 1.5. Least Upper Bound

Let φ = A ⊂ R then α ∈ R is said to be least upper bound of A or supremum of A if

1. α is an upper bound of A.

2. If β is an upper bound of A then α ≤ β.

and is denoted by α = lub A or α = sup A.

Remark 1.6. If an upper bound α ∈ R of A belong to A then α is called maximum

of A.

Lemma 1.7. If α and β are lub of A then α = β.

Proof. By consider α as an upper bound and β as a lub, we get β ≤ α.

Similarly, as β is an upper bound and α is a lub of A, we get α ≤ β.
⇒ α = β.

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 4 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

Lemma 1.8. If α is the lub of A then for given  > 0, α −  is not an upper bound
of A.

Proof. Given that α = lub A. Since  > 0, α −  < α. Suppose α −  is an upper

bound of A. Since α is lub of A, α ≤ α −  which is a contradiction.
∴ α −  is not an upper bound.

Example 1.9. Let A = (0, 1) then lub = 1.

Proof. Clearly 1 is an upper bound for A.Let β be an upper bound of A.

β+1
We have to show that 1 ≤ β. Suppose not i.e. β < 1. Take x = 2
then 0 < x < 1.
⇒x∈A
β+1 β+1−2β
Now x − β = 2
−β = 2
1−β
x−β = 2
1−β
Since β < 1 ⇒ 2
>0
∴x−β >0
⇒ x > β, which is a contradiction to x ≤ β.
∴ 1 ≤ β ⇒ 1 is the lub of A.

Remark 1.10. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define sup A = +∞.

2. If A = ∅, then sup A = −∞ as every real number is an upper bound for A.

Definition 1.11. Lower Bound

Let A be a nonempty subset of R then an element β ∈ R is said to be a lower bound
if x ≥ β ∀ x ∈ A.

Definition 1.12. Bounded Below

Let A be a non empty subset of R then A is said to be bounded below if ∃ β ∈ R
such that β is a lower bound of A i.e. ∃ β ∈ R such that x ≥ β ∀x ∈ A

Example 1.13. Let A = (0, 1) = {x ∈ R|0 < x < 1} then 0 is an lower bound of A.

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 5 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

Definition 1.14. Greatest Lower Bound

Let φ = A ⊂ R then β ∈ R is said to be greatest lower bound of A or infimum of A if

1. β is an lower bound of A.

2. If γ is a lower bound of A then β ≥ γ.

and is denoted by β = glb A or β = inf A.

Example 1.15. Let A = (0, 1) then glb A = 0.

Proof. Let β be an lower bound of A. We have to show that 0 ≥ β. Suppose not i.e.
β > 0,
take x = β2 .
Then 0 < x < 1 ⇒ x ∈ A (∵ β ≤ 1 ⇒ x < 1)
β
x−β = 2
− β = − β2
Since β > 0 ⇒ − β2 < 0.
∴x−β <0
∴x<β
Which is an contradiction.
∴0≥β
⇒ 0 is glb of A.

Remark 1.16. 1. For an unbounded set A, we define inf A = −∞.

2. If A = ∅, then inf A = +∞ as every real number is a lower bound for A.

Lemma 1.17. For any subset A of R sup(−A) = − inf A

where −A = {−a|a ∈ A}.

Proof. Let α = sup(−A)

⇒ −a ≤ α ∀ a ∈ A

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 6 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

⇒ a ≥ −α ∀ a ∈ A.
− α is a lower bound of A. Let β be a lower bound of A
⇒ β ≤ a∀a ∈ A
⇒ −β ≥ −a ∀ a ∈ A.
⇒ −β is an upper bound of −A.
Since α = sup(−A)
⇒ α ≤ −β
⇒ −α ≥ β
⇒ −α is the glb of A.
⇒ α = − inf A
∴ sup(−A) = − inf A

Definition 1.18. textbfCompleteness Axiom or LUB Axiom

Any non empty subset A of R with an upper bound has the least upper bound.

Theorem 1.19. Archimedean Property

If x, y ∈ R with x > 0 then ∃ n ∈ N such that nx > y.

Proof. We prove by contradiction. Suppose  n ∈ N such that nx > y then ∀ n ∈

N, nx ≤ y.
Let A = {nx : n ∈ N} then A = φ and y is an upper bound of A. By Completeness
axiom A has a least the upper bound say α ∈ R i.e. ∃ α ∈ R such that α = lub A
⇒ nx ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N.
⇒ (n + 1)x ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ nx + x ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ nx ≤ α − x ∀ n ∈ N
⇒ α − x is an upper bound of A.
Since α is lub A ⇒ α ≤ α − x

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 7 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

which is a contradiction to α − x < α. (∵ x > 0 ⇒ α − x < α)

∴ ∃ n ∈ N such that nx > y.

Lemma 1.20. N is not bounded above i.e. ∀ x ∈ R ∃ n ∈ N such that x < n.

Proof. Suppose N is bounded above i.e. ∃ x ∈ R such that n ≤ x ∀ n ∈ N. By

Completeness axiom N has the least upper bound say α.
⇒ n ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N.
⇒ n + 1 ≤ α ∀ n ∈ N (∵ n + 1 ∈ N)
⇒ n ≤ α − 1∀n ∈ N
⇒ α − 1 is an upper bound on N.
Since α = lub N, α ≤ α − 1 which is a contradiction.
∴ N is not bounded above.

Remark 1.21. The above lemma is also one version of Archimedean principle.

Theorem 1.22. Prove that both the version of Archimedean principle are equivalent.

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose for given any x, y ∈ R with x > 0, ∃ n ∈ N such that
nx > y.
In particular, for x = 1 > 0, y ∈ R, ∃ n such that n.1 > y ⇒ n > y.
∴ Given any y ∈ R, ∃ n ∈ N such that n > y.
⇒ N is not bounded above.
(2) ⇒ (1). Assume that N is not bounded above.
Let x, y ∈ R with x > 0. We have to prove that there exists n ∈ N such that nx > y.
Suppose nx ≤ y ∀ n ∈ N
y
⇒n≤ x
∀n ∈ N
y
⇒ x
is an upper bound of N, which is a contradiction. Hence there exists n ∈ N such
that nx > y.

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 8 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy

1 LUB Axiom and Archimedean property

Theorem 1.23. Density of Q

If a and b are real numbers with a < b then ∃ r ∈ Q such that a < r < b.

Proof. Since a < b, b − a > 0

∴ By Archimedean principal ∃ n ∈ N such that
n(b − a) > 1
nb − na > 1
Take m = k + 1 where k = [na] then m ∈ Z. Since for any x, [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
⇒ na < [na] + 1
⇒ na < m.
Suppose m ≥ nb then 1 = k + 1 − k
i.e. 1 = m − k ≥ nb − na (k ≤ na ⇒ −k ≥ −na)
⇒ nb − na ≤ 1, which is a contradiction.
∴ m < nb
⇒ na < m < nb
m
⇒a< n
<b
m
∴ ∃r = n
∈ Q such that a < r < b.

Exercise: For any a, b ∈ R with a < b, show that there exists s ∈ R \ Q such
that a < s < b.

Dr. Rupali S. Jain 9 Dr.B. Surendranath Reddy