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CHAPTER

3
Measuring Instruments

3.1 Introduction to instruments; 3.2. Classification of instruments; 3.3. Selection of

insruments; 3.4. Functions of instruments; 3.5. Comparison of analog and digital
instruments; 3.6. Electrical instruments; 3.7. Galvanometers – D’ Arsonval galvanometer –
Ballistic galvanometer – Grassot fluxmeter – Vibration galvanometer – Duddall’s oscillograph;
3.8. Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeter – Introduction – Types of instruments mainly used
as ammeters and voltmeters – Errors in ammeters and voltmeters – Moving iron instruments –
Moving-coil instruments – Permanent magnet moving-coil instruments – ohmmeters –
Electrodynamic or dynamometer type instruments – Hot-wire instruments – Thermocouple
instruments – Rectifier instruments – Electrostatic instruments; 3.9. Wattmeters and
measurements of power – Types of wattmeters – Dynamometer wattmeter – Induction
wattmeter – Electrostatic wattmeter – Thermal wattmeter – Measurement of power in
singlephase circuits – Measurement of power in 3-phase circuits – Measurement of power at
high frequencies (AF/RF) – Bolometer method of power measurement – calorimetric method for
measurement of large amount of RF power – Output power meter; 3.10. Energy meters and
energy measurement – General aspects – Essential characteristics of energy meters – Types of
energy meters – Motor meters – Motordriven meter – Watt-hour meter – Induction type of watt-
hour meter – Induction type single-phase energy meters – Maximum demand indicators/meters –
Measurement of VAh and VARh – Testing of energy meters; 3.11. Miscellaneous measuring
instruments – Power factor meters – Frequency meters – Rotational speed measurements –
Synchromoscopes – Phase sequence indicators. Highlights – Objective Type Questions –
Theoretical Questions – Unsolved Examples.

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTS

The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the man to determine the
value of unknown quantity or variable which his unaided human faculties cannot measure. A
measuring instrument provides information about the physical value of some variable being measured.
— The instrument would sense a physical parameter (e.g., velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.),
process and translate it into a format and range which can be interpreted by the observer.
— The instrument must also provide the controls by which the operator can obtain, manipulate and
respond to the information.
• An instrument, in simple cases, consists of a single unit which gives an output reading or signal
according to the unknown variable (measurand) applied to it. Under more complex measurement
situations, a measuring instrument may consist of transducing elements which convert the measurand
to analogous form. The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and then fed to
the end devices for presenting the measurement results for the purpose of display, record and control.
• The instruments made by man not only retain their characteristics for extended periods of time but
are also accurate and sensitive in their response.
• Measurements involve the use of instruments as a physical means of determining quantities and
variables.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

The instruments may be classified as follows:
1. Absolute and secondary instruments.
2. Analog and digital instruments.
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3. Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments.
4. Manual and automatic instruments.
5. Self-contained and remote indicating instruments.
6. Self-operated and power-operated instruments.
7. Deflection and null output instruments.
1. Absolute and secondary instruments:
(i) Absolute instruments :
These intruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of physical
constants of the instrument.
Examples : Tangent galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance.
• These instruments are seldom used except in standard institutions.
(ii) Secondary instruments :
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be measured
observing the output indicated by the instrument.
These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary
instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Examples : Voltmeter, glass thermometer, pressure gauge etc.
• The secondary instruments find wide use in every sphere of measurement.
2. Analog and digital instruments:
(i) Analog instruments :
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite number of values
in a given range.
Examples : Fuel gauge, ammeters and voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer of an automobile, etc.
(ii) Digital instruments :
Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite number of different values in a given range
are digital signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital type.
Examples : Odometer of an automobile, calibrated balance of a platform scale, timer on a
scoreboard, etc.
• The digital devices have the following advantages :
(i) High accuracy.
(ii) High speed.
(iii) Elimination of human operational errors.
• Owing to the application of digital computers for data handling, reduction and in automatic
controls, the importance of digital instrumentation is increasing very fast. Thus, it becomes necessary
to have both analog-to-digital (A/D) converters at input to the computers and digital-to-analog (D/A)
converters at the output to the computers.
3. Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments:
(i) Mechanical instruments :
• These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
• They are unable to respond rapidly to the measurements of dynamic and transient conditions due
to the fact that they have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a
large mass. Mass presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot faithfully
follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic instruments.
• Most of the mechanical instruments cause noise pollution.
(ii) Electrical instruments :
• The electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than that of
mechanical methods.
• Unfortunately, an electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter as an indicating
device. This mechanical movement has some inertia due to which the frequency response of
these instruments is poor.
(iii) Electronic instruments :
• Most of the scientific and industrial instruments require very fast responses. Such requirements
cannot be met with by mechanical and electrical instruments.
• These instruments use semiconductor devices. In electronic devices, since the only movement
involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia
of electrons.
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• With the use of electronic devices, very weak signals can be detected by using pre- amplifiers
and amplifiers.
Comparison between mechanical and electrical/electronic instruments:
Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical instruments:
Advantages :
(i) Simple in design and use.
(ii) More durable due to rugged construction.
(iii) Relatively cheaper in cost.
(iv) For operation of the instruments, no external power supplies are required.
(v) Quite reliable and accurate for the measurement of parameters which are stable and non-variant
with time.
(vi) Long history of development and successful use.
Disadvantages :
(i) Poor frequency response to dynamic and transient measurements.
(ii) Large forces are required to overcome mechanical friction.
(iii) Incompatibility when remote indication or control is needed.
(iv) Cause noise pollution.
Advantages of electrical/electronic techniques of measurements:
(i) Less power consumption and less load on the system being measured.
(ii) Non-contact measurements are possible.
(iii) Light, compact and more reliable instrumentation.
(iv) Remote indication and recording feasible.
(v) The amplification produced is greater than that produced by a mechanical contrivance.
(vi) The mathematical processing of signals like summation, differentiating and integrating is
possible.
(vii) The frequency and transient response is good.
(viii) Greater flexibility.
(ix) Lighter in construction.
• The electronic instruments are widely used in detection of electro-magnetically produced signals
such as radio, video and microwaves.
• The use of these instruments has made it possible to build analog and digital computers which are
quite instrumental in the modern developments in the fields of science and technology.
4. Manual and automatic instruments :
• In case of manual instruments services of an operator are required.
Example : Measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone
bridge in its circuit (an operator is required to indicate the temperature being measured).
• In an automatic type of instrument, an operator is not required.
Example : Measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer.
5. Self-contained and remote indicating instruments :
• A self-contained instrument has all its different elements in one physical assembly.
• In a remote indicating instruments, the primary sensing element may be located at an adequate
long distance from the secondary indicating element. Such types of instruments are finding wide use in
the modern instrumentation technology.
6. Self-operated and power-operated instruments :
• A self-operated instrument does not require any outside power for its operation; the output energy
is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input signal.
Examples : Mercury-in-glass thermometer, Dial indicator etc.
The power operated instruments are those instruments which require some auxiliary source of
power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic supply etc. for their operation. In such cases, the
input signal supplies only an insignificant portion of the output power.
Example : Electro-mechanical measurement system shown in Fig. 3.1.
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Fig. 3.1. Electro-mechanical measurement system.

7. Deflection and null output instruments :
• In a “deflection type” instrument, the deflection of the instrument provides a basis for
determining the quantity under measurement. The measured quantity produces some physical effect
which deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument. An
opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection or the mechanical
displacement of the moving system. The balance is achieved when opposing effect equals the cause,
producing the deflection or mechanical movement. The deflection or mechanical displacement at the
point of balance then gives the value of measured quantity (which depends upon the calibration of the
instrument).
Examples : Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter etc.
— These instruments are more suited for measurements under dynamic conditions than null type of
instruments whose intrinsic response in slower.
• In a “null type” of instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of
measured quantity. The null condition is dependent upon some other known conditions.
Example : D.C. potentiometer.
Advantages :
(i) The “null type” instruments are more accurate than deflection type instruments.
(ii) These instruments can be highly sensitive as compared with deflection type instruments.

3.3 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS

The following are some important factors/points which are very essential to be considered for the
proper selection of a correct instrument for any application :
1. The accuracy expected from the instrument.
The following most significant and fundamental rule, which is perhaps the most important
rule in measurement, must always be kept in mind :
“Never demand an accuracy of measurement higher than that which is really needed, and
never forget that each degree of accuracy, if demanded, is likely to have a disproportionate
effect on the complexity and cost of measuring apparatus”.
2. When are the final data required (i.e. at the time of taking the measurement, or at later one)?
3. The cost criterion (i.e., the cost of the measuring process).
4. In what form the data should be displayed (i.e., indicating, recording, integrating etc.)?
5. Whether quantity to be measured has constant value or is it a time variant?
— In the measurement of time variant quantities the manner in which the quan- tity to be
measured changes has a significant effect on the type of measuring instruments to be
used. The physical characteristics of the measuring device must always be taken into
account since these characteristics determine the amount of inter- action which takes
place between the measurand quantity and the instrument.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS

Following are the three main functions of instruments :
1. Indicating function.
2. Recording function.
3. Controlling function.
1. Indicating function :
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— The value of the quantity can be read by the movement of the needle on a calibrated scale
provided on the instrument. Readings can be taken to any fraction within the limitations of the
instrument and human eye.
Examples :
(i) The deflection of a pointer of a ‘speedometer’ indicates the speed of the automobile at that
moment.
(ii) The use of a ‘pressure gauge’ for indicating pressure.
— These days digital display (i.e., the reading in numericals) is also commonly used. In fact, where
highly accurate and exact readings are desired, use of digital readouts is recommended.
2. Recording function :
— In several cases the instrument continuously records, with pen and ink, the value of measured
quantity against some other variable or against time. A graph paper is provided whose speed can be
adjusted. A recording instrument can be used to record more than one number of quantities also, in
which case, either the recording of different parameters may be done by different pens or same pen
may record one parameter after other.
Example : A ‘potentiometric type of recorder’ used for monitoring temperature records the
instantaneous values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
3. Controlling function :
— The controlling function is perhaps one of the most important functions particularly in the field
of industrial control processes. Here, the information is used by the instrument/system to control the
original measured quantity.
Examples :
(i) Floats for liquid level control.
(ii) Thermostats for temperature control.
Essential requirements of a measuring instrument :
The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are :
1. Its introduction into the circuit where measurements are to be made, should not change the circuit
configuration.
2. Its power consumption should be small.

3.5 COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

Qualitatively, the “electrical indicating instruments” are widely used for measurement of current,
voltage, resistance and power. These instruments can be classified as follows :
1. Analog instruments.
2. Digital instruments. (For details of digital instruments refer to chapter 10)
• The deflection type instruments with a scale and movable pointer are called analog instruments.
— The measured parameter is converted into electrical signal which further actuates some electro-
mechanical device to move the pointer continuously as the parameter changes.
• The instruments which use logic circuits and techniques to obtain a measurement and then
display it in numerical reading (digital) form are called digital instruments.
The digital instruments claim the following advantages over analog instruments :
(i) Greater accuracy.
(ii) Better resolution.
(iii) Automatic polarity and zeroing.
(iv) Easy readability.
Table 3.1 shows the comparison between analog and digital type instruments.
Table 3.1. Comparison between Analog and Digital type Instruments
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Pointer-scale analog indicators :

In analog instruments, the value of the measured parameter is indicated by positioning of the
indicating pointer against a calibrated scale. This purpose can be achieved either by moving the pointer
with relation to a stationary scale (fixed-scale moving-pointer indicators) or the scale may be moved
with relation to a fixed reference (moving-scale fixed-pointer indicators).
Multi-pointer indicator. This type of indicator contains more than one number of pointers and
above each point the identification number of the medium being measured is marked. Usually this
arrangement is used in recorders and not in indicators.
Multi-range indicators. An instrument with multi-range indicators has different scales for
different ranges; The choice of a particular scale is made by a selector switch.
1. Single-point indicators:
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The fixed-scale and movable-pointer indicators, available in a variety of forms, are shown in Fig.
3.2(a).
Fig. 3.2(b) shows the fixed-pointer and movable-scale indicators.

Fig. 3.2 (a). Fixed-scale and movable-pointer indicators.

Fig. 3.2 (b). Fixed-pointer and movable-scale indicators.

The readability of graduated dials is influenced by the following factors :
• The shape and length of the pointer.
• The number, spacing, length and thickness of scale marking.
• The system of numbering of the scale marks.
• The size and design of the numerals.
2. Multi-point, multi-pointer and multi-range indicators:
Multi-point indicator. In this system, the indicator pointer can be connected to a number of inputs,
one at a time with the help of a selector switch.
The selector switch may be operated either manually or automatically after a pre- determined time.
The observed reading is multiplied by a factor corresponding to the particular measurand.
Generally, such systems are confined where measurable variables are of electrical signals as the
selection is accomplished by switching electrical circuits. However, gas selector switches also exist
which connect one gas pipe at a time to the measuring instrument and are well-designed to avoid
leakage of gas.

3.6 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

3.6.1. Introduction and Classification
The instruments used for all electrical measurements are called measuring instruments. They
include ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, energy meters etc. The various electrical instruments may
broadly be divided into two groups :
1. Absolute instruments. Absolute instruments are those instruments which indicate the quantity
to be measured in terms of the constants of the instrument (dimensions, turns etc.) and in order to find
out the quantity in the practical units it is necessary to multiply such deflections with an instrument
constant.
• No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in this case.
• The most common absolute instrument is tangent galvanometer which gives the measured current
in terms of tangent of the deflected angle, the radius and the number of turns of the galvanometer.
• Such insruments are rarely used (the use being merely confined within laboratories as
standardising instruments).
2 . Secondary instruments. Secondary instruments are those in which the value of electrical
quantity to be measured can be determined from the deflection of instrument only when they have been
pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument.
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• The deflection of the instrument gives directly the quantity to be measured.
• These instruments are most generally used in everyday work.
Secondary instruments may also be classified as follows :
1. Indicating instruments. Indicating instruments are those which indicate the instantaneous value
of the electrical quantity being measured at the time at which it is being measured. Their indications
are given by pointers moving over calibrated scales.
Example. Ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters.
2. Recording instruments. Recording instruments are those which give a continuous record of the
variations of an electrical quantity over a selected period of time. The pointer in these types of
instruments is an infed pen which leaves a trace on a paper put over a moving drum.
3. Integrating instruments. Integrating instruments are those which measure the total quantity of
electricity delivered in a particular time.
Example. Ampere-hour and watt-hour meters.
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified as follows :
1. According to the quantity being measured :
Ammeters. ...... for measuring the magnitude of current.
Voltmeters. ...... for measuring voltages.
Ohmmeters and resistance bridges. ...... for measuring resistances.
Wattmeters. ...... for power measurements.
Watt-hour meters. ...... for energy measurements.
Frequency meters. ...... for frequency measurements.
Power factor meters. ...... for power-factor measurements.
2. According to the kind of current :
Instruments are classified into D.C., A.C. and A.C./D.C. instruments.
3. According to accuracy limits :
4. According to the principle of operation :
Instruments are grouped into :
— Moving coil
— Moving iron
— Electrodynamic
— Induction
— Hot-wire
— Thermoelectric
— Rectifier types.
5. According to the type of indication :
Instruments may be :
— Indicating type
— Recording type.
6. According to application :
— Switch board
— Portable.

3.6.2. Electrical Principles of Operation

All electrical measuring instruments depend for their action on any of many physical effects of
electric current or potential. The following are the effects generally used in their manufacture :
(i) Magnetic effect. Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmetes, power factor meters etc.
(ii) Thermal effect. ...... Ammeters, voltmeters, maximum demand meters etc.
(iii) Chemical effect. ...... D.C. ampere hour meters (integrating meters).
(iv) Electrostatic effect. ...... Voltmeters which can indirectly be used as ammeters and wattmeters.
(v) Electro-magnetic induction effect. ....... Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters and integrating
meters used in A.C. only.
• Difference between an ammeter and a voltmeter :
An ammeter and a voltmeter work on the same principle. The ammeter has a low resistance so that
when it is connected in series with any circuit, it does not change the current. The voltmeter has a high
resistance and it is so designed that when connected in parallel to the circuit for measuring voltages it
does not take appreciable current.
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An ammeter of low range can be used as a voltmeter by connecting an external resistance in series
with it.

3.6.3. Essential Features of Indicating Instruments

Indicating instruments possess three essential features :
1. Deflecting device. ...... whereby a mechanical force is produced by the electric current, voltage or
power.
2. Controlling device. whereby the value of deflection is dependent upon the magnitude of the
quantity being measured.
3. Damping device. to prevent oscillation of the the moving system and enable the latter to reach its
final position quickly.

3.6.3.1. Deflecting device

A deflecting device produces a deflecting torque which is caused by anyone of these effects:
thermal effect, chemical effect, electrostatic effect etc.; with the help of this deflecting torque the
needle or the pointer moves from zero position to the final position. The arrangement of the deflecting
device with each type of instrument will be discussed individually.

3.6.3.2. Controlling devices

These are two types of controlling devices :
(i) Spring control.
(ii) Gravity control.
(i) Spring control. Fig. 3.3 shows a commonly used spring control arrangement. It utilises two
spiral hair springs, 1 and 2, the inner ends of which are attached to the spindle S. The outer end of
spring 2 is fixed while that of 1 is attached to a lever, the adjustment of which gives zero adjustments.
The two springs 1 and 2 are wound in opposite directions so that when the moving system is deflected,
one spring winds up while the other unwinds, and the controlling torque is due to the combined
torsions of the springs.

Fig. 3.3. Spring control.

Since the torsional torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the controlling
torque (Tc) is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer (θ).
i.e., Tc ∞ θ
The spring material should have the following properties :
(i) It should be non-magnetic.
(ii) It must be of low temperature co-efficient.
(iii) It should have low specific resistance.
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(iv) It should not be subjected to fatigue.
• The exact expression for controlling the torque is :

where k is spring constant (or control constant, or torsion constant or restoring constant). Its value
is given by :

(ii) Gravity control. With gravity control, weights L and M are attached to the spindle S [Fig. 3.4
(a)], the function of L being to balance the weight of the pointer P. Weight M therefore provides the
controlling torque. When the pointer is at zero, M hangs vertically downwards. When P is deflected
through angle θ, the controlling torque is equal to (weight of M × distance d) and is therefore
proportional to the sine of the angular deflection [Fig. 3.4 (b)]
i.e., Tc ∞ sin θ
The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down the carrying system.

Fig. 3.4. Gravity control.

It may be seen from Fig. 3.4(b) that as θ approaches 90°, the distance 1-2 increases by a relatively
small amount for a given change in the angle that when θ is just increasing from its zero value. Hence,
gravity-controlled instruments have scales which are not uniform but are cramped or crowded at their
lower ends.
Advantages :
1. The gravity controlled instrument is cheaper than corresponding spring-controlled instrument.
2. It is not subjected to fatigue.
3. It is unaffected by temperature.
Disdvantages:
1. Gravity control gives a cramped scale.
2. The instrument must be levelled before use.
Example 3.1. The length, width and thickness of the control spring of an instrument are 390 mm,
0.52 mm and 0.075 mm. The Young’s modulus of the spring material is 110 GN/m 2 . Determine the
torque exerted by the spring when it is turned through 80°.

Solution. Given : l = 390 mm; b = 0.52 mm; t = 0.075 mm; Tc = 110 GN/m 2 ;

We know that, controlling torque,

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Example 3.2. The toque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current through it. If a current
of 5A produces a deflection of 90°, what deflection will occur for a current of 3A when the instrument
is :
(i) Spring-controlled;
(ii) Gravity controlled.
(Jadavpur University)

Solution. Since deflecting torque varies as (current)2 , we have Td ∞ I2

Example 3.3. In a spring controlled indicating instrument the control is exerted by two springs.
The allowable maximum stress is 30 MN/m2 and Young’s modulus of spring material is 120 GN/m2 .
Determine the suitable dimensions for spring if the deflecting torque corresponding to a full scale
deflection of 90° is 1.2 × 10−3 Nm. Assume the width of spring strip as 0.6 mm.
(Roorkee University)

Solution. Given : Allowable maximum stress, σ max = 30 MN/m2 ; E = 120 GN/m2 ; Td = 1.2 × 10–3
Nm; θ = 90° or
Dimensions of spring, l, t :
As there are two controlling springs, the controlling torque (Tc) caused by each spring is equal to
half of the deflecting torque (Td ) i.e., controlling torque of each spring,

The maximum stress (σ max) developed in the spring must be well below the elastic limit of the
spring material at the maximum deflection of the moving system in order to avoid failure and to
preserve long period stability; it is given by the expression :
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Multiplying (i) and (ii), we get

3.6.3.3. Damping devices

Owing to the inertia of the moving system, when subjected to the deflecting and restoring torques,
number of vibrations will be produced before finally coming to rest. To-avoid this, a damping torque is
required which opposes the motion and ceases when the pointer comes to rest. The degree of damping
should be adjusted to a value which is sufficient to enable the pointer to rise quickly to its deflected
position without overshooting. In that case, the instrument is said to be dead-beat. If the instrument is
over- damped the movement is very slow (and the instrument becomes lethargic) as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5. Damping curves.

Damping can be provided by the following methods :
1. Air damping.
2. Eddy current damping.
3. Fluid friction damping.
1 . Air damping. Fig. 3.6 shows an arrangement for obtaining air damping. It consists of a thin
metal vane MV attached to the spindle S; the vane moves in a sector-shaped box B. Any tendency of the
moving system to oscillate is damped by the action of the air on the vane.
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Fig. 3.6. Eddy current damping.
2 . Eddy current damping. This method of damping is based on the principle that when a
conducting, non-magnetic material is moved in a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced in it which causes
currents called the eddy-currents. Due to these eddy currents, a force exists between them and the field.
Due to Lenz’s law this force is always in opposition to the force causing rotation of the conducting
material, thus, it provides the necessary damping.

Fig. 3.7. Eddy current damping by metallic disc.

• One form of eddy-current damping is shown in Fig. 3.7. Here a copper or aluminium disc, carried
by a spindle, can move between the poles of permanent magnet. If the disc moves clockwise,
the e.m.f.s induced in the disc circulate eddy currents as shown dotted. It follows from Lenz’s
law that these currents exert a force opposing the motion producing them, namely the
clockwise movement of the disc.
• Another form of providing damping is used in the moving coil instruments using permanent
magnet. The moving coil is mounted over a metallic former. When the coil is deflected eddy
e.m.f.s are induced in the two sides of the former, causing eddy forces as shown in Fig. 3.8.
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Fig. 3.8. Eddy current damping by metal former.

(i) Eddy current damping torque with a metal disc :
Refer to Fig. 3.7.
Let,
B = Flux density of magnetic field (Wb/m2 ),
t = Thickness of metallic disc (m),
b = Width of damping/permanent magnet (m),
l = Length of permanent magnet (m),
ρ = Resistivity of disc material (Ωm),
ω = Angular speed of disc (rad./s), and
r = Mean radius of the disc (m).
The e.m.f. induced in the disc in the interpolar gap,

The resistance of eddy current path, consisting only the portion of the disc which is immediately
under the pole,

Actual path of eddy current is not limited to the portion of the disc under the magnet but is greater
than this. Therefore to take this factor into account, actual resistance is taken as K times

where,
K = a constant which depends upon radial position of poles, it is always greater than unity.

— The magnitude of damping torque can be varied by adjusting the radial position of the poles;
damping torque (TD) decreases with the movement of the magnet towards the edge of the disc and
becomes zero when the centres of the poles are at the edge of the disc.
— The above phenomenon is employed in the induction type instruments by placing a damping
magnet (permanent type) at the opposite side of the disc from the electromagnet, so that the disc serves
for damping as well as for operating purposes.
(ii) Eddy current damping with a metal former :
Fig. 3.8, shows a metallic former moving in the field of a permanent magnet.
xLet, B = Strength of magnetic field (Wb/m2 ),
l = Length of the former (m),
d = Diameter of the former (m),
b = Width of the former (m),
t = Thickness of the former (m), and
ω = Angular speed of former (rad./s).
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— It is obvious from eqn. (3.6) that damping torque (TD) can be varied by varying the thickness (t)
of the metal former.
3. Fluid friction damping. Fig. 3.9 shows the method of fluid friction damping. Here light vanes
are attached to the spindle of the moving system. The vanes are dipped into a pot of damping oil and
are completely submerged by the oil. The motion of the moving system is always opposed by the
friction of the damping oil on the vanes. The damping force thus created always increases with the
increase in velocity of vanes. There is no damping force when the vanes are stationary.
The damping oil used must have the following properties :
(i) Must be a good insulator.
(ii) Should be non-evaporating.
(iii) Should not have corrosive action upon the metal of the vane.
(iv) The viscosity of the oil should not change with the temperature.

Fig. 3.9. Fluid friction damping.

Though in this method of damping, no case is required as in the air friction damping but it is not
much used due to the following disadvantages :
(i) Objectionable creeping of oil.
(ii) Using the instrument always in vertical position and its obvious unsuitability for use in portable
instruments.
☞ The various type of indicating instruments used for measurement of current, voltage, power and
energy along with suitability for the type of measurement, type of control, type of damping, special
features and applications are given below in tabular form :
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3.7 GALVANOMETERS
A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting presence of small currents or voltages in a
closed circuit or for measuring their magnitudes.
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However, measurement of magnitude is avoided as much as possible, for accuracy in reading a
deflection is seriously limited.
Several types of galvanometers have been devised, including moving coil and magnet types. Special
instruments are needed for some purposes, but the great majority of the galvanometers in use now are
the permanent-magnet moving coil type, normally referred as “D’ Arsonval type ”. This is D.C.
galvanometer.
Other types of galvanometers are :
Ballistic galvanometer. It is used to measure the quantity of electricity (charge) passed through it.
In “magnetic measurements”, this quantity of electricity is due to an instantaneous e.m.f. induced in a
search coil connected across the ballistic galvanometer.
The main advantage of moving coil instrument lies in its freedom from the effects of stray fields and
the ease with which a long and uniform scale may be attained. These are the features that have caused
it to be adopted, in a modified form, for D.C. ammeters and voltmeters.
Vibration galvanometer. These galvanometers are most widely used as “tuned detectors”. These
galvanometers are of the following types :
(i) Moving magnet type.
(ii) Moving coil type.
— The moving coil type galvanometer is more generally used, the moving magnet having the
disadvantage of being seriously affected by magnetic fields of the resonance frequency, unless
adequately screened.
Galvanometers find their principal applications in bridge and potentiometer measurements.
Therefore, a galvanometer in addition to being sensitive, should have :
— A stable zero;
— A short periodic time;
— Nearly critical damping.

3.7.1. D’Arsonval Galvanometer

3.7.1.1. Construction and Working
Fig. 3.10 shows the essential features of a D’Arsonval galvanometer :

Fig. 3.10. D’Arsonval galvanometer.

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Construction :
— It consists of a circular or rectangular coil of very fine insulated wire with many turns usually
wound on an aluminium frame or bobbin suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet.
— The coil is suspended by a phosphor bronze filament which acts as one lead-in for the coil. The
other lead-in wire is a very flexible spiral wire at the bottom of the coil. The elasticity of the filament
sets up a moderate torque in opposition to the rotation of the coil.
— The poles of the magnet are usually cylindrical in shape, and a cylindrical soft iron core is
placed between the poles and coaxial, with them.
The cylindrical form of poles faces and core possesses the following advantages :
(i) The length of air gap is reduced so that the amount of flux linking the coil is increased, thus
increasing the sensitivity of the instrument;
(ii) The flux between the pole faces and core is practically radial. In radial field the deflection of
coil is directly proportional to the current in the coil and, therefore, a uniform scale is
obtained.
Working/Operation :
— When current flows through the coil, a deflecting force proportional to the flux density, the coil
current, and dimensions of the coil makes the coil to rotate on its vertical axis.
— The “deflecting force is opposed by the restraining force” of the suspension filament so that coil
does not continue to rotate as in a motor but turns until the deflecting torque is balanced by the
restraining force.
— Since the deflecting torque is directly proportional to the coil current, therefore, the amount of
deflection of the coil indicates the magnitude of current flowing in the coil. The amount of
deflection and hence the magnitude of curent flowing through the coil may be indicated by a
pointer attached to the moving element and moving over a calibrated scale.
For the adjustment of coil and also for zero adjustment, a “torsion head” is provided.
— In a sensitive galvanometer, a small “mirror” is attached to the moving coil to indicate the
position of the coil. This arrangement may be used in two ways : (i) To mount a telescope and scale in
front of the galvanometer so that the observer reads the scale reflected by the mirror; (ii) Another
arrangement (more common and less tiring to the user) consists of a lamp and scale device in which a
spot of light is projected on the mirror and reflected to the scale. The scale is usually mounted 1 m
away from the mirror although 0.5 m is used sometimes for compactness.
• There is a “damping torque” present owing to production of eddy currents in the metal former on
which the coil is mounted. Damping is also obtained by connecting a low resistance across the
galvanometer terminals. Damping torque depends upon the resistance and we can obtain critical
damping by adjusting the value of resistance.

3.7.1.2. Torque equation

Refer to Fig. 3.10 :
Let, N = Number of turns in coil,
B = Flux density, Wb/m2 ,
I = Current through the coil,
l = Length of coil side (vertical), m
b = Width of coil, m,
θ = Deflection of pointer, rad., and
C = Spring (or controlling or restoring) constant, Nm/rad.
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G is called the displacement constant (= NBA) of galvanometer. Controlling torque exerted by the
suspension at deflection θ,

Several times the deflection is measured on a scale kept at a distance r metres from a mirror. A
beam of light is reflected on the scale by a small mirror which is mounted on the moving system (Fig.
3.11). The distance r is usually kept as 1 metre. If the moving system rotates through angle θ, the light
beam is turned through angle 2θ. Then,
Deflection oa i.e., d = (r) × (2θ) metres.

Fig. 3.11. Measurement of deflection using mirror and scale.

3.7.1.3. Galvanometer Constants

The galvanometer has four constants known as “Intrinsic constants.” These are :
1. Displacement constant.
2. Inertia constant.
3. Damping constant.
4. Control or restoration constant.
1. Displacement constant :
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• The deflection torque is given by Td = GI (eqn. 3.9) where G is the displacement constant of the
galvanometer and is equal to NBlb.
• The units of G are Nm/A.
2. Inertia constant :
• Owing to inertia of moving system, a retarding torque is produced.
• This torque (Tj) is dependent upon the moment of inertia of moving system and the angular
acceleration.

3. Damping constant :
• Damping is provided by friction due to motion of the coil air and also by induced electrical
effects if a closed circuit is provided.
• Damping torque (TD) is usually assumed to be proportional to the angular velocity of the system
and may be expressed as :

4. Control or restoration constant :

• A controlling torque (Tc) is produced due to elasticity of the system which tries to restore the
moving system back to its original position, and may be expressed as :

3.7.1.4. Dynamic response

The deflecting torque Td (GI) causes the motion, while the inertia torque , damping

torque and controlling torque (Tc = Cθ) opposite the motion. The “equation of motion” is
given as :

Eqn. (3.14) is well known second order differential equation. Use of Laplace transform provides
an easy solution. Taking Laplace transforms of both sides and writing Laplace transform of response θ
as θ(s), we get
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where, γ is known as “damping ratio”;

The characteristic equation is :

The roots of characteristic equation are :

The actual response depends on the expression under the radical in eqn. (3.17)

— When damping is critical”, the pointer reaches its final position without any
oscillation.
The damping ratio γ is the ratio of actual value of D to the value of D for critical damping.

Therefore, the roots, s1 , s2 in eqn. (3.17) can be written as :

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The damped frequency of oscillation ω d is :

Eqn. (3.21) can be written as :

The response of the three conditions of damping is given by :

The system response for the underdamped, critically damped and overdamped cases is shown in
Fig. 3.12.
☞ Following observations are made :
• When the system is θ underdamped the pointer makes a number of oscillations about the final
position θd before setting down. Thus an underdamped response leads to waste of time.
• Overdamped response also leads to wastage of time because the system shows a sluggish
behaviour.
• In critical damping, the time required for setting down to the final value θ d is the minimum.

Fig. 3.12. Underdamped, critically damped and overdamped response of second order
system.

3.7.1.5. Effect of galvanometer resistance on damping

Even when the galvanometer circuit is open, the air friction and eddy current damping are present.
When the galvanometer circuit is closed, a current I flows in this circuit. I is given by the equation :
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Now the equation of motion is :

The term in eqn. (3.29) replaces the term D in eqn. (3.14). If damping constant D’ is

small and negligible, the galvanometer will be critically damped when :

Resistance R for critical damping is given by,

I f Rg is the resistance of galvanometer, the external series resistance Re required for critical
damping is given as :

This external resistance required for critical damping is called CDRX or ECDR, critical damping
resistance external.

3.7.1.6. Sensitivity of galvanometer

The sensitivity of a galvanometer may be defined as follows :
1. Current sensitivity.
2. Voltage sensitivity.
3. Megohm sensitivity.
1. Current sensitivity :
— It is defined as the deflection produced by unit current.
i.e., Current sensitivity,

— In case of galvanometer attached with a mirror it may be defined as deflection in mm produced

on a scale at a distance of one metre from the galvanometer mirror by unit current.
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— Sometimes the current density is defined as the current required to cause a deflection of one
scale division.
2. Voltage sensitivity :
— It is defined in terms of deflection in scale divisions caused by unit voltage applied across the
galvanometer.
— In case of a galvanometer attached with a mirror, the voltage sensitivity is defined as the
deflection produced in mm on a scale at a distance of 1 m from the mirror by a unit voltage impressed
on the galvanometer.

3. Megohm sensitivity :
— It is defined as the resistance required in M Ω in the circuit to cause a deflection of one scale
division on impressing 1 V.
— In case of galvanometer attached with a mirror the megohm sensitivity is defined as the
resistance in MΩ placed in series with the galvanometer through which one volt of impressed voltage
will cause a deflection of 1 mm on a scale at a distance of 1m from the mirror. This is reicprocal of
current density.
• A sensitive galvanometer is one which produces a large deflection for a small current. Hence, for
a sensitive galvanometer the displacement constant G should be large and control constant C should
be small.
— As displacement constant G = NBA, therefore, the sensitivity can be increased by increasing the
number of turns, using high flux density and by increasing the dimensions of the coil. For a given coil
area A (= lb) and a constant value of flux density B, the value of G can be increased by increasing the
number of turns. If the winding area is fixed, a large number of turns can only be wound if we use thin
wire. Hence for a sensitive galvanometer the value of resistance of coil Rg is large.
— The sensitivity can also be increased by making the control constant C small.

3.7.1.7. Types of D.C. galvanometer

D’Arsonval type galvanometers, which are D.C. galvanometers, are made in three general types :
1. Portable point type.
2. Laboratory reflecting type.
3. Box type.
1. Portable point type :
— These are small instruments, similar in construction to other types of portable instruments. They
may be pivoted or may have taut suspension.
— This type of galvanometer has sensitivity from 0.5 to 4.0 mm/μA and has a period from 2.5 to 3
seconds.
— They have CDRX from 20 to 1800 ohms and coil resistance from 12 to 250 ohms.
• Light spot and pointer D.C. galvanometer has sensitivities from 50.4 to 252.0 mm/μA with period
of 2 seconds.
It has CDRX from 100 to 3500 ohms and coil resistance from 100 to 1000 ohms.
2. Laboratory reflecting type :
— These are highly sensitive instruments.
— Reflecting lamp and scale type have sensitivities from 250 to 100,000 mm/μA and period of 5 to
40 seconds.
— They have CRDX from 900 to 1000 kΩ and a coil resistance of 80 to 800 ohms.
3. Box type :
— They have taut suspension and do not require exact levelling.
— The box includes the complete optical system and, therefore, it is not necessary to make separate
mounting for galvanometer, lamp and scale etc. They are self contained.
— Their sensitivity ranges from 200 to 2000 mm/μA having a period of 2.5 to 3 seconds.
— Their CDRX is 400 to 25000 ohms having coil resistance of 25 to 550 ohms. The characteristics
of different types of galvanometers are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Characteristic of Moving Coil Galvanometers
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3.7.1.8. Galvanometer shunt

In bridge and potentiometer measurements, during preliminary balancing work, the potential across
the galvanometer circuit may be high due to unbalance. If galvanometer with sufficient sensitivity for
final balance is used; the large unbalance that probably exists at the initial stage is likely to damage the
coil of the suspension. In addition, excessive currents that may flow, send the light spot so far off the
scale that the deflection is not readable and experimenter does not know what to do. Therefore, it is
necessary to use protective parallel resistances. The simplex procedure is to use :
(i) A high resistance in series with the galvanometer to limit the current and therefore the
deflection produced by the available e.m.f. under conditions of unbalances;
(ii) A low resistance connected across the terminals of the galvanometer thus by-passing most of
the currents. This reduces the sensitivity of galvanometer circuit so that the response of the instrument
to a given current is reduced.
— A low resistance shunt will heavily overdamp the instrument so that its motion will be sluggish.
— For both series and shunt resistances the time required to attain the final deflection is excessive.
— As a general rule, a combination of series and a shunt resistance is preferable which will give
the desired reduction in sensitivity and at the same time the proper damping characteristics.

Ayrton universal shunt :

— Fig. 3.13 shows an arrangement in which a combination of series and parallel resistances is
incorporated. The lower part of the resistance (i.e. BC below the sliding contact) is in parallel, the
upper part of resistance (i.e. AB above the sliding contact) is in series with the galvanometer.
When the slider is near the lower end, a small portion of the resistance is in parallel with the
galvanometer and the major part is in series with the galvano-meter. The current divides itself in two
parts, the major going through the shunt and only a small part through the galvanometer, thus
protecting it and giving it small sensitivity.
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Fig. 3.13. Galvanometer shunt.
When the sliding contact is moved up, the shunt resistance increases and the series resistance
decreases. This increases the current through the galvanometer and thus the sensitivity is increased.
But, there is a loss of sensitivity (as compared with galvanometer alone) with the sliding contact even
at the top point, this loss, however, is not serious if Rsh is very high in comparison to galvanometer
resistance Rg .
When key is open (see Fig. 3.13), there is closed circuit through the galvanometer coil and Rsh and
this provides a damping circuit. Rsh should, accordingly be selected to have a value approximately
equal to that of critical damping resistance of the galvanometer (somewhat higher is satisfactory) as
the galvanometer response is excellent; if considerably too high, a fixed shunt can be added across Rsh .
As CDRX is usually several times the coil resistance, the loss of sensitivity due to use of shunt of this
value is not serious.

Fig. 3.14. Ayrton universal shunt.

— Fig. 3.14 shows the construction of “Ayrton universal shunt ”, using a dial type switch. The
resistance of each shunt can be proportioned to give the desired result, as explained below :
When the contact is on stud A (or 1.0),

When the contact is on stud B (or 0.1),

From the above derivations, we find that the relative values of current (through the galvanometer
and through the shunt) do not depend upon the value of galvanometer resistance Rg . The shunt thus
gives the same relative current values for the various steps for all galvanometers although not the same
fraction of the total current; therefore, it is called a Universal shunt :
• The “Ayrton shunt” is very convenient in bridge measurements as the galvanometer sensitivity
can be increased as bridge balance is approached.

3.7.1.9. Selection of galvanometer

The following features should be considered while making choice of a galvanometer :
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1. Sensitivity :
• The sensitivity should be sufficient for the work in hand so that measurements may be made
without undue fatigue and loss of time.
• Although sensitivity is important, yet it should not be the only feature considered in estimating
the utility of a galvanometer.
2. Resistance :
• The resistance should be appropriate for the measurement in hand. Usually a high-resistance
galvanometer is used in a high-resistance circuit and a low-resistance galvanometer is employed in a
low-resistance circuit.
However, it is neither necessary or desirable to have an exact matching between a galvanometer
and the circuit resistance.
3. Damping :
• For measurements of current and voltage, the damping should be somewhat less than, or at most
equal to critical, this will save time.
In general, a galvanometer should be selected whose critical damping resistance matches
reasonably well with the resistance of the circuit in which it is to be used.
4. Period :
• In order that the instrument will respond quickly to the current, the time of vibration of the
moving system should be as short as possible.
5. Promptness of response :
• The promptness of response implies a short period and critical damping.
6. Freedom from mechanical disturbances :
• The symmetric making and mounting the system about the axis of rotation contributes much to
the system stability when it is subjected to mechanical disturbances.
• When the taut suspension galvanometers are properly balanced, they are, in general, less
expensive than slack-suspension instruments to mechanical disturbances.
7. Freedom from stray-field effects :
It is of significant importance that the indications of the instrument be not influenced by the
unavoidable variations of the local field.
• The D’Arsonval galvanometer is usually relatively free from such trouble as its coil operates in a
strong field. However, in case of instruments with weak operating field the use of an astatic system or
of magnetic shielding in necessary.
• Moving magnet galvanometers are sensitive to external field and must be very carefully shielded.
8. Definiteness of zero reading :
• The zero reading should be definite.
• The deflections should come promptly to their final values with no viscous actions of the
suspension.
9. Law of deflection :
• The deflection, throughout its useful range, should be proportional to the current.
10. Coil damping :
• A suitable device should be provided for damping the coil and holding it rigidly in place during
transport.
• A zero adjustment accessible from outside the case is essential.
11. Visibility of suspended parts.
12. Accessibility for repairs.
13. The mirror should be of the smallest practical dimensions.
Example 3.4. Determine the angle through which coil turns when a deflection of 48 mm is
observed on a scale of a galvanometer placed at a distance of 650 mm from the mirror.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 3.11
Given: d = 48 mm or 0.048 m; r = 650 mm or 0.65 m.
The angle turned, θ :
The angle through which the mirror or coil turns may be found from the following expression :
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Example 3.5. Determine the displacement constant of a suspended coil in a galvanometer of a
moving coil vibrating type having 30 turns, 4.5 mm × 2.5 mm mean area and situated in a magnetic
field of 0.8 tesla.

Solution. Given: N = 30; A = 4.5 mm × 2.5 mm = 11.25 mm2 or 11.25 × 10–6 m2 ; B = 0.8 Wb/m2
Displacement constant, G :
Displacement constant is given by :

Example 3.6. The suspended coil of a galvanometer has a 5 mm × 2.5 mm mean area and is
situated in a magnetic field of 1.1 tesla. The moment of inertia of moving parts is 0.25 × 10–6 kgm
and the control string constant is 35 × 10–6 Nm/radian. If a current of 12 mA produces a deflection
of 110°, calculate the number of turns of the suspended coil.

Solution. Given : A = 5 mm × 2.5 mm = 5 × 2.5 × 10–6 m2 or 12.5 × 10–6 m2 ; B = 1.1 Wb/m2 ; J =

0.25 × 10–6 kg-m; C = 35 × 10–6 Nm/rad.; θ = 110° or 1.92 radians.
Number of turns of the suspended coil, N :
We know that for steady deflection,

Example 3.7. Fig. 3.15 shows a galvanometer system in which a wire of 0.12 mm in diameter is
used as a torsion member. The wire is made of phosphor bronze for which modulus of rigidity is 40
GN/m2 . The polar moment of inertia for a round wire is , where d is the diameter of the wire.
A collimated ray of light is reflected by the galvanometer mirror shown. The radius from the
mirror to the scale is 180 mm.
Calculate the following :
(i) Torsional constant;
(ii) Maximum allowable torque if the shear stress is limited to 100 MN/m 2 ;
(iii) Sensitivity of the instrument in m/Nm;
(iv) Maximum possible scale deflection.
(Roorkee University)
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Fig. 3.15. A galvanometer moving system.

Solution. Given : d = 0.12 mm or 0.12 × 10–3 m; l = 20 mm = 0.02 m

G (modulus of rigidity) = 40 GN/m2 ; r = 180 mm or 0.18 m; τ (shear stress) = 100 MN/m2
(i) Torsional constant, C :

Since there are two wires, one at the top and the other at the bottom, the deflection is half of that
for single wire.

(ii) Maximum allowable torque, T :

Since there are two wires, the maximum allowable torque is :

(iii) Sensitivity of the instrument in m/Nm :

The scale is kept at a radius of 0.18 m, and therefore the sensitivity of the scale is :
S = 2 × (12280.5) × 0.18 = 4421 m/Nm (Ans.)
A factor of 2 has been introduced because if mirror turns through an angle θ, the collimated light
turns through 2θ.
(iv) Maximum possible scale deflection :

Example 3.8. The coil of a moving coil galvanometer has 300 turns and is suspended in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.1 Wb/m2 . The control constant is 0.2 × 10 –6 Nm per radian. The coil is 2
cm wide and 2.5 cm high with a moment of inertia of 0.15 × 10–6 kg m2 . If the galvanometer
resistance in 250 Ω calculate the value of resistance which when connected across the galvanometer
terminals will give critical damping, assuming damping to be entirely electromagnetic.
(Punjab University)

Solution. Given : N = 300; B = 0.1 Wb/m2 ; C = 0.2 × 10–6 Nm/rad; b = 2 cm or 0.02 m; l = 2.5 cm
or 0.025 m; J = 0.15 × 10–6 kg m2 ; Rg = 250 Ω.
External resistance for critical damping, CDRX :
Total resistance required for critical damping,
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External resistance required for critical damping,

Example 3.9. The coil of a moving coil galvanometer is wound on a non-magnetic former whose
height and width are both 25 mm. It moves in a constant field of 0.1 Wb/m 2 . The moment of inertia of
its moving parts is 0.3 × 10 –6 kg-m2 and the control spring constant is 32 × 10 –6 Nm/rad.
Calculate :
(i) The number of turns that must be wound on the former to produce a deflection of 140° with a
current of 12 mA.
(ii) The resistance of coil to produce critical damping, all damping being assumed as
electromagnetic.
(Bangalore University)

Solution. Given : b = 25 mm or 0.025 m; B = 0.1 Wb/m2 ; J = 0.3 × 10–6 kg-m2 ; C = 32 × 10–6

Nm/rad.;
(i) Number of turns, N :
For steady deflection, GI = Cθ [Eqn. (3.11)]

(ii) Resistance of galvanometer for critical damping, Rc :

Example 3.10. In a moving coil galvanometer with free time period of 2.5 seconds, a current of
2.4 mA gives a deflection of 250 mm on a scale at a distance of 1.4 m. The moving system has a
moment of inertia of 3.8 × 10–6 kg-m2 .
Determine the total resistance in the galvanometer circuit for critical damping.
Solution. Given : T0 (Free time period) = 2.5 s; I = 2.4 μA; d = 250 mm or 0.25 m; r = 1.4 m; J =
3.8 × 10–6 kg-m2 .
Total resistance in the galvanometer for critical damping, Rc :
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Example 3.11. A moving coil galvanometer deflects 220 mm on a scale at a distance of 1.2 m
from the mirror when a current of 2.2 μA passes through it. The free time period of the galvanometer
is 3.8 seconds. The galvanometer is dead beat when the total resistance in the galvanometer is 19500
Ω.
Determine the moment of inertia of the galvanometer moving system.
Solution. Given : d = 220 mm or 0.22 m; r = 1.2 m; I = 2.2 μA; T0 = 3.8 s; Rc = 19500 Ω
Moment of inertia of the system, J :

Example 3.1. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer which has a former of a
non-conducting material :
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The current sensitivity of the instrument = 0.012 μA/mm at 1 m
The period of undamped oscillation = 5.5 seconds
The displacement constant of the instrument = 4.8 × 10–3 Nm/A
Calculate :
(i) Control constant.
(ii) Inertia constant.
(iii) Total circuit resistance for instrument to be dead beat.

Solution. Given : Current sensitivity, SI = 0.0012 μA/mm at 1 m; Tn = 5.5 s; G = 4.8 × 10–3 Nm/A.
(i) Control constant, C :
Suppose that the instrument is reflecting type. Therefore, if the final steady deflection is θ, the spot
moves through an angle 2θ. The spot moves a distance 1 mm at 1 m with a current of 0.0012 μA or in
other words a current of 0.0012 μA deflects the instrument through,

(ii) Inertia constant, J :

Undamped (free or natural time) period,

(iii) Total circuit resistance for critical damping, Rc :

Total circuit resistance for critical damping or dead beat,

Example 3.13. A d’Arsonval galvanometer has a rectangular coil wound on an aluminium

former of resistivity 30 × 10 –9 Ω m. The sides of the former, each of effective length 35 mm, move in
a radial field of uniform flux density 0.12 Wb/m2 against a control torque of 20 × 10–6 Nm/rad. The
width of the former is 25 mm, the ends being effectively outside the magnetic field, and the moment of
inertia of the moving system is 90 × 10–9 kg-m2 . Calculate the cross-sectional area of the aluminium
former if it is to provide critical damping, other sources of damping being neglected.
(Nagpur University)

Solution. Given : r = 30 × 10–9 Ωm; l = 35 mm or 0.035 m; b = 0.025 m; B = 0.12 Wb/m2 ; J = 90

× 10–9 kg-m2 ; control torque, C = 20 × 10–6 Nm/rad.
Cross-sectional area of aluminium former, a :
Total damping factor (D f) in the absence of all other damping except the damping produced by
former is given by :
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Example 3.14. A moving coil galvanometer has the following data :

Number of turns = 320
Flux density = 0.12 Wb/m2
Control constant = 0.12 × 10 –6 Nm/rad.
Coil size = 21 mm × 22 mm
Moment of inertia = 0.2 × 10–6 kg-m2
Galvanometer resistance (including external resistance) = 2100 Ω
Determine :
(i) Total resistance for critical damping.
(ii) Damping ratio.
(iii) Frequency of undamped oscillations.
(iv) Frequency of damped oscillations.

Solution. Given: N = 320; B = 0.12 Wb/m2 ; C = 0.12 × 10–6 Nm/rad.;

A = 21 × 22 × 10–6 = 4.62 × 10–4 m2 ; J = 0.2 × 10–6 kg-m2 ; Ractual = 2100 Ω.
(i) Total resistance for critical damping, Rc :
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Example 3.15. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer :

Number of turns of the coil = 340
Flux density in the magnetic field = 0.12 Wb/m2
Control constant = 0.22 × 10 –6 Nm/rad.
Dimensions of the coil = 25 mm (wide) × 30 mm (high)
Moment of inertia = 0.2 × 10–6 kg-m2
Galvanometer resistance = 350 Ω
Resistance connected in series with the galvanometer = 3150 Ω
Determine :
(i) The resistance to be connected to galvanometer for critical damping.
(ii) Relative damping.
(iii) Logarithmic decrement.
(iv) Frequency of free oscillations.
(v) First maximum deflection.
(vi) Periods of undamped and damped oscillations.
(Roorkee University)

Solution. Given: N = 340; B = 0.12 Wb/m2 ; C = 0.22 × 10–6 Nm/rad.; A = 25 mm × 30 mm = 750

mm2 or 0.00075 m2 ; J = 0.2 × 10–6 kg-m2 ; Rg = 350 Ω; Resistance connected in series with
galvanometer = 3150 Ω.
(i) External resistance required for critical damping, CDRX :
Total resistance required for critical damping
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Example 3.16. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer :

Number of turns of the coil = 300
Flux density in the uniform magnetic field = 0.06 Wb/m2
Torsion constant = 1.6 × 10 –7 Nm/radian
Dimensions of the coil = 20 mm (width) × 25 mm (height)
Moment of inertia = 1.7 × 10–7 kg-m2
Galvanometer resistance = 250 Ω
Total damping = 4.5 × 10 –8 Nm/radian/second.
Determine :
(i) The deflection of galvanometer in radian, and in mm when a current of 3 μA is flowing through
the galvanometer, the scale is at a distance of 1.6 m from the mirror.
(ii) The current sensitivity.
(iii) The voltage sensitivity.
(iv) The megohm sensitivity.
(v) Frequency of oscillations.
(vi) Relative damping.
(vii) Logarithmic decrement.
(Delhi University)

Solution. Given : N = 300; B = 0.06 Wb/m2 ; C = 1.6 × 10–7 Nm/radian; A = 20 × 10–3 × 25 × 10–3
= 0.0005 m2 ; J = 1.7 × 10–7 kg-m2 ; Rg = 250 Ω; Total damping, D = 4.5 × 10–8 Nm/rad./s; I = 3 µA; r
= 1.6 m.
(i) The deflection of galvanometer :
The deflection of galvanometer in radian :
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Example 3.17. The following data relate to a panel type PMMC instrument which has a full scale
deflection 90° = 100 scale divisions, with a current of 1.2 mA.
The period of oscillations = 0.6 s
In order to measure the spring constant, a small weight having a gravitational force of 98.1 ×
6
10 N is placed at a distance of 110 mm from the horizontal axis of rotation with the horizontal
pointer acting as lever arm; the resultant deflection = 40 divisions.
The first maximum deflection, when a current of 1.2 mA is suddenly passed through the meter =
115 divisions
The value of flux density in the air gap measured with a Hall probe = 0.26 Wb/m2
The length and average diameter of the coil = 18 mm and 16 mm respectively.
Determine the following :
(i) Spring constant.
(ii) Moment of inertia.
(iii) Number of turns.
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(iv) Damping ratio.
(v) Equivalent resistance of the short-circuited winding represented by the damping action of the
former of the coil.
Solution. Given : Full scale deflection = 90° = 100 scale divisions, or, 1 scale division = 0.9° =
0.0157 rad.; I = 1.2 mA or 0.0012 A; Tn = 0.6 s; B = 0.26 Wb/m2 ; l = 18 mm or 0.018 m; d (or b) = 16
mm or 0.016 m.
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Example 3.18. The deflections of a galvanometer with no current and a steady state current of 6
μA are zero and 80 mm respectively. Its first maximum deflection, after a step function of voltage
which produces a steady state current is applied, is 115 mm. The maximum deflection in the next
cycle is 90 mm.
Determine :
(i) Current sensitivity.
(ii) Logarithmic decrement.
(iii) Relative damping.
Solution. Given : I = 6 µA ; 8f = 80 mm ; θ1 = 115 mm ; θ3 = 90 mm
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Example 3.19. The Ayrton universal shunt has a total resistance of 9000 Ω and galvanometer has
a resistance 3000 Ω. Determine the multiplying power of shunt for 1000 Ω, 3000 Ω, 6000 Ω tapping.

3.7.2. Ballistic Galvanometer

3.7.2.1. Construction of ballistic galvanometer
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A ballistic galvanometer is also a permanent magnet moving coil instrument and has D’Arsonval
type construction.
• It is used to measure quantity of electricity, i.e., charge passing through it in a given time. Thus, it
is an integrating instrument and is used extensively in magnetic measurement.
The quantity of electricity is the result of an e.m.f. induced instantaneously in a search coil
connected to galvanometer terminals when the magnetic flux linking the coil is changed. The ‘charge’
is proportional to the e.m.f. induced in the search coil. By noting the maximum value of the deflection,
the amount of charge that has passed through the galvanometer is measured. The proportionality
between the deflection and amount of charge is valid only if the whole of charge has passed through
the galvanometer before any appreciable deflection of the moving system occurs. Therefore, this
instrument has a large inertia. Very often, additional weights are added to the moving system so that
inertia is high as compared to the restoring moment due to the suspension. Therefore, natural period of
vibration is large, about 10 to 15 seconds.
The damping is small so that first deflection (which indicates the total charge) is large.
• It is desirable that the instrument is dead beat. The galvanometer is short circuited by a key so
that the moving system is brought to rest immediately.
— The damping is only electromagnetic.
— Air friction damping is avoided because it is indeterminate. Electromagnetic can be
determined from the constants of the instrument.
• It is necessary that the moving coil is free from magnetic material.
• The terminals, coil and internal connections are of copper so as to avoid thermoelectric effects at
the junctions.
• In the best ballistic galvanometer, the suspension is non-conducting, the current being led into
the coil by delicate spiral of very thin copper strip.

3.7.2.2. Theory of ballistic galvanometer

In a ballistic galvanometer, as discussed earlier, the coil moves after the charge to be measured has
passed through it. Obviously, during the movement of the coil, there is no current flowing through it.
Hence the equation of motion is :

Since damping is extremely small, the approximate solution of the eqn. (3.36) is :

Fig. 3.16.
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During the passage of charge, at any instant, there will be a deflecting torque of GI acting on the
coil. If t is the time taken by the whole charge to pass through, the torque impulse due to this charge is
given as :

This must be equal to the change of angular momentum produced i.e. J. α, where α is the angular
velocity of the coil at the end of impuse period.

Differentiating eqn. (3.38), we get

Since duration of the passage of charge is very small, at the end of the passage, t = 0, so that from
above,

Now, U being the amplitude which the oscillations would have if the damping were zero, it may be
called undamped swing θ0 .

However, in practice, due to the presence of small amount of damping, the successive oscillations
diminish exponentially (See Fig. 3.16). Even the first swing θ 1 is much less than θ 0 . Hence, it becomes
necessary to obtain the value of θ0 from the observed value of first maximum swing θ 1 .
Referring to Fig. 3.15, we find that the successive peak values θ 1 , θ2 , θ3 etc. are radian apart or
second apart. The ratio of the amplitudes of any two successive peaks is
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The time period of oscillation, . If damping is very small as a very

close approximation.
Putting in eqn. (3.38), we have :

Suppose, a steady current of Is flowing through the galvanometer produces a steady deflection θ s,
then

Inserting this value of C in eqn. 3.45 (a), we get :

Substituting this value of G in eqn. (3.42), we have :

Alternatively, let quantity (D/2J) (π/ω 0 ) be called the “logarithmic decrement λ”.
Since,
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Hence, from eqn. (3.47), we have :

In general, eqn. (3.48) may be expressed as :

where, is a constant and is found by calibration. Since the value of k depends

upon the damping and shunting of the galvanometer it is essential that the resistance of the
galvanometer circuit during calibration shall be the same as it is when the galvanometer is being used
for testing purposes.

3.7.2.3. Calibration of a ballistic galvanometer

The experimental determination of the constants of a ballistic galvanometer is termed as its
“calibration”.
There are three methods of calibration of ballistic galvanometer :
1. Using a mutual inductance.
2. Using a capacitor.
3. Using Hibbert magnetic standard.
1. Using a mutual inductance :
This method is most commonly used for the calibration purposes.
Fig. 3.17(a) shows the schematic arrangement for the calibration of a ballistic galvanometer with
mutual inductance. The mutual inductance is usually in the form of a standard solenoid with a
secondary coil.
A standard solenoid (primary coil) consists of a long coil wound on a cylinder. The length of
cylinder is very large as compared with its diameter. At the centre of the solenoid a secondary coil is
placed whose length is small. The secondary coil is connected to the ballistic galvanometer (B.G.).
When a current is passed through the solenoid, the field strength (H) at the centre is :
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Fig. 3.17. Calibration of ballistic galvanometer with mutual inductance.

Let, N2 be the number of turns in the secondary coil. Then, flux linkages of secondary coil,

Let the current through the solenoid be reversed. This will change the value of flux linking with
secondary coil from + ϕ to –ϕ.
i.e., Change in flux = ϕ – (– ϕ) = 2ϕ
Change in flux linkage of secondary coil
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Let θ1 is the throw of the galvanometer.
Then, constant of galvanometer in terms of flux linkages,

The equivalent circuit with mutual inductance is shown in Fig. 3.17(b).

Let us assume that the change in flux takes place in time t.

Then, E.m.f. induced in the secondary coil

Thus the galvanometer constant can be obtained in terms of coulomb per radian.
• “Ballistic sensitivity” and “Flux linkage sensitivity” are sometimes used in place of galvanometer
constants and are defined as :

2. Using a capacitor :
In this method, a capacitor (C) which has been charged to a known voltage (V) is discharged
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through the galvanometer. The throw of the galvanometer is observed. Let this throw be θ.

• The disadvantages of this method are :

(i) The capacitance of condenser is difficult to be determined accurately under all the conditions.
(ii) The damping of the galvanometer during calibration is different from that during testing.
3. Using Hibbert magnetic standard :
This method of calibration of ballistic galvanometer is very simple and convenient, and so is used in
the laboratories.
Fig. 3.18 shows Hibbert magnetic standard :
— It consists of a circular bar magnet and an iron yoke which have a narrow annular gap between
them. A brass tube carrying a coil can slide through the gap.
— The brass tube is taken to its top position and is then released with the help of a trigger. It falls
under gravity and it slides through the gap (See Fig. 3.18), its coil cuts through the magnetic field of a
permanent magnet and therefore an e.m.f. is produced in the coil.

Fig. 3.18. Hibbert magnetic standard.

— The coil is connected across the terminals of the ballistic galvanometer, the throw of which can
be observed. The rate at which coil cuts through the field is constant for a particular apparatus. The
e.m.f. per turn is constant.
— By the use of the standard, the flux linkages which produce an observed throw of galvanometer
can be known by knowing the air gap flux and number of turns in the coil. Hence the galvanometer
constant can be calculated.
Example 3.20. A ballistic galvanometer has a free period of 10 seconds and gives a steady
deflection of 200 divisions with a steady current of 0.1 mA. A charge of 121 μC is instantaneously
discharged through the galvanometer giving rise to a first maximum deflection of 100 divisions.
Calculate the decrement of the resulting oscillations.
(Bombay University)
Solution. Given : T0 = 10 s; θ s = 200; Is = 0.1 mA; Q = 121 μC ; θ1 = 100
Decrement of the resulting oscillations, λ :

Example 3.21. A ballistic galvanometer has a resistance of 140 Ω and an undamped period of
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8.5 seconds. A steady e.m.f. of 3.8 mV produces a deflection of 220 mm. If the deflection produced is
720 mm and relative damping is 0.78, determine the quantity of electricity discharged from the
capacitor.
Solution. R = 140 Ω; T0 = 8.5 s; V = 3.8 mV; θs = 220 mm; θ1 = 720 mm; γ = 0.78
Quantity of electricity discharged, Q :

Example 3.22. A solenoid 1 m long and wound with 960 turns has a search coil of 60 turns and
cross-sectional area 340 mm 2 at its centre. Reversing a current of 3.5 A in the solenoid causes a
deflection of 4 divisions in a ballistic galvanometer connected to the search coil.
Calculate :
(i) The galvanometer constant in flux linkages per division.
(ii) The flux linkage sensitivity.

Solution. Given : l = 1 m; N1 = 960; N2 = 60; A = 340 mm2 ; θ1 = 4 divisions; I = 3.5 A.

(i) Galvanometer constant, G ϕ:

Example 3.23. The discharge of a capacitor through a ballistic galvanometer produces a damped
frequency of 0.13 Hz and successive swings of 130, 102 and 85.4 mm.
Calculate :
(i) Logarithmic decrement.
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(ii) Damping ratio.
(iii) Period of undamped and damped oscillations.
Solution. Given : fd = 0.13 Hz; θ1 = 130 mm; θ3 = 85.4 mm
(i) Logaritmic decrement, λ :

Example 3.24. A ballistic galvanometer having 200 Ω resistance gives a throw of 80 divisions
when the flux through search coil to which it is connected is reversed. The galvanometer constant is
120 μC/division. The search coil has 1500 turns, a mean area 4500 mm2 and a resistance 230 Ω.
Determine :
(i) Flux density in which the reversal of the coil takes place.
(ii) Ballistic and flux linkages sensitivities of the galvanometer.

Solution. Given : Rg = 200 Ω; θ1 = 80 divisions; G q = 120 μC/div.; Nsc = 1500; Asc = 4500 mm2 or
4500 × 10–6 m2 ; Rsc = 230 Ω
(i) Flux density in which the reversal of the coil takes place, B :
Resistance of galvanometer circuit, R = Rg + Rsc = 200 + 30 = 230 Ω
Galvanometer constant, G q = 120 μC/div.

But change in flux linkages Δψ= 2ψsince the current is reversed.

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(ii) The ballistic sensitivity and flux linkages sensitivity :

Example 3.25. A galvanometer with an undamped period of 8 seconds and a current sensitivity of
1.1 mA/div. is connected to a search coil in a circuit of 3500 Ω resistance. Determine the flux linkage
change in search coil to produce a first swing of 80 divisions if the logarithmic decrement is 0.18.

Solution. T0 (or Tn ) = 8 s; Current sensitivity, ; R = 3500 Ω; θ1 = 80 divisions;

λ = 0.18.
Change in flux linkages, Δψ:

Let Δψbe the change in flux linkages in time t.

Example 3.26. A ballistic galvanometer gives a first maximum deflection of 50° for a discharge
of 900 μC. Find the quantity of electricity which when discharged through this galvanometer gives
rise to a spot deflection of 8 divisions on a millimetre circular scale 1 metre away.
Solution. Given : θ1 = 50° or ; Q = 900 μC; d = 8 mm or 0.008 m; r = 1 m
Charge Q :

Angle turned through by reflected ray for a swing of 8 mm,

Charge for a swing of 0.004 radian, Q = 1030.9 × 0.004 = 4.12 μC (Ans.)

3.7.3. Grassot Fluxmeter

This instrument is a special type of ballistic galvanometer in which the controlling torque is very
small and electromagnetic damping is heavy. It is used for measurement of flux.
Construction :
Fig. 3.19 shows the construction of a Grassot fluxmeter :
— It consists of a moving coil of small cross-section suspended by means a single silk thread from
a spring support and hanging with its parallel sides in the narrow air gap of a permanent magnet (See
Fig. 3.19). The coil is formerless and the air friction damping is negligible.
— The current is led into the coil by spirals of very thin, annealed silver strips. By this construction
the controlling torque is reduced to a minimum.
— The instrument is usually fitted with a pointer (attached to the moving system) and a scale,
although it may also be used as a reflecting instrument. The scale is graduated in terms of flux-turns.
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Working :
— When the instrument terminals are connected to a search coil and the flux linking with the
search coil is changed, the moving system of the flux meter is deflected and rotates through an angle
which depends upon the change in flux-turns.
— The instrument coil rotates during the whole period of the flux change but stops as soon as the
flux change ceases because of its high electromagnetic damping. The high damping is obtained by
reducing the resistance of the circuit and search coil to the minimum possible. Though theoretically,
the value of the resistance of the circuit comprising the instrument coil and search coil does not affect
the sensitivity of the instrument but it should be kept fairly small (below 20 Ω), otherwise the damping
will not be adequate.
— Theoretically, the time taken for the change in flux does not affect the deflection but in practice
if the time flux change exceeds about 30 seconds serious errors are introduced due to friction, the slight
controlling torque due to the current leads and the effect of incorrect levelling combined with slight
unbalance of the moving parts.

Fig. 3.19. Grassot fluxmeter.

Advantages :
The instrument possesses the following advantages :
1. It is very portable and has scale calibrated directly in weber-turns.
2. The length of time taken for the change in the flux producing the deflection need not be small.
The deflection obtained, for a given change of flux interlinking with the search coil connected to the
instrument, will be the same whether the time taken for the change be a fraction of a second or as much
as one or two minutes.
Disadvantages :
The fluxmeter is less sensitive and accurate than the ballistic galvanometer.
Note : • In the complete absence of controlling torque, the instrument would remain in its
deflected position indefinitely. Actually the pointer returns very slowly to zero, but readings may be
taken by observing the difference in deflection at the beginning and end of the change in flux to be
measured without waiting for the pointer to return to zero, the scale being uniform.
• In some modern instruments, the coil is fitted with pivots and mounted in jewelled bearings, the
current being led into the coil by fine ligaments. This form of construction is rather more robust than
the suspended instruments.
Theory of Fluxmeter :
Let,
Nsc = Number of turns in search coil,
Rsc, Lsc = Resistance and inductance of search coil respectively,
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Rfm, Lfm = Resistance and inductance of fluxmeter respectively,
ϕ = Flux linking with search coil,
i = Current in the circuit at any instant, and
θ = Deflection of the instrument at any instant.
The equation of motion is given as :

Assuming control torque to be negligibly small and also the air friction damping is small, the
equation of motion reduces to :

as D and C are both zero. (The effect of electromagnetic damping is considered later in expression for
current i)
The e.m.f. due to any change of flux linked with search coil,

Simultaneously, due to the movement of the fluxmeter coil in the field of the magnet, a rotational
e.m.f. is induced in the meter coil. This e.m.f., . Besides this there are voltage drops in the
resistance and inductance of the circuit. Therefore, we can write :

The equation of motion is :

where, ω = angular velocity of moving coil at instant t.

If T is the time taken by the change in flux, then we have :
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The suffices 1 and 2 indicate respectively values at the beginning and at the end of the change.
Now, since the angular velocities and currents are zero at both the beginning and end of the
change, therefore,

ω 1 = ω 2 = 0, and i1 = i2 = 0

Inserting these values in eqn. (3.65), we have :

or, if ϕ is the change in 0 flux and θ the change in fluxmeter deflection, then,

When the permanent magnet field of fluxmeter is uniform for all positions of the moving coil, G is
a constant. Thus the change in the value of flux is directly proportional to the change in deflection and
hence the instrument will have a uniform scale.
Use of shunt with Fluxmeter :
When the values of flux are very high, the deflection of a fluxmeter, even when a single-turn search
coil is used, may exceed the scale length. In these circumstances, the range may be increased by
employing a low-resistance, non-inductive shunt.
Fig. 3.20 shows the circuit using a shunt with a fluxmeter.

Fig. 3.20. Fluxmeter with shunt.

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Since the currents are zero at both the beginning and the end of the flux change, therefore,

Thus, eqn. (3.68) reduces to :

The equation of motion is :

where ω is the angular velocity at any instant.

Hence eqn. (3.69) reduces to,

• Applying Kirchhoff’s law to mesh CDEF, we have :

Integrating as before, we get :

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Putting this value of in eqn. (3.71), we have :

Comparison of eqn. (3.74) with corresponding eqn. (3.67) of unshunted fluxmeter shows that the
multiplying factor for the shunted fluxmeter is :
It may be noted that this factor involves the search coil resistance (Rsc), but not the fluxmeter
resistance (Rfm).
Difference between fluxmeter and ballistic galvanometer :
Fluxmeter differs from ballistic galvanometer in following respects :
1. Fluxmeter has very small controlling torque in comparison to ballistic galvanometer.
2. Fluxmeter has heavy electromagnetic damping as compared to ballistic galvanometer.
3. The fluxmeter is less sensitive and accurate than the ballistic galvanometer.
4. The indication of fluxmeter is independent of time taken by the flux changes. This is of great
importance in measurement of flux linking with highly inductive circuit where the flux
changes may be relatively slow rendering the use of ballistic galvanometer impractical.
Example 3.27. The following constants relate to a certain fluxmeter :
Air gap flux density = 0.06 Wb/m2
Turns on moving coil = 50
Area of moving coil = 800 mm2
If the flux linking a 12 turn search coil of 220 mm 2 area connected to the fluxmeter is reversed in
a uniform field of 0.6 Wb/m2 , calculate the deflection of the fluxmeter.

Solution. Given : Ba = 0.06 Wb/m2 ; Nmc = 50; Amc = 800 mm2 ; Nsc = 12; Asc = 220 mm2 ; Bf = 0.6
Wb/m2 .
Deflection of the fluxmeter, θ :
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Example 3.28. A fluxmeter is connected to a search coil having 600 turns and a mean area of
600 mm2 . The search coil is placed at a centre of a solenoid 1 metre long, wound with 900 turns.
When a current of 6A is reversed, there is a deflection of 30 scale divisions.
Calculate the calibration in flux linkages per scale division.

Solution. Nsc = 600; Asc = 600 mm2 ; l = 1m; lsd = 1m; Nsd = 900; I = 6A; θ = 30 scale divisions.
Flux linkages per scale division :

Example 3.29. A fluxmeter when used with a single turn search coil gives full scale deflection if a
given uniform field linking with the search coil is reversed. It is proposed to extend the range of
fluxmeter to measure flux densities six times the above value using the same search coil and method
of reversals. If the resistance of search coil is 1.2 Ω, find the resistance of the shunt to be connected
in parallel with the fluxmeter.
Solution. Given : Rsc = 1.2 Ω
The range of instrument is extended times by the use of a shunt
...[From eqn. 3.74]

Example 3.30. A magnetic circuit excited by an m.m.f. of 8500 AT has a reluctance of 125,000
AT/Wb. A fluxmeter is used to measure the flux. If the fluxmeter has 125 divisions and flux linkages
required for a deflection of one division are 0.16 × 10 –3 weber turn, calculate the resistance of the
shunt required for use with the search coil. Number of turns of search coil is 1 and its resistance is
0.03 Ω. The measurement is made by switching off the excitation.
Solution. Given : m.m.f. = 8500 AT; Reluctance = 1,25,000 AT/Wb; Nsc = 1; Rsc = 0.03 Ω;
Number of divisions on fluxmeter = 125; Flux linkages required for deflection of one division = 0.16 ×
10–3 weber turn.
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Example 3.31. A fluxmeter is connected to a search coil of 100 turns and the mean area of the
coil is 5 × 10–4 m 2 . The search coil is placed at the centre of a standard solenoid, 1 metre long,
uniformly wound with 800 turns. When a current of 5A is reversed, a deflection of 10 scale divisions
is obtained with the fluxmeter. Calculate the calibration constant of the instrument in weber-turn per
division.

Solution. Given : Nsc = 100; Asc = 5 × 10–4 m2 ; lsd = 1 m ; Nsd = 800; I = 5A; θ = 10 scale
divisions.
Instrument constant :
Since the axial length is large as compared with the mean diameter of the solenoid, therefore, the
field strength in the neighbourbood of the centre of the solenoid core is assumed to be uniform.

3.7.4. Vibration Galvanometers

Vibration galvanometers are of two types : (i) Moving magnet, (ii) Moving coil. The latter type is
more generally used because moving magnet type has the disadvantage of being seriously affected by
magnet fields of the resonant frequency (unless adequately screened). The moving-coil galvanometers
are not appreciably affected by such fields. Hence only moving coil type will be discussed here.
These galvanometers are of “D’Arsonval type” having a moving coil suspended between the poles
of a permanent magnet. When an alternating current is passed through the moving coil, an alternating
deflecting torque is produced which makes the coil vibrate with a frequency equal to the frequency of
the current passing. On account of the moving parts, the amplitude of vibrations is small. However, if
natural frequency of the moving system is made equal to the frequency of the current, mechanical
resonance is obtained and the moving system vibrates with a large amplitude.
• These galvanometers are the most widely used “tuned detectors” particularly as null point
detectors in A.C. bridges. They are manufactured for various frequencies from 5 Hz upto 1000
Hz; these are most commonly used below 1200 Hz above which range they are considerably
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more sensitive than telephone.
Construction :
Fig. 3.21(a) shows the construction of a Duddell’s moving coil vibration galvanometer :

Fig. 3.21. Vibration galvanometer.

— The moving coil (consisting of a fine bronze or platinum silver sire) is suspended between poles
of a strong permanent magnet. This wire passes over a small pulley at the top and is pulled tight by a
spring attached to the pulley, the tension of the spring can be adjusted by turning a milled head attached
to the spring.
Generally, the suspension is rigidly held by small movable clamps on bridges, and the active length
of the suspension is varied by sliding the clamps along the suspension to change the natural response
frequency.
— The moving system carries a small mirror upon which a light beam is thrown.
Working :
— When an alternating current is passed through the coil, an alternating torque is applied to it so
that the reflected spot of light on the scale is drawn out in the form of band of light. The light of this
band of light is maximum if the natural frequency of oscillation of coil coincides with the supply
frequency due to resonance.
— The *tuning of the coil is done by either changing the length of suspension or by adjusting
tension in the suspension. The former is achieved by raising or lowering bridge piece against which the
bifilar loop presses while the latter is achieved by turning the knob [See Fig. 3.21(a)].
• By making the damping very small, the resonance curve of the galvanometer can be made
sharply-peaked [Fig. 3.21(b)]. In that case, the instrument discriminates sharply against frequencies
other than its own natural frequency. That is, its reflection becomes very small even when the
frequency of the applied current differs by a very small amount from its resonance frequency.
Theory :
Let the value of current passing through the moving coil at an instant t be :

i = Imax sin ωt

Then, the equation of motion of the coil is :

where J, D and C have the usual meanings and G is the deflection constant.
The complementary function of the solution represents the transient motion, which in the case of
vibration galvanometer, is of no practical importance. The particular integral is of the form :

θ = A sin (ωt – ϕ)
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where, A and ϕ are constant.

Since the phase angle of oscillations is of no practical significance, it may be eliminated by

squaring and adding eqns. (i) and (ii).

This represents the amplitude A of the resulting oscillation for a sinusoidally alternating current of
peak value Imax flowing through the moving coil of the galvanometer.
• The current sensitivity of a vibration galvanometer is about 50 mm/μA with a scale 1 m away.
The sensitivity is almost inversely proportional to the frequency.
Comparison of ballistic galvanometer with vibration galvanometer :
1. Both are of D’Arsonval type.
2. They differ in details of usage rather in fundamental ideas.
3. Ballistic galvanometers have long period of the order of 20 to 30 seconds compared to 4 to 6
seconds for vibration type.
4. In vibration galvanometer, current through it is steady as long as the switch is pressed while in
ballistic case it is transitory.
5. “Vibration galvanometers” are more suitable for use at power and low audio frequencies
Example 3.32. The following data relate to a vibration galvanometer tuned to a frequency of 50
Hz :
Inertia constant = 0.012 kg-m 2
Damping constant = 0.028 Nm/rad.s–1
Calculate the ratio of sensitivity for fundamental to that for third harmonic of the galvanometer.

Solution. Given : f = 50 Hz; J = 0.012 kg-m2 ; D = 0.028 N-m/rad.-s–1

The amplitude of vibration of frequency ω is :

The ratio of amplitudes of fundamental and third harmonic is :

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3.7.5. Duddell’s Oscillograph

This instrument is essentially a vibration galvanometer having a low period of vibrations. The
natural frequency is about 10 kHz.
Construction :
Fig. 3.22 shows the schematic arrangement of a Duddell’s oscillograph element :
— It consists of a single loop of thin phosphor-bronze strip which forms the moving system and is
called a vibrator loop. This loop is situated in the field of a permanent magnet. Highly
saturated electromagnets are used when high sensitivities are required.
— The vibrator loop is formed by passing the strip over an ivory pulley as shown in the figure.
— A spring tension adjusting device is attached to the ivory pulley — A small mirror for reflecting
light is cemented to the loop midway between the bridge pieces.
Such types of galvanometer can be constructed with diameter 3 mm to 6 mm and about 75 mm
length and are called pencil galvanometer. They consist of moving element of the galvanometer and
are set in a fixed frame of the permanent magnets. Two or more units per cm can be constructed and 50
or more galvanometers are included in a single oscillograph to record many waveforms simultaneously.

Fig. 3.22. Duddell’s oscillograph element.

Working :
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— When an alternating current is passed through the loop, an alternating torque acts upon the loop
and it vibrates.
— When a beam of light is cast upon the mirror, it is reflected. As the loop is vibrating, the
reflected beam will move backwards and forwards.
— If a wave shape is to be recorded, a photographic film is passed at a constant speed in a direction
perpendicular to that of movement of the reflected beam of light. The speed of film depends upon the
frequency of the wave being recorded. The wave shape is recorded on the film as a result of the two
perpendicular motions i.e. of the film and the reflected light.
The oscillograph is calibrated by passing a known value of direct current in the loop and recording
the deflection produced by the current.
— If, however, the waveform is not to be recorded but is only to be observed, the arrangement as
shown in Fig 3.23 is used. The reflected beam of light from the vibrator mirror falls on the plain mirror
and is further relected on to a screen. The plain mirror is rocked by a cam which is driven by a
synchronous motor which in turn is supplied from the source whose waveform is to be observed. The
plain mirror driven by the cam gives forward motion of the reflected beam on the screen. The forward
motion is carried out for cycles of the wave, and the plain mirror is returned to the original position
during the next half cycle. During this cycle, the light is cut off by rotating shutter as shown in the
figure. This is repeated continuously and the wave appears stationary on the screen on account of
persistence of vision.

Fig. 3.23. Observation of waveform with Duddell’s oscilloscope.

• Duddell’s oscillographs are very useful at low voltages and low frequencies. They can be
provided with a large member of elements and therefore a number of quantities may be
observed or recorded simultaneously. They provide convenient facilities for photographic
purposes.
However, their use is limited to frequencies upto 500 Hz if an accurate record of the waveform is
required. The use of these instruments is quite complicated. Hence, these oscillographs are not used
these days and are being replaced by cathode ray oscillographs (CROs).

3.8 ANALOG AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND OHMMETERS

3.8.1. Introduction
• Analogue ammeters and voltmeters are classified together, since there is no basic difference in
their operating principles. The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, except those of the
electrostatic variety, depends upon a deflecting torque principle by an electric current. In an
ammeter, this torque is produced by the current to be measured, or by a definite fraction of it.
In a voltmeter, it is produced by a current that is proportional to the voltage to be measured.
Hence, both voltmeters and ammeters are essential current measuring devices.
— The “ammeter” has a low resistance so that when it is connected in series with any circuit, it
does not change the current. Consequently, there is a small voltage drop and small power is
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absorbed. The “voltmeter” has a high resistance and it is so designed that when connected in
parallel to the circuit for measuring voltages it does not take appreciable current;
consequently power consumed is small.
— An ammeter of low range can be used as a voltmeter by connecting an external resistance in
series with it.

3.8.2. Types of Instruments mainly used as Ammeters and Voltmeters

The following types of instruments are mainly used as ammeters and voltmeters.
1. Moving iron :
• It is the most commonly used form of indicating instrument, as well as the cheapest.
• It can be used for both A.C. and D.C. measurements and is very accurate, if properly designed.
2. PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) meter movement; also called D’ Arsonval meter
movement :
• Can be used for D.C. measurements only (most accurate type of instrument).
• This type of instrument is frequently constructed to have sub-standard accuracy.
• It depends upon the magnitude effect of current.
3. Electrodynamometer :
• The calibration of this type of instrument is the same for A.C. and D.C.
4. Hot wire and Thermocouple :
• For these instruments also the above situation prevails.
• These instruments are particularly suitable for A.C. measurements since their deflection depends
directly upon the heating effect of the A.C. i.e., upon the r.m.s. value of the current. Their
readings are therefore independent of the frequency.
5. Rectifier.
6. Electrostatic :
• These instruments used as voltmeters have the advantage that their power consumption is
exceedingly small.
• They can be made to cover a large range of voltages and can be constructed to have sub-standard
accuracy.
7. Induction type :
• The induction principle is most generally used for watt-hour meters. This principle is not
preferred for use in ammeters and voltmeters because of the comparatively high cost and
inaccuracy of the instrument.

3.8.3. Errors in Ammeters and Voltmeters

The common errors in ammeters and voltmeters are on account of the following factors :
(i) Friction.
(ii) Change in temperature.
(iii) Mechanical unbalance.
(iv) Variation of the electrical and mechanical properties of material employed with time.
1. Friction error :
— The friction of pivot in the jewel produces a frictional torque which opposes the deflection
of the moving element and as a result, the pointer comes to rest a short distance from its
correct position; this causes an error in readings of the instrument. This error is more
serious for sensitive instruments designed for low operating torque.
— In order to reduce the effect of friction torque, and consequently the error produced by it
the weight of the moving system must be made as small as possible compared with the
operating force, i.e., the ratio of torque to weight must be large. In high quality
instruments, the ratio of deflecting torque of full scale to weight of moving system is
rarely much less than 0.01 Nm/kg.From the point of view of a small friction torque a
vertical spindle is generally preferred to a horizontal one.
2. Temperature error :
— The most serious error is produced by the heat generated in the instrument, or by changes
in ambient (room) temperature, is due to a change in the resistance of the working coil.
Such a change of resistance is of little importance in ammeters but in voltmeters, in
which working current should be directly proportional to the applied voltage, it is
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essential that the resistance of the instrument remains as nearly constant as possible.
The power loss in the instrument should be small, and resistance coils which are likely
to produce appreciable heating should be mounted, if possible, in such a position that
they are well-ventilated.
— In order to eliminate temperature errors, the working coil is wound with copper wire and
is of comparatively low resistance. A high “swamping resistance” of material whose
resistance temperature coefficient is small, is connected in series with the coil, so that,
although the resistance of the coil may change considerably, the change in total
resistance of circuit is small.
Other errors resulting from heating may be caused by expansion of control spring, or of
other parts of the instrument, although such errors are usually small.
3. Observational error :
— These errors are due to mis-reading of the scale, parallex in readings and errors of
estimation. Precision of readings becomes difficult if the pointer has a broad tip.
Interpolation errors may enter, particularly if the scale readings are too large or too
small.
— Parallex error is caused by the observer not having his line of sight on the pointer exactly
at right angles to the plane of the scale. Such an error is eliminated by providing a
mirror beneath the scale and a knife-edged pointer.

3.8.4. Moving-Iron Instruments

Moving-iron instruments are commonly used in laboratories and switch boards at commercial
frequencies because they are very cheap and can be manufactured with required accuracy.

3.8.4.1. Principle of working

The general principle of working of a moving-iron instrument (which is strictly relevant to
attraction type of moving-iron instruments) is explained below :
— The moving element of the system consists of a plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability
steel. This iron vane is so situated that it can move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil.
— When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet and iron vane moves in such a way so as
to increase the flux of the electromagnet; this is because the vane tries to occupy a position of
minimum reluctance. Thus, the force produced is always in such direction so as to increase the
inductance of the coil (since inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance of magnetic
circuit of the coil).

3.8.4.2. Theory of the moving-iron instruments

• An expression for the torque of a moving iron instrument may be derived by considering the
energy relations when there is a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. When this
happens there will be a small deflection dθ of the pointer and work will be done. This is given by Td ·dθ,
where Td is the deflecting torque of the instrument. There will also be a change in the energy stored
owing to inductance.

Now, if the current increases by dI, then deflection changes by dθ and inductance by dL. In order to
effect an increment dI in the current, there must be an increase in the applied voltage given by :
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Neglecting second-and higher-order terms in small quantities, this reduces to :

Invoking the principle of conservation of energy, we have :

Electrical energy supplied = Increase in stored energy + mechanical work done

where, Td is in Nm, I in amps., L in henry, and θ in radians.

• The moving system is provided with control springs and in turn the deflecting torque Td is
balanced by the controlling torque, Tc = Cθ, where C is the control spring constant (Nm/rad.) and θ is
the deflection (rad.).
At steady deflection state :

It is evident from eqn. (3.78) that the deflection is proportional to square of the r.m.s. value of the
operating current. The deflecting torque is, therefore, unidirectional whatever may be the polarity of
the current.

3.8.4.3. Classification of moving-iron instruments

Moving-iron instruments can be divided into two types :
1. Attraction type ..... in which a sheet of soft iron is attracted towards a solenoid.
2. Repulsion type ..... in which two parallel rods or strips of soft iron, magnetised inside a solenoid,
are regarded as repelling each other.
1. Attraction type :
Fig. 3.24, shows the sectional front and an end elevation of the attracted-iron type instrument.
It consists of a solenoid (or coil) C and oval shaped soft-iron disc D in such a way that it can move
in or cut of the solenoid. To this iron, a pointer P is attached so that it may deflect along with the
moving iron over a graduated scale. The soft-iron disc is made of sheet metal specially shaped to give a
scale as nearly uniform as possible.
— When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of the current to be measured or
proportional to the voltage to be measured) is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up
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inside the solenoid, which in turn magnetises the iron. Thus the soft-iron disc is attracted into the
solenoid/coil, causing the spindle and the pointer to rotate. Damping is provided by vane V attached to
the spindle and moving in an airchamber, and control is by hair spring.

Fig. 3.24. Attraction-type moving-iron instrument

2. Repulsion type :
Repulsion-type moving-iron instrument is shown in Fig. 3.25 :
— Here, there are two irons, one fixed (A) and the other mounted on a short arm fixed (B) to the
instrument spindle. The two irons lie in the magnetic field due to a solenoid/coil C. When there is no
current in the coil the two iron pieces (moving one and fixed one) are almost touching each other and
the pointer rests on zero position.

Fig. 3.25. Repulsion-type moving-iron instrument

— When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of it or proportional to the voltage to be
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measured) is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the solenoid and the two
iron pieces are magnetised in the same direction. This sets up a repulsive force, so moving iron piece is
repelled by fixed iron piece, thereby resulting in the motion of the moving iron piece, carrying the
pointer. The pointer comes to rest in a deflected position when equilibrium is attained between the
repulsive forces of the working elements and the controlling force.
— Such instruments are commonly provided with spring control and air friction damping.
— In commercial instruments, it is usual for the moving-iron B to be in the form of a thin curved
plate and for the fixed iron A to be a tapered curved sheet. This construction can be arranged to give a
longer and more uniform scale than is possible with the rods shown in Fig. 3.25.
Deflecting torque in moving-iron instruments :
In both the attraction and repulsion type moving-iron instruments it is found that for a given
position of the moving system, the value of the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the
current, so long as the iron is working below saturation. Hence, if the current waveform is as shown in
Fig. 3.26, the variation of the deflecting torque is represented by the dotted wave. If the supply
frequency is 50 Hz, the torque varies between zero and a maximum 100 times a second, so that the
moving system (due to its inertia) takes up a position corresponding to the mean torque, where
mean torque ∞ mean value of the square of the current = kI2

Fig. 3.26. Deflecting torque in a moving-iron instrument

where,
k = a constant for a given instrument, and
I = r.m.s. value of the current.
Thus the moving-iron instrument can be used to measure both direct current and alternating
current, and in the latter case the instrument gives the r.m.s. value of the current.
Owing to the deflecting torque being proportional to the square of the current, the scale divisions
are not uniform, being cramped at the beginning and open at the upper end of the scale.
Note. For both types of instruments (attraction-type and repulsion-type), the necessary magnetic
field is produced by the ampere-turns of a current-carrying coil.
— In case the instrument is to be used as an ammeter, the coil has comparatively few turns of thick
wire so that the ammeter has low resistance because it is connected in series with the circuit.
— In case it is to be used as a voltmeter, the coil has high impedance so as to draw as small a current
as possible since it is connected in parallel with the circuit. As current through the coil is
small it has large number of turns in order to produce sufficient ampere-turns.

3.8.4.4. Comparison between attraction and repulsion types of instruments

Although, in general, it may said that both types of these instruments have the same advantages and
are subject to same limitations, yet they differ as follows :
— A n attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance that the corresponding
repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a wider range of
frequency and there is a greater possibility of using shunts and ammeters.
— Repulsion instruments, however, are more suitable for economical production in manufacture,
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and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained. These instruments are much more
common than the attraction type.

3.8.4.5. Advantages, disadvantages and applications of moving-iron instruments

Advantages :

1. Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits.

2. Robust and simple in construction.
3. Possess high operating torque.
4. Can withstand overload momentarily.
5. Since the stationary parts and the moving parts of the instruments are simple so they are
cheapest.
6. Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits.
7. Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of both precision and industrial grades.
8. Less friction errors.
Disadvantages :
1. Scales not uniform.
2. For low voltage range, the power consumption is higher.
3. The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating system and due to stray
magnetic field.
4. In case of A.C. measurements, change in frequency causes serious error.
5. With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases.
• There is a difference between D.C. and A.C. calibrations because of inductance effect of the
instrument and eddy currents on A.C. The instruments should be calibrated for frequency at
which these are to be tested.
Applications :
• The moving iron instruments are widely used as ammeters and voltmeters for D.C. and A.C.
• These instruments can be easily constructed for ranges of 0.1 A to 30 A without the use of a
shunt and a wide range of voltages.

3.8.4.6. Errors in moving-iron instruments

The various types of errors which occur in moving-iron instruments are discussed as under :
I. Errors with both D.C. and A.C.
(i) Errors due to hysteresis :
— Because of hysteresis in the iron parts of the moving system, readings are higher for
descending values but lower for ascending values of current (and voltage).
— The hysteresis error is almost completely eliminated by using Mumetal or Perm-alloy,
which have negligible hysteresis loss.
(ii) Errors due to stray fields :
— External stray magnetic fields are liable to affect adversely the accurate functioning of the
instrument.
— These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin iron shield over the working
parts.
(iii) Error due to temperature changes :
— The effect of temperature changes on moving-iron instruments arise chiefly from
temperature coefficient of spring; the error may be 0.02 per cent per °C change in
temperature.
— The errors in voltmeter are caused due to self-heating of coil and series resistance.
Therefore, the series resistance should be made of material like manganin which has a
small temperature coefficient. The value of series resistance should be very large as
compared with the coil resistance in order to minimize errors due to self-heating. The
series resistance is about ten times the coil resistance in case of switch board
instruments.
II. Errors with A.C. only
(i) Errors due to change in frequency : The changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes
of reactance of the working coil and also due to changes of magnitude of eddy currents set up in the
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metal parts of instrument.
(a) Reactance of instrument coil :
If the frequency of the supply changes, the reactance of the coil will change. This causes change in
the current in coil of the voltmeter and hence an error in measurement. Since an ammeter is in series
with the circuit, the current in its coil is the same as load current. Hence, change in frequency causes
an error in voltmeter reading only.

Fig. 3.27. Frequency compensation for moving iron voltmeters.

If the frequency is lower than the rated value, Im would be higher and the error will be positive. If
the frequency is higher than rated value, Im would be lower and error will be negative.
One of method of compensation for frequency error is to connect a capacitor C across the series
resistance Rs as shown in Fig. 3.27. The impedance of the circuit,

The value of C can be found from eqn. (3.80) by equating Z to resistance Rm + Rs. Generally Rm <<
Rs. Then,
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This must equal in order that the A.C. calibration at all frequencies and D.C. calibration is the
same.

Because of the approximations involved in deriving eqn. (3.81), the above value of C will provide
compensation only for a limited frequency range (upto about 100 Hz only).
(b) Eddy currents : These errors are caused by eddy currents induced in the iron parts of the
instruments.
Refer to Fig. 3.28.
Let, M = Mutual inductance between the instrument coil and the iron parts,
I = Current in the instrument coil,
Ie = Eddy current,
Ie1 , Ie2 = Component of eddy current Ie,
Re, Le = Resistance and inductance of eddy current path, and
Ee = ωMI = Induced voltage due to current I in the instrument coil; it lags I by 90°.

Fig. 3.28. Effect of eddy currents in moving-iron instruments.

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A component of this current, Ie1 = Ie cos (90° – θe) = Ie sin θ e opposes the instrument current I and
sets up an opposite field thus reducing the torque on the moving system. Referring to phase diagram
shown in Fig. 3.28, we have :

Thus we find that at low frequencies the eddy current error increases with square of the frequency
while at high frequencies the error is practically constant.
• For reducing eddy current error the metal parts are placed as far out of the field as possible.
(ii) Waveform error :
— The moving-iron instruments may be seriously affected by waveform, both on account of the
change in the form of flux waveform and, in the case of voltmeters, the effect of harmonics
upon the inductance.
— A moving-iron instrument with moderately saturated iron calibrated on a sine wave current and
used on a peaky current wave gives readings considerably lower than actual ones. Contrary a
flat top wave causes the instrument to read too high. This is the reason for keeping the
induction in iron sufficiently low so as not to reach the bend of the magnetisation curve under
any operating condition.
— The presence of the higher harmonics on any considerable scales causes the inductive error in
the instrument and makes it to read too low.
Example 3.33. Find the deflection of a moving-iron ammeter having the following data :

Example 3.34. The inductance of a moving-iron ammeter is given by the expression :

L = (12 + 5θ – 2θ 2 )μH,

where θ is the angular deflection in radians from zero position.

Determine : (i) The spring constant.
(ii) The angular deflection in radians for a current of 10 A if the deflection for a current of 5A is
30°.
(Delhi University)
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(ii) Angular deflection for a current of 10A, θ :

Example 3.35. The inductance of a moving iron ammeter with a full scale deflection of 90° at
1.5A is given by the expression :

L = 180 + 40θ – 4θ2 – θ3 μH

where, θ is the deflection in radians from the zero position, calculate :

(i) Spring constant.
(ii) The angular deflection of the pointer for a current of 1.0 A.
(Nagpur University)
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(ii) The angular deflection for a current of 1.0 A, θ :

Substituting I = 1.0 A in the above equation, we get

Example 3.36. The inductance of a moving-iron instrument is given by the expression :

where θ is the angular deflection in radians from zero position. The instrument angular deflections
corresponding to currents of 2A and 5A are 45° and 90° respectively. Determine the value of K.
(Bangalore University)
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Example 3.37. The law of deflection of a moving iron ammeter is given by the expression :

where θ is the deflection in radians and n is constant. The self-inductance when the meter current is
zero is 10 mH. The spring constant is 0.16 Nm/rad.
(i) Establish an expression for self-inductance of the meter as a function of θ and n.
(ii) Calculate the meter current and deflection that corresponds to a self inductance of 60 mH,
when n = 0.75.
(Gorakhpur University)

Solution. Given : I = 4θn ; L = 10 mH, when I = 0; C = 0.16 Nm/rad.

(i) Expression for self-inductance :

Substituting I = 4θn in the above expression, we get :

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Integrating the above expression, we get

We have I = 4θn ; thus θ = 0, when I = 0. It is given that when I = 0, L = 10 mH = 0.01 H

Inserting this in eqn. (i), we get :

Hence the expression for self-inductance as a function of θ and n is given by :

(ii) Deflection and meter current, θ, I :

Example 3.38. The full scale deflecting torque of a 10 A moving-iron ammeter is 4 × 10 –5 Nm.
Determine in μH/rad. the rate of change of self-inductance of the instrument at full scale.
(Gorakhpur University)

Example 3.39. A moving-iron voltmeter reads correctly on 250 V D.C. If 250 V, 50 Hz A.C. is
applied to it, what will be the reading of the voltmeter? The instrument coil has a resistance of 500 Ω
and an inductance of 1H and series non-inductive resistance is 2 kΩ.
With what value of capacitance must the series resistance be shunted to make the meter read
correctly at 50 Hz ?
(UPTU)
Solution. Given : R = 500 Ω; L = 1H; Rs = 2 kΩ or 2000 Ω.
Voltmeter reading when connected to 250 V, 50 Hz supply :
Total resistance of the moving iron voltmeters R + Rs = 50 + 2000 = 2500 Ω. When the instrument
is used on D.C. system the inductance of the coil will not effect the instrument readings, so if
instrument reads correctly, then when the instrument is used on A.C. system the reading of the
voltmeter will be affected by the inductance of the coil and the readings given by the instrument will be
incorrect.
The impedance of the instrument circuit at 50 Hz,
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Current drawn by the instrument, when connected to 250 V, 50 Hz A.C. supply,

Since voltmeter reads correctly on D.C. supply on 250 V, so its current corresponding to 250 V

Voltmeter reading when connected to 250 V, 50 Hz supply

• From eqn. (3.81) value of capacitance required to make the circuit non-inductive,

Example 3.40. The coil of a 250 V moving-iron voltmeter has a resistance of 500 Ω and
inductance of 1 H. The current taken by the instrument when placed on 250 V, D.C. supply is 0.05 A.
Determine the percentage error when the instrument is placed on 250 V, A.C. supply at 100 Hz.

Solution. Total ohmic resistance,

(Original calibration of the instrument is with direct current)

Example 3.41. A 15-volt moving-iron voltmeter has a resistance of 300 Ω and an inductance of
0.12 H. Assuming that this instrument reads correctly on D.C., what will be its readings on A.C. at 15
volts when frequency is (i) 25 Hz and (ii) 100 Hz ?
Solution. On D.C., only ohmic resistance is involved and the voltmeter reads correctly. But on
A.C., it is the impedance of the instrument which has to be taken into account.
(i) When frequency is 25 Hz :
Impedance at 25 Hz,

(ii) When frequency is 100 Hz :

Impedance at 100 Hz,
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Incidently, it may be noted that as the frequency is increased, the impedance of the voltmeter is
also increased. Hence, the current is decreased and, therefore, the voltmeter readings are lower.
Example 3.42. An A.C. voltmeter with a maximum scale reading of 50 V has an inductance of
0.09 H and a total resistance of 500 Ω. The magnetising coil is wound with copper wire having a
resistance of 50 Ω and the remainder of the circuit consists of a non-inductive resistance in series
with it. Find the value of capacitance, that should be placed across the non-inductive series
resistance, to make the instrument read correctly both on D.C. as well as on A.C. (of 50 Hz) circuits.
(Karnataka University)
Solution. Given : L = 0.09 H; R + Rs = 500 Ω; R (Resistance of magnetising coil) = 50 Ω; f = 50
Hz.
The total circuit resistance, R + Rs = 500 Ω
Non-inductive series resistance, Rs = 500 – R = 500 – 50 = 450 Ω
Let C be the capacitance to be placed across Rs to make the instrument read correctly on D.C. as
well as on 50 Hz A.C. supply. This will be true only when,

Example 3.43. The coil of a 150 V moving-iron voltmeter has a resistance of 400 Ω and an
inductance of 0.75 H. The coil is made of copper which has a resistance temperature coefficient of
0.004 / °C. The current consumed by the instrument when placed on a 150 V. D.C. supply is 0.05 A.
The series resistance of the voltmeter is of Manganin with a resistance temperature coefficient of
0.00015 / °C.
Calculate :
(i) Resistance temperature coefficient of the instrument.
(ii) Alteration of the reading between D.C. and A.C. at 100 Hz.
(iii) Capacitance of the capacitor necessary to eliminate the frequency errors.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : V = 150 volts; R = 400 Ω; L = 0.75 H, αcu = 0.004/°C; I = 0.05 A; α mang. =
0.00015/°C
(i) Resistance temperature coefficient of instrument, αinst. :

(ii) Error in the reading at 100 Hz :

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(iii) Value of C :
In order to eliminate frequency error, the value of capacitance to be connected across Rs,

3.8.5. Moving-coil Instruments – Classification

The moving-coil instruments are of the following two types :
1. Permanent magnet type ...... can be used for D.C. only.
2. Dynamometer type ....... can be used for both A.C. and D.C.

3.8.6. Permanent Magnet Moving-coil (PMMC) Instruments

The permanent magnet moving-coil instrument is the most accurate type for “D.C. measurements”.
The working principle of these instruments is the same as that of the D’Arsonval type of
galvanometers, the difference being that a direct reading instrument is provided with a pointer and a
scale.

3.8.6.1. Principle, construction and working

A permanent-magnet moving coil-type instrument works on the principle that “when a current-
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force which tends to move it to
one side and out of the field”.
Construction : Refer to Fig. 3.29.
• The instrument consists of a permanent magnet M and a rectangular coil C which consists of
insulated copper wire wound on light aluminium frame fitted with polished steel pivots resting
in jewel bearings. The magnet is made of Alnico and has soft-iron pole-pieces PP which are
bored out cylindrically.
• The rectangular coil C is free to move in air gaps between the soft-iron pole pieces and a soft-
iron cylinder A (central core), supported by a brass plate (not shown).

Fig. 3.29. Permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument.

The functions of the central core A are :
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(i) To intensify the magnet field by reducing the length of air gap across which the magnetic
flux has to pass.
(ii) To give a radial magnetic flux of uniform density, thereby enabling the scale to be uniformly
divided.
— The movement of the coil is controlled by two phosphor bronze hair springs BB (one
above and one below), which additionally serve the purpose of leading the current in
and out of the coil. The two springs are spiralled in opposite directions for neutralizing
the effects of changes in temperature.
— The aluminium frame not only provides support for the coil but also provides damping by
eddy currents induced in it.
Deflecting torque. Refer to Fig. 3.30. When current is passed through the coil, forces are set up on
its both sides which produce deflection torque. If I amperes is the current passing through the coil, the
magnitude of the force (F) experienced by each of its sides is given by :
F = BIl newton
where, B = flux density in Wb/m2 , and
l = length or depth of coil in metres.

Fig. 3.30.
For N turns, the force on each side of the coil is
= NBIl newton

If B is constant, then

Since such instruments are invariably spring controlled, the controlling torque (Tc) of the spiral
springs ∞ angular deflection

i.e., The deflection is proportional to current and the scale is therefore uniformly divided.
PMMC instrument is unsuitable for A.C. measurements unless the current is rectified.
Ranges :
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D.C. ammeters :
(i) Without shunt.........0/5 micro-amperes up to 0/30 micro-amperes.
(ii) With internal shunts........upto 0/2000 amperes.
(iii) With external shunts.......upto 0/5000 amperes.
D.C. voltmeters :
(i) Without series resistance.......0/100 milli-volts.
(ii) With series resistance.......upto 20000 or 30000 volts.
• The PMMC system can be converted into an instrument to measure D.C. as well as A.C.
quantities like current, voltage and resistance etc. It can carry a maximum current of Im, without any
modification and can withstand a maximum D.C. voltage, V = ImRm.
The various modifications of PMMC meter movement may be summed up a follows :

1. D.C. instruments :

(i) D.C. ammeter – By using a shunt resistor.

(ii) D.C. voltmeter – By using series multiplier resistor.
(iii) Ohmmeter – By using battery and series resistor.
2. A.C. instruments :
(i) Audio-frequency (AF) A.C. ammeter or voltmeter – By using a rectifier.
(ii) Radio-frequency (RF) ammeter or voltmeter – By using a thermocouple.

3.8.6.2. Temperature compensation

The PMMC basic movement is not inherently insensitive to temperature, but it may be
temperature-compensated by the appropriate use of series and shunt resistors.
• Complete temperature compensation may be accomplished by using swamping resistors as shown
in Fig. 3.31. The swamping resistor is made of manganin (having temperature coefficient of practically
zero) and combined with copper in the ratio of 20 : 1 to 30 : 1. The total resistance of the coil and
swamping resistor increases slightly with rise in temperature but only just enough to counteract the
change of springs and magnet, so that the overall temperature effect is zero.

Fig. 3.31. Temperature compensatiousing series and shunt resistors.

— The main “disadvantage” of the use of swamping resistors is a reduction in the full-scale
sensitivity of the movement; because a higher applied voltage is necessary to sustain the full-
scale current.

3.8.6.3. Characteristics of PMMC meter movement :

The following three characteristics of PMMC meter movement will be discussed :
1. Full-scale deflection current (Im) :
• It is the current needed to deflect the pointer all the way to the right to the last mark on the
calibrated scale.
• Typical valves of the Im for D’Arsonval movement vary from 2 μA to 30 mA.
— It may be remembered that for smaller currents, the number of turns in the moving coil should
be more so that the magnetic field produced by the coil is strong enough to react with the field
of permanent magnet for producing reasonable deflection of the pointer. Fine wire has to be
used for reducing the weight of the moving coil but this increases its resistance.
— For heavy currents, thick wire with lesser number of turns is needed so that resistance of the
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moving coil is comparatively less.
2. Internal resistance (Rm) :
• It is the D.C. ohmic resistance of the wire of the moving coil.
• Typical values of Rm range from 1-2Ω for a 30 mA movement to 2 kΩ for a 50 μA movement.
3. Sensiivity (S) :
• It is also known as current-sensitivity or sensitivity factor.
• It is given by the reciprocal of full scale deflection current Im.

— The sensitivity of a meter movement depends on the strength of the permanent magnet and
number of turns in the coil. Larger the number of turns, smaller the amount of current required to
produce full-scale deflection and hence, higher the sensitivity.

3.8.6.4. Errors in PMMC instruments

The following errors usually occur in PMMC instruments :
1. Frictional error – This can be avoided by winding of coil carefully.
2. Temperature error – It can be avoided as discussed in Art. 3.8.3.
3. Error due to weakening of permanent magnet – It can be eliminated completely by weakening of
mechanical control and attaching a symmetrical iron or steel needle to the coil. The magnetic
needle is so arranged that magnetic control provided by it diminishes or the magnet becomes
weaker.
4. Stray magnetic field error – This error can be avoided by using an iron case for ordinary type
instruments.

3.8.6.5. Advantages and disadvantages

The moving-coil permanent-magnet type instrument have the following advantages and
disadvantages :
Advantages :
(i) Low power consumption.
(ii) Their scales are uniform.
(iii) No hysteresis loss.
(iv) High torque/weight ratio.
(v) They have very effective and efficient eddy-current damping.
(vi) Range can be extended with shunts or multipliers.
(vii) No effect of stray magnetic field as intense polarised or unidirectional field is employed.
Disadvantages :
(i) Somewhat costlier as compared to moving-iron instruments.
(ii) Cannot be used for A.C. measurements.
(iii) Friction and temperature might introduce errors as in case of other instruments.
(iv) Some errors are set in due to the ageing of control springs and the permanent magnets.
• Moving-coil permanent-magnet instrument can be used as :
(i) “Ammeters” — By using a low resistance shunt.
(ii) “Voltmeters” — By using a high series resistance.
(iii) “Fluxmeters” — By eliminating the control spring.
(iv) “Ballistic galvanometers” — By making control springs of large moment of inertia.
Example 3.44. The coil of an instrument has 38 turns. The mean width and axial length of the
coil are 25 mm and 20 mm respectively. If the flux density is 0.12 Wb/m 2 , calculate the torque on the
moving coil for a current of 12 mA through the coil.
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Example 3.45. The resistance of a moving voltmeter is 11 kΩ. The moving coil has 100 tuns and
is 40 mm long and 30 mm wide. The flux density in the air gap is 0.05 Wb/m2 .
Determine the deflection produced by 220 V if the spring control gives a deflection of 1° for a
torque of 20 × 10–7 Nm.
(Allahabad University)
Solution. Given : R = 11000 Ω; N = 100; l = 40 mm or 0.04 m; b = 30 mm or 0.03 m; B = 0.05
Wb/m2 ; V = 220 V; Td = 20 × 10–7 Nm/degree deflection.
Value of deflection, θ :

Example 3.46. A moving coil millivoltmeter has a resistance of 20 Ω and full scale deflection of
120° is reached when a potential difference of 100 mV is applied across its terminals. The moving
coil has the effective dimensions of 3.1 cm × 2.6 cm and is wound with 120 turns. The flux density in
the gap is 0.15 Wb/m 2 .
Determine the control constant of the spring and suitable diameter of copper wire for coil
winding if 55 per cent of total instrument resistance is due to coil winding. ρ for copper = 1.73 × 10–
8 Ωm.
(M.S. University of Baroda)
Solution. Given : R = 20 Ω; Full scale deflection, θ = 120°; Voltage applied for full scale deflection
= 100 mV = 0.1 V; l = 3.1 cm = 0.031 m; b = 2.6 cm or 0.026 m; N = 120; B = 0.15 Wb/m2 ; ρcopper =
1.73 × 10–8 Ωm.
Spring constant, C :

Diameter of copper wire, d :

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Example 3.47. The following data relate a moving coil instrument:

Number of turns = 200
(wound on non-inductive former)
Width of the former = 20 mm
Height of the former = 25 mm
Flux density of the field = 0.1 Wb/m2
Moment of the inertia of the moving parts = 3 × 10 –7 kg-m2
Torque produced by the control spring = 90 × 10–7 Nm/rad.
Calculate the current in the coil to produce a deflection 120°.
(AMIE)

Solution. Given : N = 200; b = 20 mm or 0.02 m; l = 25 mm or 0.025 m; B = 0.1 Wb/m2 ; Tc = 90 ×

10–7 Nm/rad.; θ = 120° or
Current in the coil, I :
For steady deflection state,

Example 3.48. The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40 mm long and 30 mm wide and has 100
turns on it. The control spring exerts a torque of 240 × 10 –6 Nm when the deflection is 100 divisions
on full scale. If the flux density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1.0 Wb/m2 , calculate the
resistance that must be put in series with the coil to give 1 V/division. The resistance of the voltmeter
coil may be neglected.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given :
l = 40 mm or 0.04 m; b = 30 mm or 0.03 m;
N = 100 ; Tc = 240 × 10–6 Nm; B = 1.0 Wb/m2
Resistance, R :
Deflecting torque at full scale deflection,

At final steady state position,

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3.8.6.6. Extension of range

D.C. ammeters :
Shunt resistor : Since the coil winding of a basic movement of a D.C. ammeter (PMMC
galvanometer) is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When it is required to measure
large current, it is necessary to bypass the major part of the current through a resistance, called a shunt,
as shown in Fig. 3.32. The resistance of the shunt can be calculated as follows.

Fig. 3.32. Basic D.C. ammeter circuit.

Also, since the voltage drop across the shunt and the meter/instrument is same,

The shunt resistance with PMMC meter movement may consist of a length of constanttemperature
resistance wire within the case of the instrument or it may be an external (manganin or constantan)
shunt having a very low resistance.
— The “external shunt” consists of evenly spaced sheets of resistance material welded into a large
block of heavy copper on each end of the sheets.
— The resistance material has a very low temperature coefficient, and a low thermoelectric effect
exists between the resistance material and copper.
— External shunts of this type are normally used for measuring very large currents.
— Fig. 3.33 shows a simple multirange ammeter in which the current range of the D.C. ammeter
may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range switch.
— Fig. 3.34 shows a universal or ayrton shunt, the use of which eliminates the possibility of
having the meter in the circuit without a shunt. This advantage is gained at the cost of a
slightly higher overall meter resistance.
— The Ayrton shunt provides an excellent opportunity to apply basic network theory to a practical
circuit.
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• D.C. ammeters are commercially available in a large number of ranges, from 20 μA to
50A fullscale for a self-contained meter and to 500 A for a meter with external shunt.

Fig. 3.33. Simple multirange ammeter.

While using an ammeter in measurement work, the following precautions should be observed :
(i) Observe the correct polarity.
(ii) Never connect an ammeter across an e.m.f. source. Always connect an ammeter in series with a
load capable of limiting the current.
(iii) While using a multirange meter, first use the higher current range; then decrease the current
range until substantial deflection is obtained.
D.C. voltmeters :
The basic D’Arsonval movement can be converted into a D.C. voltmeter by adding a series resistor
or multiplier, as shown in Fig. 3.35. The multiplier limits the current through the meter so as not to
exceed the value of the full-scale deflection current (Ifsd). The value of multiplier, required to extend
the voltage range, is calculated from Fig. 3.35 as follows :

Fig. 3.34. Universal or Ayrton shunt.

— For moderate ranges upto 500 V, the multiplier is usually mounted inside the case of the
voltmeter. However, for higher voltages, the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the case on
a pair of binding posts to avoid excessive heating inside the case.
• Fig. 3.36 shows a multirange voltmeter where the multipliers are connected in a series string and
range selector switches the appropriate amount of resistance in series with the meter.
— The advantage of this system is that all multipliers except the first have standard resistance
values and can be obtained commercially in precision tolerances. The lowrange multiplier, R4 , is the
only special resistor that must be manufactured to meet the specific circuit requirements.
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Fig. 3.35. Basic D.C. voltmeter circuit.

Fig. 3.36. Multirange voltmeter.

Loading effect of a voltmeter :
If the resistance of a voltmeter is not high as compared to the resistance of the circuit across which
it is connected, the measured voltage will be less than the actual one. The decrease in voltage may be
negligible or it may be appreciable depending on the sensitivity and input resistance of the voltmeter. It
is called loading effect because the voltmeter loads down the circuit across which it is connected.
Loading effect can be minimised by using a voltmeter whose resistance is as high as possible as
compared to that of the circuit across which it is connected.
— In case of an electronic voltmeter “there is no loading problem because its input resistance is
very high (10 MΩ or more).
• It may be remembered that whereas “accuracy” is always required in instruments, “sensitivity” is
needed only in special applications where loading distorts which is being measured.
Example 3.49. A milliammeter of 2.5 ohms resistance reads upto 100 milliamperes. Calculate the
resistance which is necessary to enable it to be used as :
(i) A voltmeter reading upto 10 V.
(ii) An ammeter reading upto 10 A.
Draw the connection diagram in each case.
Solution. Resistance of the milliammeter, Rm = 2.5 Ω
Maximum current of the milliammeter, Im = 100 mA = 0.1 A.
(i) Voltage to be measured, V = 10 volts
Resistance to be connected in series.

Connection diagram is shown in Fig. 3.37.

Fig. 3.37.
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Fig. 3.38.
(ii) Current to be measured, I = 10 A
Resistance to be connected in parallel,

Connection diagram is shown in Fig. 3.38.

Example 3.50. A moving-coil milli-ammeter having a resistance of 10 ohms gives full scale
deflection when a current of 5 mA is passed through it. Explain how this instrument can be used for
measurement of :
(i) Current upto 1 A.
(ii) Voltage upto 5 V.
Solution. Resistance of the milli-ammeter, Rm = 10 Ω
Full scale deflection current, Im = 5 mA = 0.005 A.
(i) To measure current upto 1 A :
Resistance of the shunt, Rsh : Refer to Fig. 3.39.
Since voltage drop across the milliammeter and the shunt are equal

Fig. 3.39.

Fig. 3.40.
(ii) To measure voltage upto 5 V :
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The value of external series resistance, R : Refer to Fig. 3.40.
Now, voltage across supply loads

Example 3.51. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 5 Ω between terminals and fullscale
deflection is obtained with a current of 0.015 A. This instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt
to measure 100 A full scale. Calculate the error caused by a 20°C rise in temperature.
(i) When the internal resistance of 5Ω is due to copper only.
(ii) When a 4 Ω manganin swamping resistor is used in series with a copper resistor of l Ω.
The temperature-resistance co-efficients are :
Copper : αc = 0.4% per °C, Manganin : αm = 0.015% per °C.

Hence, current through the instrument corresponding to 100 A in the line

3.8.7. Ohmmeters
The ohmmeters may be of the following two types :
1. Series-type ohmmeter.
2. Shunt-type ohmmeter.

3.8.7.1. Series-type ohmmeter

Fig. 3.41 shows the elements of a simple single-range series ohmmeter :
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Fig. 3.41. Series-type ohmmeter.

— It consists of a D’Arsonval movement connected in series with a resistance and a battery to a
pair of terminals (X, Y) to which the unknown resistance (Rx) is connected. The current through the
meter then depends on the magnitude of unknown resistor, and the meter indication is proportional to
the value of the unknown, provided that the calibration problems are taken into account,
— When Rx = 0 (i.e., terminals X and Y shorted), maximum current flows in the circuit. Under this
condition, shunt resistor R2 is adjusted until the meter indicates fullscale current (Isd ); this position of
the pointer is marked “0 Ω” on this scale.
— When Rx = ∞ (i.e., terminals X and Y are open), the current in the circuit drops to zero and the
meter indicates zero current, which is then marked “∞” on the scale.
Intermediate markings may be placed on the scale by connecting different known values of Rx to
the instrument.
— The accuracy of these scale markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the meter and the
tolerances of the calibrating resistors.

3.8.7.2. Shunt-type Ohmmeter :

Fig. 3.42. shows the circuit diagram of a shunt-type ohmmeter :
— It consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistor R1 and PMMC meter movement. The
unknown resistor Rx is connected across terminals X and Y, in parallel with the meter. An off-on switch
is provided to disconnect the battery from the circuit when the instrument is not used.

Fig. 3.42. Shunt-type ohmmeter.

— When Rx = 0 Ω (X and Y terminals shorted), the meter current is zero.
— When Rx = ∞ (X and Y terminals open), the current finds a path only through the meter, and by
the appropriate selection of the value R1 , the pointer can be made to read full scale.
The ohmmeter therefore has the ‘zero’ mark at the left hand side of the scale (no current) and the
“infinite” mark on the right hand side of the scale (full-scale deflection).
• This type of ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of low-value resistors. It is not a
commonly used instrument, but it finds use in laboratories and special lowresistance applications.

3.8.7.3. Megger
Meggers (or megohmmeters) are instruments which measure the insulation resistance of electric
circuits relative to earth and one another.
A megger consists of an e.m.f. source and a voltmeter. The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated in
ohms (kilo-ohms or megohms, as the case may be). In measurements, the e.m.f. of the self-contained
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source must be equal to that of the source used in calibration.
Fig. 3.43 shows diagrammatically a megger whose readings are independent of the speed of the
self-contained generator. The moving system incorporates two coils 1 (current coil) and 2 (pressure
coil) mounted on the same shaft and placed in the field of a permanent magnet (now shown) 90° apart.
The generator energizes the two coils over separate wires. Connected in series with one coil is a fixed
resistance R1 (or several different resistances in order to extend the range of the instrument). The
unknown resistance Rx is connected in series with the other coil. The currents in the coils interact with
the magnetic field and produce opposing torques.

Fig. 3.43. Circuit diagram of megger.

The deflection of the moving system depends on the ratio of the currents in the coils and is
independent of the applied voltage. The unknown resistance is read directly from the scale of the
instrument. (The accuracy of measurement is unaffected by variations in the speed of the generator
between 60 and 180 r.p.m.).

3.8.8. Electrodynamic or Dynamometer Type Moving Coil Instruments

3.8.8.1. Introduction
In this type of instrument, the operating field is produced by another fixed coil and not by a
permanent magnet.
• These instruments are capable of service as transfer instruments (A ‘transfer instrument’ is one
that may be calibrated with a D.C. source and then used without modification to measure
A.C.). Indeed, their principal use as ammeters and voltmetes in laboratory and measurement
work is for the transfer calibration of working instruments and as standards for calibration of
other instruments a their accuracy is very high.
• These instruments are employed as A.C. voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power
frequencies and lower part of the audio frequency range. They are used as wattmeters, var-
meters and with some modification as power factor meters and frequency meters.

3.8.8.2. Construction and working

Fig. 3.44 shows a dynamometer type instrument :
The main components of the instrument are :
(i) Field system (Fixed coil).
(ii) Moving system (Moving coil).
(iii) Control system (Hair springs).
(iv) Damping system (Air friction damping).
(v) Shielding.
(vi) Cases and scales.
— These instruments essentially consist of fine wire moving coil placed in the magnetic field
produced by another fixed coil when carrying currents.
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Fig. 3.44. Electrodynamic or dynamometer type instrument.

— The coils are usually air cored to avoid hysteresis, eddy currents and other errors when the
instrument is used on A.C. The fixed coil FC is divided into two halves placed close together
and parallel to each other in order to provide a fairly uniform field, within the range of the
movement of the moving coil.
— The diagram in Fig. 3.44(a) shows a sectional elevation through fixed coil FC and the lower
diagram represents a sectional plan on XX. The moving coil MC is carried by a spindle S and
the controlling torque is exerted by spiral hair spring A, which may also serve to lead the
current into and out of MC.
— In these instruments air friction damping is used and may be either piston type or vane type.
Eddy current damping cannot be used as introduction of a permanent magnet for the purpose
would distort the working magnetic field of the instrument. — The complete assembly is
surrounded by a laminated steel shield to protect the instrument from external magnetic field
which may affect the operation of the instrument.
— Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly polished wooden cases. The case
is supported by adjustable levelling screws. A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper
levelling. The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing equipment.
Deflecting torque. The deflecting torque is due to interaction of the magnetic fields produced by
currents in the fixed and moving coils.
— Fig. 3.45(a) shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through FC (I1 ) in the direction
indicated by the dots and cross.
— Fig. 3.45(b) shows the magnetic field due to current (I2 ) in MC.
— Fig. 3.45(c) shows the combined effect of the above magnetic fields. By combining these
magnetic fields it will be seen that when currents (I1 and I2 ) flow simultaneously through FC and MC,
the resultant magnetic field is distorted and effect is to exert a clockwise torque on MC.
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Fig. 3.45. Magnetic fields due to fixed and moving coils.

Since MC is carrying current (I2 ) at right angles to the magnetic field produced by FC, deflecting
torque,

Since the instrument is spring-controlled, the restoring or control torque (Tc) is proportional to the
angular deflection θ.

The two torques (Td and Tc) are equal and opposite in the final deflection position.

Expression for torque in terms of mutual inductance M between fixed and moving coils :
The total energy stored in the magnetic field of the fixed coil,

where L1 and L2 are the self inductances of the fixed coil and moving coil respectively.
The interaction of these currents give rise to a deflecting torque, Td that sets the moving coil in a
position for which the energy of the coil magnetic field attains maximum value.

where dθ is the increase in angular deflection at which the field energy increases by dE.
Since coil inductances L1 and L2 are constant, therefore, dL1 and dL2 each is equal to zero and Td
is given by :

For direct current :

where I1 and I2 are the currents in fixed coil and moving coil respectively.
The above expression shows that the deflecting torque depends in general both on currents I1 and I2
and position of the moving coil with respect to the fixed one. The dependence of the rate of change of
mutual inductance on the angular deflection of the moving coil is determined by the shape
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of coils and their relative positions.
Deflecting torque (Td ) rotates the moving coil through an angle θ, at which restoring torque ( Tc) of
strings is equal to Td .

For alternating current :

When the coils carry alternating currents i1 and i2 the instantaneous deflecting torque,

The average deflecting torque over a complete cycle,

where I1 and I2 are r.m.s. values of current flowing in the coils.

At steady deflection state,

Td = T c

From the above discussion it is obvious that for a sinusoidal alternating currents the deflecting
torque and the deflection are determined by the product of r.m.s. values of coil currents and cosine of
the phase angle between them. It is clear that the dynamometer type of instruments can be used on both
D.C. and A.C.
Use of the instrument as an ammeter. When the instrument is used as an ammeter then same
current passes through both moving coil (MC) and fixed coils (FC) as shown in Fig. 3.46. In this case,
I1 = I2 = I, hence . The connections of Fig. 3.46 are used when small currents are to be
measured.
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Fig. 3.46. Measurement of small currents.

In the case of heavy currents, a shunt is used to limit current through the moving coil as shown in
Fig. 3.47.

Fig. 3.47. Measurement of heavy currents.

Use of the instrument as voltmeter. When the instrument is used as a voltmeter, the fixed and
moving coils are used in series along with high resistance as shown in Fig. 3.48.

• Thus, whether the instrument is used as an ammeter or voltmeter, its scale is uneven through the
whole of its range and is cramped or crowded near the zero in particular.
Note: When the dynamometer instrument is used to measure an alternating current or voltage, the
moving coil due to its inertia takes up a position where the average deflecting torque over one cycle
is balanced by the restoring torque of the spiral springs. For that position, the deflecting torque is
proportional to the mean value of the square of current or voltage, and the instrument scale can
therefore be calibrated to read the r.m.s. value.

Fig. 3.48. Use of the instrument as a voltmeter.

Ranges :
Ammeter. (i) With fixed and moving coils in series .............. 0/0.01 A – 0/0.05 A
(ii) With moving coil shunted or parallel connections ............ upto 0/30 A.
Voltmeters. Upto 0–750 volts.

3.8.8.3. Errors in dynamometer type instruments

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Following errors usually occur in these instruments :
(i) Frictional error;
(ii) Temperature error;
(iii) Error due to stray magnetic fields;
(iv) Frequency error;
(v) Error due to eddy currents.
1. Frictional error : In these instruments frictional error is high. So, in order to have high accuracy
of measurement this error needs to be minimised to the lowest possible, this is achieved as follows :
(i) By a reasonable reduction in weight;
(ii) By proper selection of materials for bearings and spindle, and adequate polishing of these parts.
However, these measures increase the cost of the instrument and make it more sensitive to
overloads and mechanical impacts.
2. Temperature error :
• High currents are carried by coils which produce heat. Self-heating of coils produces errors.
• High accuracy instruments contain temperature compensating resistors which tend to neutralise
the effects of changes in temperature.
3 . Errors due to stray magnetic fields : In order to avoid the influence of stray fields a good
amount of screening is necessary.
• In precision instruments the influence of external magnetic fields can be minimised by using
“Astatic system”.
— “Astatic” dynamometer type instruments are constructed with two similar sets of fixed and
moving coils mounted on the same shaft. The two pairs of fixed coils are so connected that
their magnetic fields are in opposition. The currents in the moving coils are also opposed and,
in consequence, the deflection torques applied to the moving coils act in the same direction.
Since the two fields are in opposition and, therefore, any uniform external field reduces the
field of one coil and increases by an equal amount the field of the other coil, the deflecting
torque produced by one coil is increased while that produced by the other coil is reduced by
an equal amount and, thus net torque on account of external magnetic field is zero.
4. Frequency error : This error in these instruments is largely due to variation of self-reactance of
coils, with frequency.
• In order to reduce frequency error in dynamometer ammeters, the ratio of currents in fixed and
moving coils i.e. should be independent of frequency. This requires that time constant
of two circuits should be same.
• For reducing frequency errors in voltmeters the coil winding is made a very small part of the
circuit. This makes inductive reactance (XL = 2πfL), a small fraction of total impedance, and
therefore . This means frequency does not affect the calibration of the
instrument. In fact, dynamometer voltmeters may be used, in general, within their guaranteed
accuracy from D.C. to about 125 Hz.
5. Error due to eddy currents :
• The eddy currents are induced in metal parts of the instrument and develop a torque because of
coupling between the moving coil and the neighbouring metal part.
• This error can be reduced by keeping the metal in the supports of the coil and other structural
parts to the minimum possible and selecting the metal, to be used, of high resistivity.

3.8.8.4. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages :
1. Can be used on both D.C. as well as A.C. systems (as the instrument has square law response).
2. They are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors, because of absence of iron in the operating
parts of the instrument.
3. It is possible to construct ammeters upto 10 A and voltmeters upto 600 V with precision grade
accuracy.
4. Very useful for accurate measurement of r.m.s. values of voltages irrespective of waveforms.
5. Owing to precision grade accuracy and same calibration for D.C. and A.C. measurements, these
instruments are used as transfer and calibration instruments.
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Disadvantages :
1. Since torque/weight ratio is small, such instruments have low sensitivity.
2. The scale is not uniform because
3. Cost of these instruments is higher in comparison to those of moving-iron instruments. So, these
are only used as voltmeters and ammeters for precision measurements.
4. Higher frictional losses.
5. These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, they must be
handled with care.
6. In these instruments the operating current is large and consequently they have a higher power
consumption than PMMC instruments.
Example 3.52. The mutual inductance of a 25 A electrodynamometer ammeter changes uniformly
at a rate of 0.0035 μH/degree. The torsion constant of the controlling spring is 10 –6 Nm/degree.
Determine the angular deflection for full scale.
(Poona University)

Solution. Given : I1 = I2 = I = 25 A; ; C = 10–6 Nm/degree

Angular deflection for full scale, θ :

Since spring constant is given Nm/degree, therefore, we must express in H/rad. if deflection is
to be found in degrees.

Full scale deflection torque,

Substituting this value of Td in the above eqn., we get :

Example 3.53. A 10 A electrodynamometer is controlled by a spring having a torsion constant of

0.1 × 10–6 Nm/degree. The full scale deflection is 110°. Determine the inductance of the instrument
when measuring a current of 10 A. The mutual inductance at 0° deflection is 2 μH and the change in
mutual inductance is linear as the deflection.
(Nagpur University)

Solution. Given : C = 0.1 × 10–6 Nm/degree; θ = 110°, I = 10 A; M at 0° deflection = 10A

Inductance of the instrument :

Example 3.24. The spring constant of a 10 A dynamometer wattmeter is 10.5 × 10–6 Nm/radian.
The variation of inductance with angular position of moving system is practically linear over the
operating range, the rate of change being 0.078 mH/radian. If the full-scale deflection of the
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instrument is 83 degrees, calculate the current required in the voltage coil at full scale on D.C.
circuit.
(Nagpur University)

Example 3.24. In a certain dynamometer ammeter the mutual inductance M varies with
deflection θ (expressed in degees) as :

Find the deflecting torque produced by a direct current of 60 mA corresponding to a deflection of

60°.
Solution. Given : M = – 8 cos (θ + 30°) mH ; I = 60 mA or 0.06 A; θ = 60°
Deflecting torque, Td :
Rate of change of mutual inductance with deflection,

Example 3.56. In a torsion-head type electrodynamometer a current of 36 A requires a deflection

of 90° in the head to give balance.
Determine :
(i) The range of the instrument (maximum angle 360°)
(ii) For what current will the deflection be 180° ?
(iii) What will be the deflection for a current of 30 A ?
Solution. In torsion-head electrodynamometer,

(i) Current corresponding to deflection of 360°,

(ii) Current corresponding to deflection of 180°,

(iii) Deflection corresponding to current 30 A,

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Example 3.57. A 50 V range spring controlled, electrodynamic voltmeter having a square law
scale response takes 0.05 A on D.C. for full scale deflection of 90°. The control constant is 0.5 × 10–6
Nm/degree and the initial mutual inductance of the instrument is 0.25 H. Find the true potential
difference across the instrument when it reads 50 V at 50 Hz.

Solution. Given : V = 50 volts; I = 0.05 A at θ = 90°; C = 0.5 × 10–6 Nm/degree; Initial inductance
= 0.25 H; f = 50 Hz.
True p.d. across the instrument :

Example 3.58. A 50 V range spring controlled electrodynamic voltmeter has an initial inductance
of 0.25 H, the full scale deflection torque of 0.4 × 10–4 Nm and full scale deflection current of 50 mA.
Determine the difference between D.C. and 50 Hz A.C. readings at (i) 50 V and (ii) 25 V if the
voltmeter inductance increases uniformly over the full scale of 90°.
(Delhi University)

Solution. Given : Initial inductance = 0.25 H; Td = 0.4 × 10–4 Nm; I = 50 mA or 0.05A

Total change in inductance for full scale deflection,

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THERMAL INSTRUMENTS (HOT-WIRE AND THERMOCOUPLE)

3.8.9. Hot-wire Instruments

• These instruments utilise the expansion of wire heated by current being measured.
• These instruments are primarily meant for being used as ammeters but can be adopted as
voltmeters by connecting a high resistance in series with them.
• The hot wire instruments are suited both for A.C. and D.C. work.
Construction. Fig. 3.49 shows the working parts of the instrument :
— It consists of platinum-iridium (It can withstand oxidation at high temperatures) wire AB
stretched between a fixed end B and the tension-adjusting screw at A. The diameter of this
wire is about 0.2 mm.
— A phosphor bronze wire is attached to the hot wire and in turn a fine silk thread R is attached to
phosphor bronze wire as shown in the figure.
— The silk thread R passes around a pulley E and the other end of it is fixed to spring S.
— A light pointer P and thin aluminium disc L are carried by the spindle upon which the pulley is
also mounted.
— M is the damping magnet; eddy current damping is used for these instruments.
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Fig. 3.49. Hot-wire instrument.

Working. When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of it or proportional to the voltage
to be measured) is passed through the wire AB, it expands due to heating effect of the current and slack
in the phosphor bronze wire which is taken up by string S through the silk thread R and the moving
system is rotated due to motion of the pulley E. Thus the pointer P moves over a calibrated scale.
It will be seen that the deflection of the pointer is proportional to the extension of AB which in itself
proportional to I2 . Hence, deflection is proportional to I2 . If spring control is used then

So, these instruments have a square law type scale. They read the “r.m.s. value of current” and
their readings are independent of its form and frequence.
• The hot wire should be made as thin as possible so that it may attain steady temperature as quick
as possible when current flows through it . At the same time the wire should be of such size
that it may be capable of withstanding the normal mechanical stresses developed in the
instrument due to handling, vibration, tension etc.
• In order to minimise the error due to uneven expansion between wire and its fixtures, the base of
the instrument is made of material of coefficient of expansion equal to that of hot wire.
Magnification of the expansion :
• Refer to Fig. 3.50 (a) :
Let, l = Length of hot wire, and
δL = Increase in length of wire due to flow of current I through it.
Then, the sag in wire due to expansion,

neglecting (δL) being very small

The magnification factor,

• Refer to Fig. 3.50(b) :

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Further magnification is obtained by connecting a phosphor bronze wire of length L1 to the centre
of the wire AB.
Let the sag in this case be S1 .

Fig. 3.50.
Ranges :
Ammeter :
(i) Without use of shunt : 0–1 A.
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(ii) Without use of shunt by using device like dividing the wire paths into several parallel paths : 0–
5 A.
Voltmeter :
Upto 400 V by using high non-inductive resistance in series with the instrument.
Advantages and Disadvantages :
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of hot-wire instruments :
Advantages :
1. Simple in construction and cheap in cost.
2. Fairly accurate instruments.
3. Errors due to temperature variations can be made negligible with suitable adjustments.
4. Since the instrument’s operation depends upon the heating effect which is proportional to square
of current, it can be used on A.C. and D.C. both.
5. These instruments are free from waveform errors since their readings depend upon r.m.s. values
of current.
6. No effect of stray magnetic fields because no magnetic effects are used to cause their operation.
7. This type of instrument is quite suitable for measurement of current at very high frequencies.
Disadvantages :
1. Power consumption is relatively high.
2. The deflection of the instrument is not the same for ascending and descending values.
3. The scale is not uniform.
4. The response of the circuit is very slow as the wire takes time to heat up.
5. These instruments are very delicate.
6. The hot-wire instruments cannot take overload because wire is very fine and may melt before the
fuse can protect it.
7. Changes in room temperature causes errors which shifts the zero as a result of which it has to be
reset frequently.
• In fact, although the accuracy of hot-wire instruments for measurement of current and voltage at
higher frequency is higher than others, yet due its disadvantages they are practically obsolete.
Example 3.59. The working wire of a single sag hot wire instrument is 15 cm long and is made-up
of platinum-silver with a coefficient of linear expansion of 16 × 10–6 . The temperature rise of the
wire is 85°C and the sag is taken up at the centre. Find the magnification.
(i) With no initial sag;
(ii) With an initial sag of 1 mm.
(Calcutta University)

Solution. Given : L = 15 cm or 0.15 m; α = 16 × 10–6 ; Temperature rise, Δt = 85°C

Magnification, M :
Increase in length of wire when heated through 85°C,
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3.8.10. Thermocouple Instruments
Working principle :
When two wires of different materials are joined together to form two junctions and if these
junctions are maintained at different temperatures, a current flows around a circuit. This is known as
Seebeck effect and the system is known as a “thermocouple”. Seebeck arranged 25 metals in the order
of their thermoelectric properties, these are : Bi-Ni-Co-Pd-Pt-U-Cu-Mu-Ti-Hg-Pb-Sn-Cr-Mo-Ph-Ir-Au-
Ag-Zn-W-Cd-Fe-As-Sb-Te.
The current flows across the hot junction from the former to the latter metal of the above series,
e.g., if copper and iron are used to form a thermocouple, the current flows from copper to iron at the
hot junction and iron to copper at the cold junction (Fig. 3.51). If the copper wire is cut, an e.m.f.
appears across the open circuit.

Fig. 3.51. Seebeck effect.

Construction and Working :
Fig. 3.52 shows the construction of a thermocouple instrument :
— It consists of a heater element (through which the current being measured is passed),
thermocouple and a PMMC instrument to measure the e.m.f. produced by Seebeck effect.
— The heater wire and one junction of the thermocouple are in contact at the hot junction.
— The heater converts electrical energy to heat. A part of this heat is transferred to the
thermocouple at the hot junction. Due to Seebeck effect an e.m.f. is produced and it is
measured by the PMMC instrument (D.C. moving coil microvoltmeter). The deflection is
proportional to thermoelectric e.m.f. which in turn is proportional to the difference between
the temperatures of hot and cold junctions. This temperature difference is proportional to I2 .

Fig. 3.52. Thermocouple instrument.

The scale of PMMC meter can be calibrated to indicate the r.m.s. value.
• The commonly used junctions for thermocouple ammeters are copper-constantan and iron-
constantan.
Advantages and disadvantages :
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Advantages :
1. These instruments are suitable for very high frequencies upto about 50 MHz. No other instrument
can measure currents and voltages for these high frequencies.
2. They indicate the r.m.s. values directly.
3. They are not affected by stray magnetic fields.
4. They have good sensitivity.
5. These instruments are very useful as transfer instruments for calibration of D.C. instruments by
potentiometer and a standard cell.
Disadvantages :
1. The overload capacity is very limited.
2. Considerable power losses due to the poor efficiency of thermal conversion.
3. Low accuracy of measurement.
4. The millivoltmeters used with thermo-elements must be necessarily more sensitive and delicate
than those used with shunts, and therefore, require careful handling.

3.8.11. Rectifier Type Instruments

3.8.11.1 Introduction
These are not separate types of instruments, but rather a means of using a D’Arsonval movement,
in conjunction with a rectifier, to change A.C. to D.C. Thus, a direct current movement can be adopted
for use with alternating current as shown in Fig. 3.53. Rectifier type meters, using copper oxide
rectifiers, are useful at low frequencies and will give good indication upto about 20 kHz.
• Rectifier instruments can operate well into the RF (radio-frequency) range with the proper use of
silicon or germanium rectifiers.
• Measurement of current and voltage at several hundred MHz is possible.
• This type of meter is more sensitive than any other type of A.C. meter.

3.8.11.2. Rectifier type elements

• A rectifier element is used to convert A.C. to D.C. so that a unidirectional current flows through
the PMMC movement.
• The rectifier type of instruments use a copper oxide or a selenium cell, a germanium or silicon
diode.
— Copper oxide elements have a peak inverse voltage (PIV) of about 2 V while selenium
elements have a PIV of about 10 V and also they can handle only limited amount of
current and hence are becoming obsolete.
— Germanium diodes have a PIV of the order of 300 V, and a current rating of 100 mA
(appr.). Low current silicon diode rectifiers have a PIV of upto 1000 V, and a current
rating of the order of 500 mA. For these reasons germanium and silicon diodes find
extensive applications in rectifier instruments these days.

Fig. 3.53. A D.C. moving-coil meter can be used to measure A.C. voltage by putting a diode
or rectifier in the meter circuit.
It may be mentioned here that though silicon diodes can carry currents as high as 85 A per
rectifying elements, but these high current silicon diodes are seldom used in indicating instruments and
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find wide applications in power supply circuits.

3.8.11.3. Characteristics of rectifier instruments

The characteristics of rectifier instruments are given below :
1. They provide an economical and practical means of A.C. measurements in radio and
communication circuits at audio frequencies (1 kHz to 10 kHz) and in other A.C. circuits
where small available power makes it necessary to use sensitive low-energy instruments.
2. A rectifier instrument is, in general, approximately fifty times more sensitive than either an
electrodynamometer or a moving-iron instrument.
3. In most instances rectifier instruments have essentially linear scales.
4. They commonly possess sensitivity of the order of 1000 to 2000 ohms per volt and more.
5. The power consumed by a rectifier instrument is generally several times as high as its permanent
magnet moving coil (PMMC) mechanism because of the resistance of its rectifier.
6. Shunting of rectifier instruments is not practical because of the change in resistance of the
rectifier with both temperature and the amount of the current.
7. Rectifier instruments are manufactured as micrometers and milliammeters in ratings from 100 μA
to 15 mA for full scale deflection. The higher rating of 15 mA is more or less governed by
the special size of the rectifier in comparison with the mechanism with which it is to be used.

3.8.11.4. Rectifier ammeters and voltmeters

Rectifier ammeters. The rectifier ammeters usually consists of four rectifier elements L, M, N and
P arranged in the form of a bridge (as shown in Fig. 3.54) and A represents a moving-coil ammeter.
The apex of the black triangle (shown in the bridge) indicates the direction in which the resistance is
low.

Fig. 3.54. Bridge circuit for full-wave rectification.

As shown in Fig. 3.54 during the half-cycles current flows through elements L and N from left to
right as shown by the full arrows. During other half-cycles, the current flows through M and P, as
shown by dotted arrows. The waveform of the current flowing through A is therefore as shown in Fig.
3.55. The deflection of moving-coil ammeter A, thus depends upon the average value of the current;
and the scale of A can be calibrated to read the r.m.s. value of the current on the assumption that the
waveform of the latter is sinusoidal with a form factor of 1.11.
Rectifier voltmeters. In a rectifier voltmeter, A is a milliammeter and the bridge circuit of Fig. 3.54
is connected in series with a suitable resistor.
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Fig. 3.55. Waveform of current through moving-coil ammeter.
Ranges :
(i) 0–100 μA; upto 0–100 mA
(ii) 0–1.0 V; upto 0–250 V without external resistance
(iii) Frequency range 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Precaution : The circuit to the instrument should never be opened while the rectifier is connected
to the line, because this will result in full voltage impressed across the rectifier plates, which may get
damaged due to it.

3.8.11.5. Sensitivity of rectifier type instruments

• The D.C. sensitivity of a rectifier type instrument is given by :

• For a half-wave rectifier with sinusoidal input the A.C. sensitivity is given as :

Similarly, for a full-wave rectifier type instrument, with sinusoidal input, the A.C. sensitivity is
given by :

These relations are not valid for non-sinusoidal input waveforms such as square, triangular and
sawtooth waveforms. Further these relations are based on the assumption that the forward resistances
of diodes are zero and the reverse resistance infinite.

3.8.11.6. Extension of range of rectifier instruments as voltmeters :

Let us support we are to extend the range of a rectifier instrument which uses a PMMC instrument
having a D.C. sensitivity of SD.C.

Then, for D.C. operation the values of series resistance (multiplier) needed is,
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• Following factors affect the performance of rectifier type instruments :

(i) Waveform;
(ii) Resistance of rectifier;
(iii) Temperature changes;
(iv) Capacitance of rectifier;
(v) Sensitivity.
• “Loading effects of rectifier instruments” :
The sensitivity of rectifier type of voltmeters, using either half or full wave rectification, is less
than the sensitivity of D.C. voltmeters. Therefore, the loading effects of an A.C. rectifier voltmeter is
greater than that of a corresponding D.C. voltmeter.

3.8.11.7. Advantages of rectifier instruments

1. The primary advantage of the rectifier voltmeter is that it is far more sensitive as compared to
other types of voltmeter suitable for measuring A.C. voltages.
2. Metal rectifiers can be incorporated in universal instruments, such as ammeter, thereby enabling a
moving-coil milliammeter to be used in combination with shunt and series resistances to
measure various ranges of D.C. and D.C. voltage, and in combination with a bridge rectifier
and suitable resistors to measure various ranges of A.C. and A.C. voltage.
3. These instruments can be employed at frequencies well above the range of other A.C.
instruments of the ordinary type (from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
4. They incorporate the high torque, efficient damping of the moving-coil instrument with linear
scale shape, except of low ranges.
5. They have a very low power consumption.
6. Their accuracy is about ± 5% under normal operating conditions.
7. These instruments have a much lower operating current for voltmeters (or higher value of ohm
per volt) than other A.C. instruments, with the exception of electrostatic and valve
voltmeters.
Example 3.60. An alternating current is measured by a rectifier and a hot-wire ammeters and the
readings are found to be 31 A and 33 A respectively.
Determine the form factor of the current wave.
Solution. R.m.s. value of current under measurement,

Ir.m.s. = Hot-wire ammeter reading = 33 A

Average value of current under measurement,

Iav. = Rectifier ammeter reading = 31 A

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Example 3.61. A PMMC ammeter gives reading of 35 mA when connected across two opposite
corners of bridge rectifier, the other two corners of which are connected in series with a capacitor to
100 kV, 50 Hz supply.
Determine the capacitance.
Solution. Since PMMC ammeter gives average reading, therefore, average value of current (Iav) =
35 mA or 0.035 A.
Assuming sinusoidal waveform i.e. form factor 1.11,
R.m.s. value of current (Ir.m.s.) = 1.11 × 0.035 = 0.0388 A
Neglecting resistance of the instrument and assuming the capacitance connected is of C farads,

Example 3.62. A PMMC ammeter is connected across appropriate points of a bridge having
resistance of each arm of 40 Ω and connected across a supply of voltage v = 10 sin θ + 0.4 sin 3θ.
Determine the reading of the ammeter if its resistance is 20 Ω.
Solution. Given : Instantaneous applied voltage, v = 10 sin θ + 0.4 sin 3θ; Resistance of each arm =
40 Ω; Ammeter resistance = 20 Ω.
Ammeter reading, Iav. :

Example 3.63. A moving coil ammeter, a hot wire ammeter and a resistance of 100 Ω are
connected in series with a rectifying device across a sinusoidal alternating supply of 200 V. If the
rectifying device has a resistance of 100 Ω to current in one direction and of 500 Ω in the opposite
direction, calculate the readings on the two ammeters.
(UPTU)
Solution. Reading of moving coil ammeter :
R.m.s. current in one direction,
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Reading of hot-wire ammeter :

If I is the direct current which produces the same heating effect, then

Example 3.64. A sinusoidal alternating voltage of 250 V peak is applied to a circuit containing a
rectifying device which entirely prevents current flowing in one direction, and offers a nonreactive
resistance of 200 Ω to the flow of current in the other direction. Determine the readings on :
(i) Hot-wire ammeter;
(ii) Moving coil in the circuit
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : Vmax = 250 V; Resistance of rectifying device, R = 200 Ω
Maximum value of current flowing through the instruments,

Reading of hot-wire ammeter, Ir.m.s. :

The hot-wire ammeter reads r.m.s. value, thus,
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Reading of moving coil ammeter, Iav. :
The moving coil ammeter reads average value, thus,

Example 3.65. A permanent magnet moving coil type full-wave bridge rectifier ammeter is used
to measure current in a load connected across a supply of voltage :

v = 5 sin θ + 0.2 sin 3θ

Determine the reading of the ammeter, if its resistance is 30 Ω. Assume dynamic resistance of
each diode as 35 Ω under forward biased condition.
(UPTU)
Solution. Refer to Fig. 3.56
Given : Supply voltage, v = 5 sin θ + 0.2 sin 3θ; Rm = 30 Ω; Resistance of each diode (forward
biased) = 35 Ω.
Reading of the ammeter :
Total resistance to the flow of current (through D 2 – PMMC – D 4 or through D 3 – PMMC – D 1 ),

Fig. 3.56. Reading of the ammeter.

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Example 3.66. A resistance of 50 Ω is connected in series with a rectifying device, a moving coil
ammeter and a dynamometer type ammeter. The circuit is connected across a sinusoidal A.C. supply
of 100 V. The resistance of the rectifying device is 50 Ω in one direction and 250 Ω in the opposite
direction.
Calculate :
(i) Reading on two ammeters.
(ii) Power supplied from mains.
(iii) Power dissipated in rectifying elements.
(Anna University)
Solution. R.m.s. value of supply voltage, V = 100 V

(i) Readings on two ammeters :

R.m.s. value of current,
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Fig. 3.57.
Average value of current,
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3.8.12. Electrostatic Instruments
3.8.12.1. Working principle
The underlying principle of operation of electrostatic instruments is the force of attraction between
electric charges on neighbouring plates between which potential difference is maintained. This force
gives rise to a deflecting torque. Unless the p.d. is adequately large, the force is small. Hence such
instruments are used for measurement of very high voltages.
• The instruments are almost always used as voltmeters and that too more as a laboratory rather
than as industrial instruments.
Such instruments may be used with the help of external components, to measure current and power.

3.8.12.2. Force and torque equations

Linear motion : Refer to Fig. 3.58. Let a voltage V be applied between two parallel plates, one
fixed (A) and the other movable (B). The capacitance between the plates is C and the energy stored is
. If the voltage is increased by dV, the force of attraction (F) will increase and the movable plate
will move by a distance dx.
The capacitance current,

Fig. 3.58. Theory of linear motion of electrostatic instruments.

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Fig. 3.59. Theory of rotational motion of electrostatic instruments.

If the motion is rotational the deflecting torque is given as :

[Using eqn. (3.110) by writing an angular displacement θ in place of linear displacement x and
deflecting torque Td in place of force F].
When the instrument is spring controlled or has a suspension,
where,
Control torque, Tc = Kθ
K = spring constant, and
θ = Deflection.
At steady deflection state, Td = Tc

• Because the deflection is proportional to the square of voltage to be measured, the instrument can
be used on both A.C. and D.C.
• Since the instrument exhibits a square law response, therefore, the scale is nonuniform and is
compressed at lower end.

3.8.12.3. Classification of electrostic instruments

There are two general types of such instruments :
1. The quadrant type ...... Used upto 20 kV
2. The attracted disc type ....... Used upto 500 kV.

3.8.12.4. Quadrant electrometer

Construction. Fig. 3.60(a) shows a quadrant electrometer :
— It consists of four fixed metal double quadrants arranged to form a circular box. The opposite
pairs are connected together. There are short air gaps between the quadrants. Inside the box, a double
sector shaped needle is suspended by a phosphor bronze or silver quartz thread. The needle is
equidistant from top and bottom quadrants.
— The needle carries a mirror and the deflection read off by means of a lamp and scale
arrangement.
An alternate arrangement may be mounting the needle on a spindle and the controlling troque is
provided by a spring attached to the spindle. The deflecting torque moves a pointer and the deflection
is read on a calibrated scale. For these instruments, eddy current damping is used.
— Usually, a high resistance is connected in series with an electrostatic voltmeter, particularly if
the instrument is of the suspended-vane type. This resistance is used for limiting the current which can
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flow if there is accidental connection between a vane and a quadrant.
Principle of operation. The fixed quadrants are connected together and the voltage to be measured
is applied between the fixed quadrants and the moving needle. Due to charge accmulated, an
electrostatic force is set up because of which the needle rotates. The suspension exerts a controlling
torque and the needle takes up a position where the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling
torque.
Types of connections. The quadrant electrometer may be used in two ways :
(i) Heterostatic connection. This connection is shown in Fig. 3.60(b). A high tension (HT) battery
is used for charging the needle to a potential considerably above that of the quadrants to which the
negative of the voltage to be measured is connected.
(ii) Idiostatic connection. This connection is shown in Fig. 3.60(c). The needle is directly
connected to one pair of quadrants.
Generally, idiostatic connection is used.
• It can be shown that with the four quadrants and a double sector shaped needle, as shown in Fig.
3.60, the deflecting torque (Td ) in Nm is given as :
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Fig. 3.60. Quadrant electrometer.
The controlling torque is provided by the spring. Thus,

Hence, with idiostatic connection the instrument gives a square law response.
Kelvin multicellular voltmeter :
The construction shown in Fig. 3.60 has a rather small deflecting torque. To increase sensitivity, a
multicellular electrostatic voltmeter devised by Lord Kelvin is used.
Fig. 3.61 shows the components of a Kelvin multicellular voltmeter :
— It has a large number of fixed quadrants and needles. The large number of quadrants is needed to
give a high deflecting torque even at low voltages.
— The moving system is suspended by a phosphor bronze suspension to reduce bearing friction.
— The coach spring provides protection against breaking of suspension due to vibration.
— The torsion head is provided for zero adjustment.
— Damping is done by using an oil dashpot.
• This voltmeter is suitable for even low voltages in the range of 100 to 1000 V.

Fig. 3.61. Kelvin multicellular voltmeter.

3.8.12.5. Attracted-disc type voltmeter

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Construction: This instrument is suitable for only high voltages (more than 10 kV).
Fig. 3.62 shows the main constructional features of an attracted-disc type voltmeter (also known as
Kelvin absolute electrometer) :
— It consists of two discs, the fixed disc and the moving disc.
— The moving disc is supported by coach spring which is suspended from a micrometer head as
shown.
— The moving disc is provided with a guard ring to reduce the fringing effects. The effective area
of the moving disc is its actual area plus half the area of air gap.

Fig. 3.62. Attracted-disc type voltmeter (Kelvin absolute electrometer)

Working : The voltage to be measured is applied between the fixed and moving discs. The moving
disc is attracted downward and is brought back to zero position by turning the micrometer head. The
movement required to return the disc to zero position is a measure of the applied voltage.
Theory :

The force of attraction between the discs (eqn. 3.110),

But for a capacitor with closely spaced discs/plates,

The above theory shows that such an instrument will give an absolute determination of potential
difference, as p.d. is given in terms of force and linear dimensions. The deflecting force is only
adequate if the voltage to be measured is high..
— In order to ensure good insulation, screening, and freedom from corona effects, special
construction may be necessary.
— A modern development is to enclose the working parts of the instruments within a highly
evacuated chamber.
The superior dielectric strength of a high vacuum, in comparison with that of air at normal
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pressures, enables the clearance between the plates to be reduced, thus giving an increased force for a
given voltage. The use of a compressed-gas dielectric is an alternative means of obtaining higher
dielectric strength and increased sensitivity.

3.8.12.6. Advantages and disadvantages

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of electrostatic instruments.
Advantages :
1. Suitable for both A.C. and D.C.
2. Measure r.m.s. values.
3. Draw negligible power from the mains.
— For operation on D.C., the initial current is the charging current which decreases
exponentially and the final current is zero.
— For operation on A.C., the current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the
measuring circuit.
4. Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors (because there is no iron in the working system).
5. Free from frequency and waveform errors.
6. Especially suitable for high voltages.
7. Owing to negligible power loss there is no heating error.
8. Can be manufactured with first grade accuracy.
9. Cause little disturbance to circuits to which they are connected.
Disadvantages :
1. Low deflecting torque especially when the voltage required to be measured is less than 500 V.
However, Kelvin multicellular voltmeter can be designed for use for measurements of
voltages as low as 30 V.
2. Fragile and expensive and cannot be made robust.
3. Non-uniform scale.
4. Liable to friction errors.

3.8.12.7. Range extension of electrostatic voltmeters

The range of electrostatic voltmeters can be extended by the use of multipliers which are in form of
:
1. Resistance potential divider ------ Can be used both for direct and alternating voltages.
2. Capacitance potential divider ------ Useful only for alternating voltages.
1. Resistance potential divider : This divider consists of a high non-inductive resistance across a
small portion which is attached to the electrostatic voltmeter as shown in Fig. 3.63.

The above eqn. (3.117) is true for D.C. circuits but for A.C. circuits, the capacitance of the
voltmeter (which is in parallel with r) has to be taken into account. Since this capacitance is variable, it
is advisable to calibrate the voltmeter alongwith its multiplier.
2. Capacitance potential divider : In this method, the voltmeter may be connected in series with a
single capacitor C and put across the voltage V which is to be measured [Fig. 3.64(a)] or a number of
capacitor may be joined in series to form the potential divider and the voltmeter may be connected
across one of the capacitors as shown in Fig. 3.64(b).
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Fig. 3.63. Resistance potential divider.

Fig. 3.64. Capacitance potential divider.

Example 3.67. An absolute electrometer uses a movable circular plate 80 mm in diameter.

During a voltage measurement the distance between the plates is 3.2 mm and the force of attraction
is 0.003 N. The medium is air. ∈0 = 8.85 × 10–12 F/m. Determine V.

Example 3.68. In an electrometer, the movable plate is 110 mm in diameter. When 12 kV is

applied between the movable plate and the fixed plate, the force is 0.006 N. Find the change in
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capacitance for 1.2 mm movement of the movable plate.
Solution. Given : Diameter of movable plate = 110 mm or 0.11 m; V = 12 kV; F = 0.006 N; x = 1.2
mm.

Example 3.69. An electrostatic voltmeter has full scale deflection of 90°. The control constant of
the spring is 8 × 10–6 Nm/rad. When reading is zero, the capacitance is 12 pF. What is the
capacitance when the instrument reads 1500 V and the deflection is 90°.

Example 3.70. An electrostatic voltmeter is constructed with 6 parallel, semicircular fixed plates
equally-spaced at 4 mm intervals and 5 interleaved semi-circular movable plates that move in planes
midway between the fixed plates, in air. The movement of the movable plates is about an axis through
the centre of the circles of the plates system, perpendicular to the planes of the plates. The instrument
is spring-controlled. If the radius of the movable plates is 4 cm, calculate the spring constant if 10 kV
corresponds to a full-scale deflection of 100°. Neglect fringing, edge-effects and plate thickness.
(Bombay University)
Solution. Given : No. of fixed plates = 6; No. of movable plates = 5; d (Distance between fixed and
movable plates) = = 2 mm or 0.002 m ; r = 4 cm or 0.04 m ; V = 10 kV ; θ = 100° or

Spring constant, K :
Total number of plates (both fixed and movable) is 11, hence there are 10 parallel plate capacitors
(See Fig. 3.65)
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Fig. 3.65.
Suppose, the movable plates are rotated into the fixed plaes by an angle of θ radian. Then, overlap
area between one fixed and one movable semi-circular plate is,

Capacitance of each of ten parallel-plate capacitors,

Example 3.71. The reading ‘100’ of a 120 V electrostatic voltmeter is to represent 10,000 volts
when its range is extended by the use of a capacitor in series. If the capacitance of the voltmeter at
the above reading is 70 pF, find the capacitance of the capacitor multiplier required.
Solution. Given : V = 10,000 volts; v = 100 volts, Cv = 70 pF.

Inserting the various values in the above eqn., we get

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Example 3.72. A current of 0.5 + 0.3 sin ωt – 0.2 sin 2ωt is passed through the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.66. Determine the reading of each instrument if ω = 106 rad./s.

Fig. 3.66.

Solution. Given : i = 0.5 + 0.3 sin ωt – 0.2 sin 2ωt ; ω = 106 rad./s.
Reading of each instrument :
Let, the instantaneous value of current,

Average value of a sinusoidal quantity over a number of cycles or over a time very much greater
than the time period of a cycle is equal to zero.

3.9 WATTMETERS AND MEASUREMENT OF POWER

3.9.1. Introduction
3.9.1.1. Power in D.C. and A.C. circuits
Power may be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed or made available.
• In “D.C. circuits” the power may be measured either by a wattmeter or by an ammeter and
voltmeter, the product of whose readings gives the power in the circuit (i.e., P = VI);
alternatively if the circuit resistance is known.
• In “A.C. circuits” the power at any instant is given by :
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Thus, if both the current and voltage waves are sinusoidal, the current lagging in phase by an angle
ϕ, and

where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current.

The fact that the power factor (cos ) is involved in the expression for the power means that a
wattmeter must be used instead of the merely an ammeter and voltmeter, since the latter method takes
no account of power factor.

3.9.1.2. Wattmeter connections/measurements in single-phase A.C. circuits

Fig. 3.67 shows a wattmeter connected in a single-phase A.C. circuit.
— The “current coil” of the instrument carries the load current, while the “ pressure or voltage coil”
carries a current proportional to, and in phase with, the voltage. The deflection of the
wattmeter depends upon the currents on these coils and upon the power factor.
— Inductance in the voltage-coil circuit should be avoided as far as possible, since it causes the
voltage-coil current to lag behind the applied voltage. A high noninductance resistance is
connected in series with the voltage coil in order that the reactance of the coil itself shall be
small in comparison with the resistance of the whole voltage-coil circuit and also, of course,
to ensure that the current taken by the voltage coil shall be small.

Fig. 3.67. Wattmeter connections.

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WATTMETERS

3.9.2. Types of Wattmeters

A wattmeter is a combination of an ammeter and a voltmeter and, therefore, consists of two coils
known as current coil and pressure coil. The operating torque is produced due to interaction of fluxes
on account of currents in current and pressure coils.
There are following three types of wattmeters :

3.9.3. Dynamometer Wattmeter

3.9.3.1. Description
Fig. 3.68 shows the connection of dynamometer for measuring power. If the coils are connected so
that a value of current proportional to the load voltage flows in one, and a value of current
proportional to the load current flows in the other, the meter may be calibrated directly in watts. This
is true because the indication depends upon the product of the two magnetic fields. The strength of the
magnetic fields depends upon the values of currents flowing through the coils. If one current is
proportional to load voltage and other current is the load current, then the meter can be calibrated in
terms of watts or true power consumed by the load.

Fig. 3.68. Connection of dynamometer for measuring power

— For a D.C. circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power.
— For any circuit with fluctuating torque, the instantaneous torque is proportional to instantaneous
power. In this case due to inertia of moving parts, the deflection will be proportional to the
average torque i.e., the deflection will be proportional to the average power. For sinusoidal
alternating quantities the average power is VI cos ϕ, where
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Hence an electrodynamic instrument, when connected as shown in Fig. 3.68, indicates the power,
irrespective of the fact it is connected in an A.C. or D.C. circuit.
Effect of mutual inductance on the deflecting torque :
The mutual inductance between the fixed and moving coils varies as the moving coil moves and the
deflecting torque is affected due to change in mutual inductance. Hence it is necessary to study the
effect of change of mutual inductance on the deflecting torque.
Refer to Fig. 3.69 :

Then, the instantaneous torque of a dynamometer type of instrument,

Now, instantaneous value of voltage across the pressure coil circuit,

If the pressure coil circuit has a very high resistance, it can be treated as purely resistive. Therefore,
current ip in the pressure coil is in phase with the voltage and its instantaneous value is,

Fig. 3.69. Circuit of dynamometer wattmeter

If the current in the current coil lags the voltage in phase by an angle , instantaneous value of
current through current coil is,

From above it is obvious that there is a component of power which varies as twice the frequency of
current and voltage (refer to term containing 2 ωt).
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Average deflecting torque (Td )av. is given by :

Controlling torque exerted by springs, Tc = Cθ

where,
C = Spring constant, and
θ = Final steady deflection.
Since the moving system of the instrument cannot follow the rapid variations in torque (the torque
has a double frequency, component), it will take up a position at which the average deflection torque is
equal to the restoring torque of the springs.

It is evident from eqn. (3.131) that the deflection is directly proportional to the power being
measured and the scale is essentially uniform over the range in which is constant. By suitable
design, the mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils can be made to vary linearly with angle
over a range of 40° to 50° on either side of zero mutual inductance position. If the position of zero
mutual inductance is at the midscale, the scale will be uniform over 80° to 100° which covers almost
the entire range of scale.
Ranges :
(i) Current circuit : 0.25 A to 100 A with employing current transformers (CTs)
(ii) Potential circuit : 5 V to 750 V without employing potential transformers (PTs).

3.9.3.2. Types of dynamometer wattmeter

Dynamometer wattmeters may be divided into two classes :
1. Suspended-coil torsion instruments.
2. Pivoted-coil, direct indicating instruments.
1. Suspended-coil torsion wattmeters. These instruments are used largely as standard wattmeters.
— The moving, or voltage, coil is suspended from a torsion head by a metallic suspension
which serves as a lead to the coil. This coil is situated entirely inside the current, or
fixed coils and the winding in such that the system is astatic. Errors due to external
magnetic fields are thus avoided.
— The torsions head carries a scale, and when in use, the moving coil is bought back to the
zero position by turning this head, the number of divisions turned through when
multiplied by a constant for the instrument gives the power.
— Eddy currents are eliminated as far as possible by winding the current coils of stranded
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wire and by using no metal parts within the region of the magnetic field of the
instrument.
— The mutual inductance errors are completely eliminated by making zero position of the
coil such that the angle between the planes of moving coil and fixed coil = 90°, i.e., the
mutual inductance between the fixed and moving coils is zero.
— The elimination of pivot friction makes possible the construction of extremely sensitive and
accurate electrodynamic instruments of this pattern.
2. Pivoted-coil direct-indicating wattmeters. These instruments are commonly used as switchboard
or portable instruments.
— In these instruments, the fixed coil is wound in two halves, which are placed parallel to
another at such a distance, that uniform uniform field is obtained. The moving coil is
wound of such a size and pivoted centrally so that it does not project outside the field
coils at its maximum deflection position.
— The springs are provided for controlling the movement of the moving coil, which also
serves as current leads to the moving coil.
— The damping is provided by using a damping vane attached to the moving system and
moving in a sector-shaped box.
— The reading is indicated directly by the pointer attached to the moving system and moving
over a calibrated scale.
— The eddy current errors, within the region of the magnetic field of the instrument, are
minimised by the use of non-metallic parts of high resistivity material.

3.9.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages of dynamometer type wattmeters are as under :
Advantages :
1. The scale of the instrument is uniform (because deflecting torque is proportional to true power in
both the cases i.e., D.C. and A.C. and the instrument is spring controlled.)
2. High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design, hence these are used for calibration
purposes.
Disadvantages :
1. The error due to the inductance of pressure coil at low power factor is very serious (unless special
features are incorporated to reduce its effect).
2. Stray field may effect the reading of the instrument. To reduce it, magnetic shielding is provided
by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.
Example 3.73. A wattmeter is used to measure power in the circuit with the help of the following
equation :

P = E 2 /R

where limiting values of voltage and resistance are, E = 200 V + 1% and R = 100 Ω ± 5%.
Calculate :
(i) The nominal power consumed.
(ii) The limiting error of power in per cent and watts.
(UPTU)
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3.9.3.4. Errors in dynamometer wattmeters

The various types of errors in dynamometer wattmeters are :
1. Error due to pressure-coil inductance.
2. Error due to pressure-coil capacitance.
3. Error due to eddy currents.
4. Error due to power lose in pressure coil or current coil.
5. Error due to friction.
6. Error due to temperature.
7. Error due to stray fields.
1. Error due to pressure-coil inductance :

Fig. 3.70. Phasor diagram

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where, ω is the angular velocity of supply.
If is the phase angle (lagging) between load current I and supply voltage V, then phase angle
between the currents of current coil (Ic) and pressure coil (Ip ) will be – θ; then deflection of
wattmeter α Ip Ic cos (ϕ – θ).

When Lp = 0, then θ = 0, and the wattmeter deflection would be proportional to at

all frequencies and power factors.

Dividing numerator and denominator by sin ϕ, we have :

Eqn. (3.134) indicates that instrument gives high reading on lagging power factor and low reading
on leading power factor.
2. Error due to pressure coil capacitance :
— The pressure-coil circuit may have capacitance as well as inductance, this being largely due to
inter-turn capacitance in the high-value series resistor. The effect produced is similar to that of
inductance in the circuit, except that the pressurecoil current tends to lead the applied voltage
instead of to lag behind it. This causes the wattmeter to read low, on lagging power factors of
the load, by increasing the angle between the load and voltage-coil contents.
— The effect of frequency will be, of course, to vary the phase angle between V and Ip , the angle
increasing with increase of frequency.
— If the capacitance reactance of pressure-coil circuit is equal to its inductive reactance, there will
be no error due to these effects since the two individual errors will neutralise one another.
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3. Error due to eddy currents :
— The eddy currents induced in the solid metal parts of the instrument, by the alternating magnetic
field of the current coil, alter the magnitude and phase of this field, and so produce an error.
— The phase of the induced e.m.fs will be 90° behind the inducing flux, i.e., rather more than 90°
behind the main current in the current coil. The eddy current is practically in phase with its
e.m.f. and this current sets up a magnetic field which, combined with that of the current coil,
produces a resultant magnetic field which is less than that of the current coil alone and which
also lags behind the current-coil field by a small angle.
— The eddy current error is not easily calculable and may be serious if care is not taken to ensure
that any solid metal parts (which should be avoided as far as possible) are well removed from
the current coil.
If current coil is designed for heavy currents, it should consist of stranded conductors in order to
minimize the eddy currents flowing in the current coil itself.
4 . Error due to power loss in pressure coil (P.C.) or current coil (C.C.). Fig. 3.71 shows two
methods of connecting a wattmeter in circuit; neither measures the power in the load directly, without
corrections, even neglecting the errors discussed above.

Fig. 3.71. Alternative wattmeter connections.

• In the method illustrated in Fig. 3.71(a), the pressure coil is connected on the “supply” side of the
current coil, the voltage applied to the pressure coil is higher than that of the load on account
of the voltage drop in the current coil.
Power indicated by the wattmeter

• In the method illustrated in Fig. 3.71(b), the current coil carries the small current taken by the
pressure coil, in addition to the load current.

• If the load current is small the voltage drop in the current coil is small, so that the first method of
connection introduces a very small error. On the other hand, if the load current is large , the power lost
in the voltage coil will be small compared with the power in the load, and the second method of
connection is better.
Compensation for power loss in pressure/voltage coil :
— In some wattmeters a “compensating coil” is used to eliminate error due to current coil carrying
the pressure-coil current in addition to the load current when the connections are as in Fig.
3.71(b).
— This compensating coil is as nearly as possible identical and coincident with the current coil, so
that if it were connected in series with the latter, and a current passed through the two coils-
connected so that this magnitude effects were in opposition– the resultant magnetic field
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would be zero. Actually, the compensating coil is connected in series with the pressure coil,
but in such a way that its magnetic effect opposes that of the current coil and neutralises the
pressure-coil component of the current in the current coil. Thus, if no-load current flows in
the instrument, the deflection should be zero, since the resultant current-coil field should be
zero. The connections of this method of compensation are shown in Fig. 3.72.

Fig. 3.72. Connections of compensating coil.

5 . Error due to friction. Owing to availability of small deflecting torque, the frictional error
becomes relatively important in such an instrument.
• In order to reduce friction error it becomes necessary that the weight of moving system be
reduced to the minimum possible on one hand and great care must be taken in the pivoting on
the other hand.
6 . Error due to temperature. The indication of a wattmeter is affected by changes in room
temperature. This is because any change in room temperature changes the resistance of the pressure
coil and the stiffness of the springs. These effects are opposite in nature and would nearly neutralize
each other, if the pressure coil circuit were composed of copper and of a resistance alloy having a
negligible resistance temperature coefficient in the ratio of 1 : 10.
7. Errors due to stray fields. The dynamometer wattmeter has a relatively weak operating field and
therefore, it is particularly affected by stray magnetic fields resulting in the serious errors. Hence these
instruments should be shielded against effects of stray magnetic fields.
• Laminated iron shields are used in portable laboratory instruments while steel cases are
sometimes provided to shield the switchboard instruments.
• Precision type of wattmeters are not provided with shields in order to keep down errors caused by
eddy currents and to avoid the small D.C. errors caused by permanent magnet of the shields;
such wattmeters use astatic system.
Example 3.74. A dynamometer type wattmeter is connected across 100 V, 50 Hz supply with a
load of 5 A of zero power factor. The inductance and resistance of the pressure coil are 5 mH and
3000 Ω respectively. If the voltage drop in the current coil of the wattmeter is negligible, calculate
the percent error in the reading of wattmeter for full scale of 500 W.
(AMIE)
Solution. Given : Supply voltage = 100 V, 50 Hz; I = 5A, zero p.f., Lp = 5 mH or 0.005 H; rp + R =
3000 Ω; wattmeter reading for full scale = 500 W.
Percent error in wattmeter reading :
The angle θ by which the current in pressure coil lags behind the voltage

Since the power factor of load is zero, the true power is zero. If the instrument would have been
completely accurate one, the currents in current coil and pressure coil were out of phase by 90° but due
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to inductance of pressure coil the currents in current coil and pressure coil are not out of phase by 90°
but have a phase difference of (90° ± θ), and the reading of wattmeter = VI cos (90° ± θ)

Example 3.75. The inductive reactance of the pressure coil circuit of a dynamometer wattmeter is
0.35 percent of its resistance at normal frequency and the capacitance is negligible. Calculate the
correction factor and percentage error due to reactance for load having 0.5 p.f. lagging.
(Nagpur University)
Solution. Given : XL = 0.0035 R; cos ϕ = 0.5 lagging.

Example 3.76. A wattmeter has a current coil of 0.1 Ω resistance and a pressure coil of 6500 Ω
resistance. Calculate the percentage errors, due to resistance only, with each of the methods of
connection, when reading the input to an apparatus which takes :
(i) 12 A at 250 V with unity power factor, and
(ii) 12 A at 250 V with 0.4 power factor.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : Resistance of coil, Rc = 0.1 Ω; Resistance of pressure coil, Rp = 6500 Ω; I = 12
A; V = 250 V; cos ϕ = unity; 0.4.
Percentage error :

There are only two possible ways in which the pressure coil can be connected as shown in Figs.
3.71(a) and 3.71(b) respectively.
• For connection 3.71(a), the error is caused due to power lost in the current coil.

• For connection 3.71(b), the error is due to power lost in pressure coil.
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(ii) When p.f. is 0.4, i.e., cos ϕ = 0.4 :

Power lost in current coil and pressure coil is the same as worked out earlier in part (i), since supply
voltage and current are same.
• Percentage error for connection shown in Fig. 3.71(a)

• Percentage error for connection shown in Fig. 3.71(b)

Example 3.77. A wattmeter has a current coil of 0.03 Ω resistance and a pressure coil of 6000 Ω
resistance. Calculate the percentage error if the wattmeter is so connected that :
(i) The current coil is on the load side;
(ii) The pressure coil is on the load side.
(a) If the load takes 20 A at a voltage of 220 V and 0.6 power factor in each case;
(b) What load current would give equal errors with the two connections ?
(Nagpur University)
Solution. Given : Rc = 0.03 Ω; Rp = 6000 Ω; I = 20 A; V = 220 V; cos ϕ = 0.6
(a) Power consumed by the load = VI cos ϕ = 220 × 20 × 0.6 = 2640 W
(i) When the current coil is on the load side :

(ii) When the pressure coil is on the load side :

For this connection, the wattmeter measures the loss in pressure coil.
Now, Power loss in pressure coil

(b) For equal error for the two connections; we have :

Example 3.78. An electrodynamic wattmeter is employed to measure power in a singlephase

circuit. The load voltage is 200 V and the load current is 5 A at a lagging power factor of 0.1. The
wattmeter potential coil has a resistance of 12000 Ω and inductance of 120 mH. Determine the
percentage error in the wattmeter reading.
(Kanpur University)
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Solution. Given : V = 200 volts; I = 5 A; cos = 0.1 (lagging); Rp = 12000 Ω; L = 120 mH = 0.12
H.
Percentage error :
Let the wattmeter be connected in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.71(b).

Neglecting the inductance of the voltage coil the reading of wattmeter would be 100 + 3.33 =
103.33 W.

Example 3.79. A dynamometer wattmeter is used to measure the power factor of a 20 μF

capacitor. The pressure coil of the wattmeter having a resistance 1000 Ω and an inductive reactance
of 15 Ω is connected across a 50 Hz supply. The current coil of the wattmeter, a variable resistor R
and the capacitor are connected in series across the same supply. The wattmeter deflection is made
zero by adjusting the value of R to 1.65 Ω. If the current coil resistance is 0.1 Ω and its inductance
negligible, determine the power factor of the capacitor.
(Bombay University)

Solution. Given: C = 20 μF = 20 × 10–6 F; Rp = 1000 Ω; XL = 15 Ω; f = 50 Hz; R = 1.65 Ω; Rc =

0.1 Ω.
Power factor of capacitor :

L e t r be the series resistance of the capacitor. Total resistance of the load circuit including
resistance of current coil

The load circuit has a leading p.f. as the reactance is capacitance. For leading p.f.,
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Example 3.80. A dynamometer wattmeter reading correctly on D.C. is used to measure power in
circuit of resistance of 2 Ω and inductance of 0.25 H. The supply is 200 V at 50 Hz and the pressure
coil circuit of wattmeter has a resistance of 1000 Ω and inductance of 5.6 mH. What is the actual
reading of the wattmeter ?
Neglect the impedance of the current coil circuit. Assume that pressure coil is connected on the
load side of the instrument.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given: Load resistance, RL = 2Ω; Load resistance, XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 0.25 = 78.5 Ω;
V = 200 volts; Rp = 1000 Ω; Lp = 5.6 mH = 0.0056 H.
Actual reading of wattmeter :

Example 3.81. The current coil of a wattmeter is connected in series with an ammeter and an
inductive load. A voltmeter and the voltage coil are connected across a 100 Hz supply. The ammeter
reading is 4.5 A and the voltmeter and wattmeter readings are respectively 240 V and 23 W. The
inductance of voltage circuit is 10 mH and its resistance 2000 Ω. If the voltage drop across the
ammeter and current coil are negligible, what is the percentage error in the wattmeter reading ?
(Banglore University)
Solution. Given: f = 100 Hz; I = 4.5 A; V = 240 V; Wattmeter reading = 23 W; L = 10 mH = 0.01 H;
Rp = 2000 Ω.
Percentage error in wattmeter reading :
Inductive reactance of pressure coil = 2πfL = 2π × 100 × 0.01 = 6.28 Ω
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Substituting the various values in (i), we get

Example 3.82. The current coil of a dynamometer is connected to a 24 V D.C. source in series
with a 5Ω resistor. The potential circuit is connected through an ideal rectifier in series with a 50 Hz
source of 100 V. The inductance of pressure circuit and current coil resistance are negligible.
Compute the reading of the wattmeter.
(AMIE)

Solution. Current through the current coil

The pressure coil is energised by an ideal rectifier. Therefore, the pressure coil carries current
during one half cycle and in the other half cycle there is no current in it. This means there is deflecting
torque on the meter during one half cycle.

Example 3.83. A dynamometer wattmeter is used to measure the power in an inductive load
having a phase angle of 87°. The potential coil has a resistance of 1000 Ω and inductance of 6 mH.
The potential coil current is negligible. The impedance of current coil is also negligible. Find the %
error in wattmeter reading.
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Fig. 3.73.
Solution. Fig. 3.73 shows the phasor diagram. V and I are the load voltage and load current. Ip is
the potential coil current. The current I is lagging the voltage by 87°. If the potential coil were purely
resistive, Ip would be in phase with V and the reading of the wattmeter would be correct. Because of
inductance of potential coil, Ip is lagging by <α. The power factor as seen by the wattmeter is cos(87 –
α)°.

3.9.3.5. Low power factor electro-dynamometer type wattmeters

Ordinary electro-dynamometer wattmeter is not suitable for measuring power in circuits having
low power factors due to the following reasons:

Fig. 3.74. Low power factor electro-dynamometer type wattmeter.

(i) Small deflecting torque on the moving system even when the current and pressure coils are fully
excited.
(ii) Introduction of large error due to inductance of pressure coil at low power factors.
Thus, the following special features are incorporated in an electro-dynamometer type wattmeter to
make it suitable for measurement of power in low p.f. circuits:
1. Pressure coil circuit :
— The pressure coil circuit is made of low resistance so that the current flowing through it is
increased to give an increased operating torque.
— The pressure coil current in low p.f. wattmeter may be as much as 10 times the value used
for high p.f. meters.
2. Compensation for pressure coil current. This compensation is same as given in Fig. 3.72.
3. Compensation for inductance of pressure coil :
— The error caused by pressure coil inductance is times the actual reading of
wattmeter. Now, when the p.f. is low the value of is large and, therefore, the error is
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large.
— The error caused by inductance of pressure coil is compensated by connecting a capacitor
across a part of series resistance in the pressure coil circuit shown in Fig. 3.74.
4. Small control torque. Low p.f. wattmeters are designed to have a small control torque so that
they give full scale deflection for power factor as low as 0.1.

3.9.3.6. Calibration of dynamometer wattmeters

The various methods of calibration of dynamometer wattmeters are enumerated and discussed as
follows :
A. D.C. calibration :
1. By comparison with standard wattmeter.
2. By D.C. potentiometer.
B. A.C. calibration :
1. By comparison with standard wattmeter.
2. By A.C. potentiometer.
3. By using resistive load.
4. By electrostatic wattmeter.
A. D.C. calibration :
1. By comparison with standard wattmeter :
— In this method, the current coils of test wattmeter (WT) and standard wattmeter (WS ) are
connected in series, and the two voltage circuits are connected in parallel.
— It is used to employ different sources of supply for voltage and current circuits, the source
for current being a low-voltage supply source. This arrangement with separate supplies
is known as “fictitious load (phantom loading)” and is almost invariably employed in
wattmeter testing.
It may be noted that an equalizing connection is required to maintain the wattmeter coils at
the same voltage; this arrangement keeps the losses in the current regulating rheostat small
and the total power consumed during the test is only a small fraction of the wattmeter
indication.
Fig. 3.75 shows the circuit diagram for such a test. The voltmeter and ammeter are used for
checking the voltage and current, but the calibration is a direct comparison between the
readings of two wattmeters WT and WS .

Fig. 3.75. D.C. calibration of dynamometer wattmeter with standard wattmeter.

• Errors due to stray fields are eliminated by including reversing switch in both supplies and taking
the mean readings obtained with connections as shown and with both supplies reversed.
2. By D.C. potentiometer. Refer to Art. 5.2.
B. A.C. calibration :
1. By comparison with standard wattmeter. This method is similar to the corresponding D.C. test,
the circuit being shown in Fig. 3.75.
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— The low voltage supply may be obtained conveniently from a step-down transformer.
— The test may be carried out at various power factors by direct loading, using chokes or
capacitors in addition to resistance loads.
In fictitious loading arrangement a phase-shifting transformer may be employed for shifting
the phase of the voltage applied to the circuits with respect to current in the current coils.
• This method is not very convenient and involves wastage of huge amount of power.
2. By A.C. potentiometer. This method is similar to the D.C. potentiometer method (Art. 5.2) and
will normally include fictitious loading and arrangement for varying the p.f. The true power
is given by VI cos ϕ; V, I and ϕ are measured by potentiometer.
3. By using resistive load. In this method, a non-inductive resistance (standard) is used as a load and
power consumed by this load is obtained from its resistance and the voltage across it. The
voltage across the load may be measured with an electrostatic voltmeter.
• This is an accurate method of testing low range wattmeters at unity power factor.
4. By electrostatic wattmeter. The arrangement of calibrating a wattmeter by an electrostatic
wattmeter is an expensive arrangement (two alternators of similar electrical design coupled
together and driven by a variable speed motor) and as such it is justificable where large
number of tests at varying power factors are to be conducted.

3.9.4. Induction Wattmeter

3.9.4.1. Description
Induction wattmeters can be used in A.C. circuit only (in contrast with, dynamometer wattmeters
can be used both in D.C. and A.C. circuits) and are useful only when the frequency and supply voltage
are constant.
The operation of all induction instruments depends on the production of torque due to reaction
between a flux 1 (whose magnitude depends on the current or voltage to be measured) and eddy
currents induced in a metal disc or drum by another flux 2 (whose magnitude also depends on the
current or voltage to be measured). Since the magnitude of eddy currents also depends on the flux
producing them, the instantaneous value of the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the
current or voltage under measurement and the value of mean deflecting torque is proportional to the
mean square of the current or voltage.

Fig. 3.76. Induction wattmeter.

Construction. Fig. 3.76(a) shows the construction of an induction wattmeter :
— It has two laminated electromagnets. The upper electromagnet (called magnet shunt) has two
coils in series which are wound such that the direction of fluxes set up by them are same. They
are connected in series with a high resistance across the main supply. Thus these two coils
serve as pressure coils.
— One or more copper shading bands are fitted on the central limb of the upper electromagnet. The
induced currents in these bands set up their own fluxes. The total flux of the upper
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electromagnet is the resultant of the main flux and the fluxes of currents in the shading bands.
The positions of these bands are adjusted so that this resultant flux lags the applied voltage by
90°.
— The two coils of the lower electromagnet (called series magnet) are also in series and carry the
circuit current. They are also wound such that their fluxes are in the same direction.
— A thin aluminium disc supported by jewelled bearings is mounted on the spindle. The spindle
also carries a hair spring (for providing torque) and a pointer.
Theory. Fig. 3.76(b) shows the phasor diagram.
Let the load current I lag the circuit voltage V by an angle ϕ as shown in the figure. The flux ϕ sh of
shunt magnet lags behind V by 90° (this is done by adjusting the position of shading bands).
Assuming that hysteresis and saturation effects in the iron are negligible the series magnet flux se
is taken proportional to and in phase with load current I.
E.m.fs Esh and Ese are induced in the disc by shunt magnet flux sh and series magnet flux se
respectively and lag behind their respective fluxes by 90°. Eddy currents Ish and Ise are set up by the
induced e.m.fs Esh and Ese respectively and are in phase with their respective e.m.fs.
Now, the two opposite torques given by sh Ise and seIsh will act on the disc. The instantaneous
values of resultant torque is the difference of the two i.e.,

where, ϕsh , ϕse, Ish and Ise are the instantaneous values.
Since the phase angle between sh and Ise is and phase angle between se and Ish is (180° – ),
therefore,

Inserting the above values in eqn. (3.137), we get

Ranges :
Current circuit : Upto 100 A without using C.T.
Voltage circuit : Upto 750 V without using P.T.

3.9.4.2. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages :
1. Fairly long scale (extending over 300°).
2. Free from the effects of stray fields.
3. Good damping.
4. Practically free from frequency errors.
Disadvantages :
Sometimes subjected to serious temperature error because the main effect of temperature is on the
resistance of the eddy current paths.

3.9.4.3. Comparison between dynamometer and induction wattmeters

The comparison between dynamometer and induction wattmeters is given in tabular form below :
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Example 3.84. A voltage 200 sin ωt + 50 sin (3ωt – 30°) + 40 sin(5ωt + 220°)V is applied to the
pressure coil of a wattmeter. The current through the current coil is 10 sin ( ωt – 10°) + 2 cos(3ωt –
150°) + 2 cos(5ωt + 150°)A. Find :
(i) The reading of the wattmeter.
(ii) The contribution of each harmonic to the total power.
Solution. Given:

(i) The reading of the wattmeter :

Average power,

The average value of all product terms involving different frequencies is zero. Only products of
current and voltage of the same frequency need be considered to calculate power.
For nth harmonic,

(ii) The contribution of each harmonic to total power :

Example 3.85. A voltage 50 + 25 sin ωt is applied to a series R-L circuit having a resistance of
10 Ω and inductance 0.1 H. A wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure power. Find the
reading of the wattmeter. ω = 2π × 50 rad./sec.
Solution. The inductance offers zero reactance to D.C.
For first harmonic,
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3.9.5. Electrostatic Wattmeter

These wattmeters are used for the measurement of small amounts of power, particularly when the
voltage is high and power factor low. This type of wattmeter is also used for measurement of dielectric
loss of cables on alternating voltage and for calibration of wattmeters and energy meters.
Electrostatic wattmeter consists of a quadrant electrometer used with a non-inductive resistor R as
shown in Fig. 3.77.
Let i, e, v, v1 and v2 be the instantaneous load current, instantaneous potentials of the load, needle
and of the two pairs of quadrants respectively, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 3.77. Electrostatic wattmeter.

i.e., Instantaneous torque is proportional to the instantaneous power in the load plus half of the
power lost in non-inductive resistance.
Advantages and Disadvantages :
• Electrostatic wattmeter is a precision instrument and should be used as such.
• It is free from errors on account of waveforms, frequency and eddy currents.
• It has a very small working torque.

3.9.6. Thermal Wattmeter

Fig. 3.78 shows the arrangement for measuring power with thermocouples :
This method uses two similar thermocouples (1 and 2) whose outputs are connected in opposition
with a galvanometer in between. Rh is the resistance of each thermocouple heating element. R is a high
series resistance, and between C and D is a low resistance R2 capable of carrying the load current i.
The resistance R2 develops a potential difference which depends upon the load current, together with
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the current of one heater, and the series resistance R carries the current of both heaters.

Fig. 3.78. Thermocouple/Thermal wattmeter.

If v be the instantaneous voltage at the load, then assuming identical thermocouples, we have :

Substituting the values of i1 and i2 in eqn. (3.144), we get

where, C1 and C2 are constants involving the resistances.

If Rh + R is not very different from Rh , then may be neglected and Tinst. ∞ vi or instantaneous
power.
Thus, galvanometer may be calibrated to read the power.
— The commercial thermal wattmeters employ a number of thermocouples connected in the form of
a chain in order to increase the output. C.Ts and P.Ts are also used with these instruments.
— For high frequency measurements careful shielding is required.
• The thermal wattmeters can be used for measurement of power is several circuits and the sum of
their outputs can be applied to a recording potentiometer which records the total power.

MEASUREMENT OF POWER

3.9.7. Measurement of Power in Single-phase A.C. Circuits

The various methods used for the measurements of power in single-phase A.C. circuits are
enumerated and discussed below :
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1. Measurement of power without wattmeters.
2. Measurement of power with wattmeters.
3. Measurement of power in conjunction with instrument transformers.

3.9.7.1. Measurement of power without wattmeters

Generally, wattmeters are used for measuring the power in inductance A.C. circuits but in case if
wattmeter is not available or conditions are such that the measurement of power by wattmeter may be
incorrect, then use of three-voltmeters or of three-ammeters can be made for this purpose as explained
below :
(i) Three-voltmeter method :
The connections are as shown in Fig. 3.79(a), in which V1 , V2 and V3 are three voltmeters and R is
a non-inductive resistor which is connected in series with the load.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.79(b) we have :

Fig. 3.79. Three-voltmeter method of measuring single-phase power.

From eqn. (3.145) power factor of the circuit is given by :

• The assumptions are made that the current in the resistor R is the same as the load current.
Disadvantages :
(i) Supply voltage higher than normal voltage is required because an additional resistance R is
connected in series with the load Z (inductive circuit).
(ii) Even small errors in measurement of voltages may cause serious errors in the value of power
determined by this method.
(ii) Three-ammeter method :
The connection diagram and phasor diagram respectively are shown in Fig. 3.80(a) and (b). The
current measured by ammeter A1 , is the vector sum of the load current and that taken by the non-
inductive resistor R, this latter being in phase with V.
From the phasor diagram :
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Fig. 3.80. Three-ammeter method of measuring single-phase power.

• The “advantage” of this method is that the value of power determined is independent of supply
frequency and waveforms. The disadvantages of measurement of power by three-voltmeter
method are overcome in this method.
Example 3.86. The following readings were obtained from three voltmeters used for a
singlephase power measurement :
V2 = 180 volts across a non-inductive resistor; V 3 = 200 volts across an inductive load; V 1 =
300 volts across the two in series.
Calculate the power factor of the inductive load.
(Gorakhpur University)

Example 3.87. An inductive load takes a current of 2.5 A; a non-inductive resistor connected in
parallel takes 2.4 A, when connected across 250 V supply. The total current taken from the supply is
4.5 A. Calculate :
(i) Power absorbed by the load.
(ii) Load impedance.
(iii) Power factor of the load.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : I3 = 2.5 A; I2 = 2.4 A; I1 = 4.5 A; V = 250 V.
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3.9.7.2. Measurement of power with wattmeter

Refer to Art. 3.9.1.2.

3.9.7.3. Measurement of power in conjunction with instrument transformers

Power measurements are made in high voltage circuits connecting the wattmeter to the circuit
through current and potential transformers as shown in Fig. 3.81:

Fig. 3.81. Measurement of power with wattmeter in conjunction with instrument transformers
in single-phase A.C. circuits.
— The primary winding of C.T. is connected in series with the load and the secondary winding is
connected in series with an ammeter and the current coil (C.C.) of a wattmeter.
— The primary winding of the potential transformer (P.T.) is connected across the supply lines and
a voltmeter and the pressure coil (P.C.) of the wattmeter are connected in parallel with the
secondary winding of the transformer. One secondary terminal of each transformer and the
casings are earthed.
— When the wattmeter is used in conjunction with instrument transformer, then correction should
be applied for ratio and phase angle errors of instrument transformers.
Let, V, I and cos ϕ be the load voltage, current and power factor respectively.
Further, let, current in C.C. of wattmeter = Current in secondary of C.T. = Is
Voltage across pressure coil of wattmeter = Voltage across secondary of P.T. = Vs
Current in pressure coil of wattmeter = Ip lagging behind Vs by a small angle θ due to inductance of
pressure coil.
Phase angle of P.T. = δ
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Phase angle of C.T. = β
From phasor diagram shown in Figs. 3.82 and 3.83 we have :

Fig. 3.82. Phase diagram for inductive load.

Fig. 3.83. Phasor diagram for capacitive load.

Phase angle between the currents in current and potential coils of wattmeter,

Since phase angles of P.T. may be lagging or leading.

Neglecting transformation ratio errors of instrument transformers,

Example 3.88. Power of a single phase 6.6 kV load drawing a current of about 50 A is required
to be measured by means of a wattmeter having volt-terminals marked as 110 V and current terminals
as 5 A. Draw the circuit diagram showing the connection of the wattmeter using the instrument
transformers. Write suitable transformation ratio against each instrument transformer shown in the
diagram.
(UPTU)
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Fig. 3.84.
Solution. Given : Primary voltage, Vp = 6.6 kV = 6600 V; Secondary voltage, Vs = 110 V; Primary
current, Ip = 50 A; Is = 5A.

Fig. 3.84 shows the circuit diagram indicating the connection of the wattmeter using the instrument
transformers. The transformation ratio against each instrument is also shown in the figure.
Example 3.89. A 100 V, 5 A range wattmeter is used in conjunction with instrument transformers
to measure power consumed by a 6 kV single-phase load taking 100 A at 0.5 p.f. (lagging). The
potential and current transformers used have nominal ratios of 60 : 1 and 20 : 1, ratio errors of 1%
and – 0.5% and phase angle errors of –1° and +2° respectively. Assuming that there is no error in
the wattmeter, find out the error in the measurement of power in the circuit due to the errors of
instrument transformers.
Solution. Given: V = 6 kV = 6000 volts; I = 100 A; cos = 0.5 (lagging) Phase angle of P.T., δ =
–1°; Phase angle of C.T. = 2°.
Percentage error in measurement :
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3.9.8. Measurement of Power in 3-Phase Circuit

• The power in 3-phase load can be measured by using the following methods :
1. Three-wattmeter method.
2. Two-wattmeter method.
3. One-wattmeter method.

3.9.8.1. Three-wattmeter method

Figs. 3.85 and 3.86 show the connection diagram for star-connected and delta-connected loads
respectively. As indicated in the figures, three wattmeters are connected in each of the three phases of
the load whether star or delta connected. The current coil of each wattmeter carries the current of one
phase only and the pressure coil measures the phase-voltage of the phase. Hence, each wattmeter
measures the power in a single phase. The total power in the load is given by the algebraic sum of the
readings of the three wattmeters.
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Fig. 3.85. Star-connected load.

Fig. 3.86. Delta-connected load.

While using this method, following difficulty is met with :
• In case of star-connected load it is not always possible to get a neutral point which is required for
connections (Fig. 3.85).
• In case of delta-connected load, under ordinary conditions it is not generally feasible to break
into the phases of the load.
To measure power it is not necessary to use three wattmeters, two wattmeters can be used for the
purpose as explained in the Article 3.9.8.2.

3.9.8.2. Two-wattmeter method – balanced load

The total power consumed by a balanced load can be found by using two wattmeters (Figs. 3.87
and 3.88). When load is assumed inductive in Fig. 3.87 the vector diagram for such a balanced star-
connected load is shown in Fig. 3.89.

Fig. 3.87. Star-connected load

Fig. 3.88. Delta-connected load.

Let us consider the problem in terms of r.m.s. values (instead of instantaneous values).
Let,
ER, EY, EB = r.m.s. values of the three phase voltages, and
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IR, IY, IB = r.m.s. values of the currents.
Since these voltages and currents are assumed sinusoidal, they can be represented by vectors, the
currents lagging behind their respective phase voltages by ϕ.
Refer to Fig. 3.89.

Fig. 3.89. Vector diagram – two-wattmeter method.

Current through wattmeter, W1 = IR
Potential difference across pressure coil of wattmeter W1

= ERB = E R – EB (Vectorially)

The value of ERB is found by compounding ER and EB reversed as shown in Fig. 3.89. It may be
observed that phase difference between ERB and IR = (30° – ϕ).
Reading of wattmeter W1 = ERBIR cos (30° – ϕ) ...(i)
Similarly, current through wattmeter W2 = IY
Potential difference across pressure coil of wattmeter W2

= EYB = E Y – EB (Vectorially)

The value of EYB is found by compounding EY and EB reversed as shown in Fig. 3.89. The phase
difference between EYB and IY = (30° + ϕ).
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Hence the sum of the readings of the two wattmeters give the total power consumption in the 3-
phase load.
It is worth noting that in the above case the phase sequence of RYB has been assumed, the readings
of the two wattmeters will change if the phase sequence is reversed.
Variations in wattmeter readings. As shown above that for a lagging power factor

W1 = ELIL cos (30° – ϕ)

and, W2 = ELIL cos (30° + ϕ)

From above it is evident that individual readings of the wattmeters not only depend on the load but
also upon its power factor. Let us take up the following cases :
(i) When ϕ = 0
i.e., power factor is unity (i.e., load is resistive)
Then, W1 = W2 = ELIL cos 30°
The reading of each wattmeter will be equal and opposite (i.e., up-scale reading).
(ii) When ϕ = 60°
i.e., power factor = 0.5 (lagging)
Then, W2 = ELIL cos (30° + 60°) = 0
Hence, the power is measured by W1 above.
(iii) When 90° > ϕ > 60°
i.e., 0.5 > p.f. > 0
Then W1 is still positive but reading of W2 is reversed. For a leading p.f., conditions are just the
opposite of this. In that case, W1 will read negative because the phase angle between the current and
voltage is more than 90°. For getting the total power, the reading of W2 is to be subtracted from that of
W1 . Under this condition, W2 will read ‘down scale’ i.e., backwards. Hence, to obtain a reading on W2 ,
it is necessary to reverse either its pressure coil or current coil, usually the former.
All readings taken after reversal of pressure coil are to be taken as negative.
(iv) When ϕ = 90°
(i.e.,p.f. = 0 i.e., pure inductive or capacitive load)
Then, W1 = ELIL cos (30° – 90°) = ELIL sin 30°
and, W2 = ELIL cos (30° + 90°) = –ELIL sin 30°
These two readings are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
W1 + W2 = 0
So far we have considered lagging angles (taken as positive). Now let us discuss how the readings
of wattmeters change when the power factor is leading one.
• For ϕ = + 60° (lag) : W2 = 0
• For ϕ = – 60° (lead) : W1 = 0
Thus we find that for angles of lead the readings of the two wattmeters are interchanged.
Hence, when the power is leading :
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Power factor – When the load is ‘balanced’. When load is balanced with a lagging power factor
and the voltage and currents are sinusoidal :

After finding tan , hence , the value of power factor cos can be found (from trigonometrical
tables).
One important point which must be kept in mind is that if W2 reading has been taken after
reversing the pressure coil i.e., if W2 is negative, then the eqn., (3.158) becomes

The power factor may also be expressed in terms of ratio of the readings of the two wattmeters.

If a curve is plotted between α and cos ϕ, then the curve obtained will be as shown in Fig. 3.90, this
curve is called watt-ratio curve.
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Reactive volt amperes (with two wattmeters) :

Fig. 3.90. Watt-ratio curve.

Fig. 3.91.
As the tangent of the angle of lag between phase current and phase voltage of a circuit is always
equal to the ratio of reactive power to the true power (Fig. 3.91) hence, in case of a balanced load, the
reactive power is given by times the difference of the readings of the two wattmeters used to
measure the power of a 3-phase circuit by two-wattmeter method.
Mathematical proof is as follows :

3.9.8.3. Blondel’s theorem

According to Blondel’s theorem (for measurement of power in a poly-phase system) :
“If a network is supplied through N conductors, the total power is measured by summing the
readings of N wattmeters so arranged that a current element of a wattmeter is in each line and the
corresponding voltage element is connected between that line and a common point. If the common
point is located on one of the lines, then the power may be measured by N-1 wattmeters.”
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• The most common applications of a general theorem known as “Blondel’s theorem” include
the two-wattmeter method of measurement of power in 3-phase, 3-wire load circuits and three-
wattmeter method of measurement of power in 3-phase, 4-wire load circuits.
— The total power supplied in a N-wire circuit is given by the sum of the readings of (N – 1)
wattmeters, so arranged that a current coil of a wattmeter in each wire and the corresponding
potential coil is connected between the wire and a common point on the system.
— When the common point is located on one of the wires, the potential difference across the
potential coil circuit of the wattmeter whose current coil is in that wire is zero, and the
wattmeter has a zero reading. Thus only (N – 1) wattmeters are required e.g., two wattmeters
for a 3-wire circuit and three wattmeters for a 4-wire circuit.

3.9.8.4. One-wattmeter method

In this method, the current coil is connected in any one line and the pressure coil is connected
alternately between this and the other two lines as shown in Fig. 3.90. The two readings so obtained,
for a balanced load, correspond to those obtained by normal twowattmeter method.

Fig. 3.92. One-wattmeter method.

This method is not of as much universal application as the two-wattmeter method because it is
restricted to fairly balanced loads only. However, it may be conveniently applied, for instance, when it
is desired to find the power input to a factory motor in order to check the load upon the motor.

3.9.8.5. “Barlow’s method” for a balanced 3-phase circuit using instrument

transformers with one wattmeter
Barlow’s method is used for measuring the power in a balanced 3-phase circuit, with the load
delta-connected, which does not involve the provision of an artificial neutral point and in which the
wattmeter gives the total power directly without any multiplying factor.
There are two alternative methods of connection, one using a P.T. of 1 : 1 ratio, and the other using
two currents transformers each of ratio 1 : 1.
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Fig. 3.93. Barlow’s potential transformer method of measuring 3-phase power.

1. Potential transformer method :
Fig. 3.93(a), (b) shows connection diagram and phasor diagram respectively of Barlow’s potential
transformer method of measuring 3-phase power :
— E10, E20, E30 are the phase voltages of the supply, and I1 , I2 , and I3 the line currents. The three
voltages and three currents are equal in a balanced system, as are also the three phase angles
ϕ.
— The current coil of the wattmeter carries the current I2 , while the voltage applied to the potential
coil is the vector difference between of line voltages E21, and E32 (reversed). These two
voltages are equal, and the phase angle, between either of them and their vector difference E’
is 30°, and is therefore in phase with E20. The phase angle between E’ and I2 is thus ϕ.

The power measured by the wattmeter is 3EI cos (since I1 + I2 + I3 = I), which is the mean value
of the total power in the balanced circuit. The ratio error and phase angle of the P.T. are, of course,
neglected in the above reasoning.
2. Current transformer method :
The connection diagram and phasor diagram of current transformer method of measuring 3-phase
power are shown respectively in Fig. 3.94(a), (b) :
— Since the load is balanced,

and, the phase angles ϕ are all equal.

— The vector E’, which is the vector difference of the voltages E10 and E20, is the voltage applied
to the potential coil and equals
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— The currents in the secondary circuits of current transformers 1 and 2 are I1 reversed and I2
reversed. The connection to current coil of the wattmeter are such that the current in it is the
vector sum of I1 and I2 reversed and is represented by the vector I’. The value of this current is
, and the phase angle between E’ and I’ is ϕ. Then,

Again, the current-transformer ratio and phase-angle errors are neglected.

Fig. 3.94. Barlow’s current transformer method of measuring 3-phase power.

3.9.8.6. Measurement of reactive volt amperes

In order to measure reactive power in a single phase circuit, a compensated wattmeter is used. In
this wattmeter, the voltage applied to the pressure coil is 90° out of phase with the actual voltage and
hence it will read VI cos (90° – ϕ) i.e., VI sin ϕ, reactive power.
In balanced three-phase circuit the reactive power can be determined by using one wattmeter. The
necessary connections are shown in Fig. 3.95. The current coil is inserted in one line and the pressure
coil is connected across the other two lines.
The current following through the current coil of the wattmeter.

The potential difference across the potential coil of wattmeter,

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Fig. 3.95. Measurement of reactive volt-amperes.

Fig. 3.96.
Reactive power (as earlier stated) can also be determined from two wattmeter readings connected
for measurement of power.

• Reactive power may also be measured by polyphase varmeters.

Example 3.90. The power input to a 3-phase induction motor is read by two wattmeters. The
readings are 920 W and 300 W. Calculate the power factor of the motor.
Solution. Reading of wattmeter, W1 = 920 W
Reading of wattmeter, W2 = 300 W
Power factor of the motor, cos ϕ :

Power factor of the motor,

cos ϕ = cos 41.35° = 0.75 (lag) (Ans.)

Example 3.91. While performing a load test on a 3-phase wound-rotor induction motor by two-
wattmeter method, the readings obtained on two wattmeters were + 14.2 kW and – 6.1 kW and the
line voltage was 440 V. Calculate :
(i) True power drawn by the motor, (ii) Power factor, and (iii) Line current.
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Solution. Reading of wattmeter, W1 = 14.2 kW
Reading of wattmeter, W2 = – 6.1 kW
Line voltage, EL = 440 V
(i) True power drawn by the motor

Example 3.92. A 3-phase, 440 V motor load has a power factor of 0.6. Two wattmeters connected
to measure the power show the input to be 25 kW. Find the reading on each instrument.

Example 3.93. In a 3-phase circuit, two wattmeters used to measure power indicate 1200 W and
600 W respectively. Find the power factor of the circuit :
(i) When both wattmeter readings are positive.
(ii) When the latter is obtained by reversing the current coil connections.
Solution. (i) When both wattmeter readings are positive :

(ii) When the reading of wattmeter W2 is obtained by reversing the coil connection :
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Example 3.94. In order to measure the power input and the power factor of an over-excited
synchronous motor two wattmeters are used. If the meters indicate (– 3.5 kW) and (+ 8.0 kW)
respectively, calculate :
(i) Power factor of the motor; (ii) Power input to the motor.
Solution. (i) Since an over-excited synchronous motor runs with a leading power factor, we should
use the relation,

Moreover it is W1 that gives negative reading and not W2 . Hence W1 = –3.5 kW.

Example 3.95. Two wattmeters are used to measure power input to a 1.5 kV, 50 Hz, 3-phase
motor running on full-load at an efficiency of 85 per cent. Their readings are 250 kW and 80 kW
respectively. Calculate :
(i) Input,
(ii) Power factor,
(iii) Line current, and
(iv) Output.
Solution. Since the motor is running at full-load, its power factor must be greater than 0.5. Hence,
W2 reading is positive.

Example 3.96. Two wattmeters are used to measure power input to a synchronous motor. Each of
them indicates 60 kW. If the power factor be changed to 0.866 leading, determine the reading of the
two wattmeters, the total input power remaining the same.
Solution.
Reading of wattmeter, W1 = 60 kW
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Reading of wattmeter, W2 = 60 kW.
First case. In the first case, both wattmeters read equal and positive. Hence, motor must be
running at unity power factor.
Second case. Power factor is 0.866 leading.

Example 3.97. Two wattmeters connected to read the total power in a 3-phase system supplying a
balanced load read 10.5 kW and –2.5 kW respectively. Calculate the total power and power factor.
Also, explain the significance of (i) equal wattmeter readings and (ii) a zero reading on one
wattmeter.
Solution. Given : W1 = 10.5 kW; W2 = –2.5 kW.
For two wattmeter method,

i.e., for unity power factor, the reading of two wattmeters are equal. (Ans.)
(ii) As reading of wattmeters are

f o r reading of one of the wattmeters to be zero must be 60°, which makes W2 =

Example 3.98. A star connected 3-phase load consists of three similar impedances. When load is
connected to a 3-phase 400 V, 50 Hz supply it takes 30A line current at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
(i) Calculate the total power taken by the load.
(ii) Calculate the resistance and reactance of each phase of the load.
(iii) If power is measured by two-wattmeter method, then calculate the reading of each wattmeter.
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Solution. Given : EL = 400 V; f = 50 Hz; IL = (Iph) = 30 A, cos ϕ = 0.8 lagging.
(i) Total power taken by the load, P :

(ii) Resistance and reactance of each phase of the load, R, X :

Example 3.39. A 3-phase, 3-wire, 415 V system supplies a balanced load of 20 A at a power
factor 0.8 lag. The current coil of wattmeter 1 is in phase R and of wattmeter 2 in phase B. Calculate :
(i) The reading on 1 when its voltage coil is across R and Y ;
(ii) The reading on 2 when its voltage coil is across B and Y ;
(iii) The reading on 1 when its voltage coil is across Y and B.

Solution. Given : EL = 415 V, IL = 20 A, cos ϕ = 0.8 (lag) or ϕ = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87° (lag)
(i) The reading on 1 when its voltage coil is across R and Y and current coil is in R phase

(ii) Reading on wattmeter 2 when its voltage coil is across B and Y and current coil is in phase B

(iii) When the current coil is in one phase (phasor R) and the voltage coil is across other two
phases (Y and R), the wattmeter reads and,

Example 3.100. The ratio of the readings of two wattmeters connected to measure power in a
balanced 3–ϕ, 3 wire load is 5 : 3. The load is known to be inductive with a lagging power factor.
Calculate the power factor of the load.
(Punjab University)

Solution. Let the ratio of wattmeter reading be r i.e.,

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Example 3.101. A symmetrical star-connected three-phase load is made of three identical coils
having an internal resistance of 12 Ω and inductance of 142 mH. The power taken by this load when
connected to a balanced 3-phase, three wire supply of 400 V, 50 Hz is measured by using the two-
wattmeter method. The wattmeters used are similar and are of type of 400 V, 5 A, UPF, class 1
accuracy.
(i) Determine expected readings of W1 and W2 .
(ii) Compute the total power.

(i) Readings of wattmeters W1 , W2 :

Example 3.102. Two wattmeters are being used to measure power of a balanced load of 30 A at
power factor 0.8 lagging being supplied by a 3-phase, 3-wire, 440 V supply. Calculate :
(i) Power consumed
(ii) Reading of wattmeter No. 1
(iii) Reading of wattmeter No. 2.
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3.9.8.7. Polyphase meters

A polyphase meter is used to measure power in a polyphase (3-phase) system.
It works on the principle that two single-phase wattmeters are enough to measure power in 3-phase
system (balanced or unbalanced).
It is a double element wattmeter consisting of two separate elements mounted one above the other
in one and same case. The moving coils of each unit are rigidly coupled together axially by a rod of
insulating material.
The instruments give the total power directly because the total deflecting torque action on the
moving system is equal to the algebraic sum of torques produced by the two separate working systems.
— For avoiding mutual interference between the units, these are magnetically shielded from each
other by placing a nickel iron plate between them.
— The electrical connections of this type of meter for measurement of power in a 3-phase system
are identical with those of two-wattmeter method of measuring power in 3-phase system.
• The “advantage” of such an instrument is that the total power in circuit is given by direct
indication instead of indirectly by addition of readings of the two wattmeters.
Its “disadvantage” is that it is not as accurate as a single-phase wattmeter.

3.9.9. Measurement of Power at High Frequencies (AF/RF)

Quite often we are required to measure the output power of electronic devices such as amplifiers
and oscillators. In such devices the frequencies involved are generally audio frequencies (up to 15 kHz
appr.) or radio frequencies (above 15 kHz). The dynamometer type of wattmeters are not suitable for
measurement of power at high frequencies since they are designed to measure power at power
frequencies.
Out of a few methods of power measurements at high frequencies, the simplest one is to connect a
“dummy load” to the output terminals of the device under test. Then either the voltage across the
dummy load or the current through the dummy load is measured using instruments like rectifier or
thermocouple types since these instruments can work at high frequencies. If R is the resistance of
dummy load, then power output can be calculated as follows :

Fig. 3.97. shows the basic circuit for power measurement at “audio frequencies”.
— The resistance R (non-inductive type) which forms the dummy load is connected across the
output terminals of the device under test. The value of R should be nearly equal to that of
output impedance of the device.
— The A.C. voltmeter (a high resistance rectifier type of instrument) when used with a fixed value
of R, its scale can be directly calibrated in terms of power output at audio frequencies. Such
A.C. voltmeters are provided with decibel scales.
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Fig. 3.97. Power measurement at Afrequencies.

Fig. 3.98 shows the basic circuit for power measurement at radio frequencies (RF)
— The output tank of amplifier dummy or oscillator (consisting of inductance L1 and capacitance
C) is transmitted to the dummy load consisting of inductance L4 , capacitance C1 and
resistance R in series with a thermocouple ammeter A, by means of an inductive link (L2 , L3 )
that couples L1 and L2 and L3 and L4 .
— Using capacitor C1 , the dummy load is tuned to resonance at the resonant frequency of the tank
circuit. Thus at resonant frequency the dummy load is only R.

Fig. 3.98. Measurement of power at radio frequencies.

— A is directly calibrated to read the value of power.
— For the measurement of power at high frequencies, effective shielding must be used.

3.9.10. Bolometer method of power measurement

At AF and RF, it is easier to measure voltage, current and impedance, than to measure power. In
this range direct measurement of power is not done. The power is calculated from the relation :

At ‘microwave frequencies ’ , voltage, current and impedance are difficult to determine. Their
values may vary at different points in the circuit, and they are affected appreciably by small changes in
geometry. Therefore, in this range, direct measurement of power is more accurate and the actual load
is replaced by a dummy load.
The requirements of a dummy load are :
(i) Low skin effect;
(ii) Low reactances;
(iii) Ability to dissipate the required amount of power; and
(iv) A suitable value equal to that of the actual load.
The dummy load may take any of the following forms :
(i) Bolometer element for small powers;
(ii) Non-inductive wire wound resistors, cooled by air, or water, for frequencies up to 25 MHz and
power up to 50 W; and
(iii) Water resistance, for large powers up to 50 W etc.
Method of power measurement :
— The bolometer is generally incorporated into a bridge network, so that small changes in
resistance can be readily detected and the power measurement performed by substitution of
low frequency power.
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— In one method of power measurement, the bridge is initially balanced with low frequency (or
bias) power. When RF power is applied to bolometer, low frequency power is withdrawn until
the bridge is balanced again.
In any case, whatever bridge technique is used, the underlying assumption of measurement is that
equal amount of low frequency and RF power produce the same heating effect and resistance changes
in the bolometer.
Bolometer :
— Bolometric measurements are based on the dissipation of the RF power in a small temperature
sensitive resistive element, called a “Bolometer”.
— The bolometer may be a short ultra thin wire having a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of
resistance, called “Baretter”, or a bead of semiconductor having a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) called “Thermistor”. Both Baretters and Thermistors can measure small
powers, of the order of a fraction of microwatts. They can also indicate or monitor large
amounts of power by inserting a directed compiler.
— The RF power to be measured heats the bolometer and causes a change in its electrical
resistance, which serves as an indication of the magnitude of power.
Bolometer bridge :
One of the most commonly used absorption type meters is called “bolometer bridge”.
It is basically a bridge circuit where one of the arms contains a temperature-sensitive resistor (RT),
as shown in Fig. 3.99.

Fig. 3.99. Basic bolometer bridge circuit.

The temperature sensitive resistor is placed in the field of a microwave signal whose power is to be
measured. The power is absorbed by the resistor, and the heat generated causes a change in the
resistance. The change of resistance is measured with a bridge circuit.
Fig. 3.100 shows the schematic diagram of the measuring circuit :
— The combination of the differential amplifier and bridge form an oscillator which will oscillate at
particular magnitude when the bridge is unbalanced.
— The sensitive resistive element (RT) absorbs the power and heats itself until the bridge is very
nearly balanced. The D.C. bias is then adjusted until exact balance is achieved.
— Now the element is placed in the microwave field. The element absorbs the power and is heated,
which causes a change in its resistance, thereby unbalancing the bridge.
— The imbalance is in a direction opposite to that of the initial cold resistance. This action causes
the output from the oscillator to decrease so as to effect a balance . The electronic voltmeter
circuit measures the amount of this power decrease from the oscillator and displays the
measurement as a power increase which is that supplied by the microwave field.
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Fig. 3.100. Simplified diagram of the measurement circuit of a modern bolometer type
power meter.
Uses of bolomoter :
(i) The bolometer is customarily used for power measurements in the range 0.01 – 10 mW.
(ii) A comparison-type bolometer is quite suitable in the range of 10 mW to 10 W.
(iii) Power measurements above 10 W can be made by using attenuators and a lowpower
bolometer.

3.9.11. Calorimetric Method−For measurement of Large Amount of RF

Power
The calorimetric method for measurement of large amount of RF power uses the principle that a
RF power may be directly converted into heat.
Water acts as a load, and RF power may be used to heat an element such as long transmission line,
water being used as a coolant. The RF power may be absorbed directly in the calorimeter fluid.
The system should have no RF leakage either through lossy joints or by radiation.

Fig. 3.101. Measurement of power in a lossy cable using the calorimetric method.
The power radiated (P) is given by the relation :

Alternatively, the relationship between temperature rise and power dissipated may be established
by dissipating a known amount of A.C. (50Hz) or D.C. power in the calorimeter system.
• Fig. 3.101 shows an arrangement for the power measurement in a lossy cable using the
calorimetric method. Here the difference in temperature is measured by thermometers.

3.9.12. Ouput power meter

An “output power wattmeter” is designed to directly measure the output in an arbitrary load. In this
instrument a set of resistive loads are provided to be selected for power measurements. Besides this,
the instrument can be used to measure impedance and frequency response characteristics.
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Fig. 3.102. Output-meter circuit.

Fig. 3.102 shows a simple circuit for an output-meter :
• The input impedance network consists of two tapped resistances and a coil. The input impedance
can be varied in steps from 2.5 Ω to 40 kΩ.
— At low impedance values, the coil shunts a portion of R1 – an in resistance results in power
turns of the coil. This arrangement keeps the meter reading proportional to the energy
dissipated by the resistor.
— At high impedance values, the coil is replaced by another tapped resistance R2 .
• The R-C frequency compensator is in parallel with the coil. At low frequency, capacitive
reactance XC is high; it decreases as frequency increases. This compensates for the losses of
the coil at low frequencies.
— The frequency range is generally between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
• Resistance R3 is the control in a T-network. This amounts to a variable meter shunt, which is used
to extend the range of the meter.
— The lowest meter range is normally 5 mW, but it can be extended in decade steps of 50
mW, 500 mW etc.
• The rest of the circuit is a combination of a calibration and frequency compensation network.
• This type of meter may have a midscale accuracy of ± 2% at 1 kHz. The accuracy, over the
frequency range of 20Hz – 15kHz, may be within ± 2% of the 1kHz value.
• The input meter is subjected to a waveform error when the input is other than sinusoidal.
• Practical instruments for measuring the power output of oscillators, amplifiers, transformers,
transducers and low frequency lines use an input impedance of a tapped transformer with 48
impedance setting.
This meter can also be used :
(i) To measure output impedance by adjusting the maximum power.
(ii) To check the frequency response characteristics of audio frequency devices.

3.10 ENERGY METERS AND MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY

3.10.1. General Aspects
• Energy is the total power delivered or consumed after a time internal. Thus energy is the
product of power and time. Its unit is joule or watt-second which is 1 watt over an interval of
one second. If the unit of time is taken as hour, energy is then expressed as watt-hour (Wh). In
many instances, this unit is of inconvenient size and a larger unit is used - the kilowatt hour
(kWh) i.e. energy consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of 1000 watts for one
hour.
• Energy meter are used to measure the quantity of electric energy supplied to a circuit in a given
time i.e., as to the rate at which energy is being supplied because their registrations are
independent of the rate at which a given quantity of electric energy is being consumed.
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Since the practical units in which energy meters measure energy is kilowatt-hour, they are often
referred to as “watt-hour meters”.
The main difference between an “energy meter” and a “wattmeter” is that the former is fitted with
some type of registration mechanism whereby all the instantaneous readings of the power are summed
over a definite period of time whereas the latter indicates the value at a particular instant where it is
read.

3.10.2. Essential Characteristics of Energy Meters

The essential characteristics of energy meters are given below :
1. They must be simple in design and must not contain any parts which may rapidly deteriorate.
2. The readings may be given directly by the dials and must avoid any multiplying factors.
3. The casing of the meter should be dust, water and insect proof.
4. Permanency of calibration is a prime requisite and to attain it, the friction at the pivots etc., and
retarding torque of the magnetic brakes must remain constant. The magnets should be so
placed that they are not affected in their strength by the magnetic field of the current coil.
5. The friction losses should be minimum (being unavoidable) and must remain practically constant
over long periods of time. This requires that the moving parts should be light, and the jewels
and pivots should be of best quality and kept in good order.
6. There should be minimum possible friction in the counter device. The torque of the meter should
be high so that the unavoidable irregularities in friction may not cause inaccuracies.
7. The energy meter should maintain its accuracy under reasonably varying conditions of voltage
and load.
8. The energy loss in the meter itself must be small.

3.10.3. Types of Energy Meters

Energy meters are generally of the following three types :
1. Electrolytic meters ..... Their operation depends on electrolytic action.
2. Motor meters ..... They are really small electric motors.
3. Clock meters ...... They function as clock mechanisms.
Here only motor meters will be discussed.

3.10.4. Motor Meters

The motor meters can be used in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits. In principle the motor meter is a
small motor of D.C. or A.C. type whose instantaneous speed of rotation is proportional to the circuit
current in case of an ampere-hour meter and to the power of the circuit in case of a watt-hour meter.
The following are the essential parts of the motor meters :
1 . An operating torque system. It produces a torque and causes the moving system to rotate
continuously.
2. A braking device. It is usually a permanent magnet, known as brake magnet. This brake magnet
induces current in some part of the moving system which in turn produces the braking torque. Thus the
braking torque is proportional to the induced currents whereas the induced currents are proportional
to the speed of the moving system (and hence the braking torque is proportional to the speed of the
moving system (disc). When the braking torque is equal to the driving torque the moving system attains
a steady speed.
3. Revolution registering device. This device is obtained by having a worm cut on the spindle of
the instrument. The worm engages with a pinion and thus drives the train of wheels and registers
ampere-hours and watt-hours directly.
Types of motor meters. The various types of motor meters are :
(i) Mercury motor meters ------ Normally used on D.C. circuits.
(ii) Commutator motor meters ------ Can be used both for D.C. as well A.C. work
(iii) Induction motor/energy meters ------ Used only on A.C. circuit

3.10.5. Motor-driven Meter–Watt-hour Meter

The motor-driven meter shown in Fig. 3.103 can be used on direct or alternating current. It contains
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a small motor and an aluminium retarding disc. The field winding is connected in series with the load,
and the field strength is proportional to the load current.
The armature is connected across the source, and the current in the armature is proportional to the
source or line voltage. The torque produced in the armature is proportional to the power consumed by
the load.
The armature shaft drives a series of counters that are calibrated in watt-hours. The power that is
used can be read directly from the dials.
The aluminium disc attached to the armature is used to control the armature speed. The disc turns is
used can be read direcly from the dials.
The aluminium disc attached to the armature is used to control the armature speed. The disc turns in
a magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets, and the retarding force increases as the rotation
increases and stops when the disc stops. The retarding force is produced by the aluminium conductor
cutting through the lines of force of the permanent magnets. This is a form of magnetic damping.
The meter must overcome the friction of the bearing and indicators at very light loads. A portion of
the field is produced by the armature current (coil in series with the armature winding). This coil is
(called as compensating coil) wound to aid the field and is adjusted to the point where it just overcomes
the meter friction.

Fig. 3.103. Motor-driven meter (watt-hour meter) designed to operate on direct or alternating
current.

3.10.6. Induction Type Watt-hour Meter

This is the most commonly used meter on A.C. circuits for measurement of energy.
Advantages :
(i) Simple in operation.
(ii) High torque/weight ratio.
(iii) Cheap in cost.
(iv) Correct registration even at very low power factor.
(v) Unaffected by temperature variations.
(vi) More accurate than commutator type energy meter on light loads (owing to absence of a
commutator with its accompanying friction).

3.10.7. Induction type Single-phase Energy Meters

These are, by far, the most common form of A.C. meters met with in every-day domestic and
industrial installations. These meters measure electric energy in kWh.
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3.10.7.1. Construction and theory of operation
The principle of these meters is practically the same as that of induction watt meters. Instead of the
control spring and the pointer of the wattmeter, the watt-hour meter, (energy meter) employs a brake
magnet and a counter attached to the spindle. Just like other watt-hour meters, the eddy currents
induced in the aluminium disc by the brake magnet due to the revolution of the disc, are utilised to
control the continuously rotating disc.
Construction. The construction of a typical meter of this type is shown in Fig. 3.104(a); the brake-
magnet and recording wheel-train being omitted for clearances. It consists of the following :

Fig. 3.104. Induction type single-phase energy meter.

(i) Series magnet M1 ;
(ii) Shunt magnet M2 ;
(iii) Brake magnet;
(iv) A rotating disc.
The series electromagnet M1 consists of a number of U-shaped iron laminations assembled together
to form a core, wound with a few turns of a heavy gauge wire. This wound coil is known as current coil
and is connected in one of the lines and in series with the load to be metered. The series electromagnet
is energized and sets up a magnetic field cutting through the rotating disc, when load current flows
through the current coil C.C. The rotating disc is an aluminium disc mounted on a vertical spindle and
supported on a sapphire cup contained in a bottom screw. The bottom pivot, which is usually
removable, is of hardened steel, and the end, which is hemispherical in shape, rests in the sapphire cup.
The top pivot (not shown) merely serves to maintain the spindle in a vertical position under working
condition and does not support any weight or exert any appreciable thrust in any direction.
The shunt magnet m 2 consists of a number of M shaped iron laminations assembled together to
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form a core. A core having large number of turns of fine wire is fitted on the middle limb of the shunt
magnet, this coil is known as pressure coil P.C. and is connected across the supply mains.
The brake magnet [Fig. 3.104(b)] consist of C shaped pieces of alloy steel bent round to form a
complete magnetic circuit, with the exception of a narow gap between the poles. The pair of magnets
are so mounted that the disc revolves in the air gap between the polar extremities. The movement of
the rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc which
react with the field and exerts a braking effect. The speed of the rotating disc may be adjusted by
changing the position of the brake magnets or by diverting some of the flux there from.
Theory of operation :
— Magnet M1 (series magnet) is excited by the line current and the alternating flux ϕ 1 , produced is
proportional to and in phase with the line current, neglecting of course the hysteresis and iron
saturation.
The winding of the other magnet M2 (shunt magnet) is connected across the supply line and carries
current proportional to supply voltage V. The flux 2 produced by it is proportional to supply voltage
V and lags behind it by 90°. This phase displacement of exact 90° is achieved by adjustment of copper
shading band C (also known as power factor compensator or compensating loop). Major portion of 2
crosses the narrow gap between the centre and side limbs of M2 but a small portion, which is the useful
flux passes through disc D.
— Two fluxes 1 and 2 induce e.m.fs. in the disc which further produce the circulatory eddy
currents. The reaction between these fluxes and eddy currents produces the “driving torque” on the
disc. The “braking torque” is produced by a pair of magnets [Fig. 3.104(b)], which are mounted
diametrically opposite to the magnets M1 and M2 . This arrangement minimises the interaction between
the fluxes of M 1 and m 2 and that of the braking magnet.
— When the peripheral portion of the rotating disc passes through the air gap of the braking
magnet, the eddy currents are induced in it which give rise to the necessary torque.

— The register mechanism is either of pointer type or of cyclometer type. In the pointer type
mechanism, the pinion on the rotor shaft drives, with the help of a suitable train of reduction gears, a
series of five or six pointers rotating on dials marked with ten equal divisions. The gearing between
different pointers is such that each pointer advances by of a revolution for a complete revolution
of the adjacent pointer on the main rotor disc in the train of gearing as shown in Fig. 3.105.

Fig. 3.105. Pointer type register.

• It can be derived that the driving torque, is given by :

Assuming that fluxes are proportional to the current, we have :

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By inserting various values in eqn. (3.166), we get :

Fig. 3.106.
The disc achieves a steady speed N when the two torques are equal i.e., when,

Hence, in a given period of time, the number of revolutions is proportional to

i.e. the electrical energy consumed.

3.10.7.2. Errors, compensation and adjustments

I. Sources of errors :
The various sources of errors in an induction-type energy meter are given below :
(i) Incorrect magnitude of the fluxes. These may arise from abnormal voltages and load currents.
(ii) Incorrect phase relation of fluxes. These may arise from defective lagging, abnormal
frequencies, changes in the iron losses etc.
(iii) Unsymmetrical magnetic structure. The disc may go on rotating while no current is being
drawn but pressure coils alone are excited.
(iv) Changes in the resistance of the disc. It may occur due to changes in temperature.
(v) Changes in the strength of the drag magnets. It may be due to temperature or ageing.
(vi) Phase-angle errors due to lowering of power factor.
(vii) Abnormal friction of moving parts.
(viii) Badly distorted waveform.
(ix) Changes in the retarding torque due to the disc moving through the field of the current coils.
Errors and compensations are discussed below :
1. Phase error :
— Normally the flux due to shunt magnet does not lag behind the supply voltage by exactly 90° due
to the fact that the coil has some resistance. Consequently the torque is not zero at zero power
factor. This is known as “phase error”.
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— This error is compensated by means of adjustable copper bands placed over the central limb of
the shunt magnet.
2 . Speed error : An error in the speed of the motor (i.e. speed error) when tested on the non-
inductive load can be eliminated by correctly adjusting the position of the brake magnet. Moving of
the poles of the braking magnet towards the centre of the disc reduces the braking torque and vice-
versa.
3. Frictional force :
— Frictional forces at the rotor bearings and in the register mechanism give rise to an unwanted
braking torque on the disc rotor. This can be reduced by making the ratio of shunt magnet flux
and series magnet flux large with the help of two shading bands.
— Correctness of compensation is achieved when the rotor does not run on load with only the
supply voltage connected.
4. Creeping :
— The slow but continuous rotation of motor when only the voltage i.e., the pressure coil excited
but no current flowing in the circuit is called “creeping”. It may be caused due to friction
compensation, vibration, stray magnetic field or the voltage supply in excess of the normal.
— To overcome this creeping on no load, two holes are drilled in the disc on the diameter, i.e., on
the opposite side of the spindle. This causes sufficient distortion of the field to prevent rotation
when one of the holes comes under one of the poles of shunt magnet.
5 . Temperature error : The errors due to temperature variations of the various instruments are
usually small because the various effects produced tend to neutralise one another.
6. Overload compensation :
— Under load conditions, the disc revolves continuously in the field of the series magnet and,
therefore, there is a dynamically induced e.m.f. in the disc because of this rotation. This e.m.f.
causes eddy currents which interact with the field of the series magnet to produce a braking
torque. This braking torque is obviously proportional to the square of the load current and it
assumes increasing importance as the load rises. Thus at high values of load current the
registration tends to be lower than the actual.
— To minimise the self braking action, the full-load speed of the disc is kept as low as possible and
the current coil flux is made small in comparison to the potential coil flux so that the
dynamically induced e.m.f. responsible for self braking action is very small as compared with
statically induced e.m.f. produced by flux alteration at the rate of 50 Hz and which is
responsible for the production of driving torque.

Fig. 3.107. Overload compensation device.

— It is also customary to add an overload compensator, which usually takes the form of a saturable
magnetic shunt for the series magnet core as shown in Fig. 3.107. The magnetic shunt, at high
values of load current, diverts some of the series magnetic flux and so compensation for self-
braking action.
7. Voltage compensation :
— Voltage variations may introduce errors due to non-linear magnetic characteristics of the shunt
magnet core and also due to self braking torque which is approximately proportional to the
square of the supply voltage.
Since a certain amount of variation is allowed in the declared voltage of supply, therefore,
energy meters must be compensated for this variation.
— Compensation for variations in supply voltage is provided by making use of a saturable
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magnetic shunt which diverts a greater proportion of the flux into the active path when the
voltage rises. The compensation can be conveniently provided by increasing the reluctance of
the side limbs of the shunt magnet; this is done by providing holes in the side limbs.
II. Energy meter adjustments :
In energy meter, some adjustments are carried out so that they give correct reading and their errors
are within allowable limits. Following is the sequence of these adjustments :
(i) Preliminary light load adjustment :
— The disc is so positioned that the holes are not underneath the electromagnets.
— Rated voltage is applied to the voltage coil with no current through the current coil.
— The light load device is adjusted until the disc just fails to start.
(ii) Full load unity factor adjustment :
— The pressure/voltage coil is connected across the rated supply voltage and rated full current at
unity p.f. is passed through the current coils.
— The position of the brake magnet is adjusted to vary the braking torque so that the meter revolves
at the correct speed with required limits of errors.
(iii) Lag adjustment :
— The pressure coil is connected across rated supply voltage and rated full load current is passed
through the current coil at 0.5 p.f. lagging.
— The lag device is adjusted till the meter runs at correct speed.
(iv) With rated supply voltage, rated full current and unity p.f., the speed of the motor is checked
and full load unity p.f. and low p.f. adjustments are repeated until the desired accuracy limits are
reached for both the conditions.
(v) Light load adjustment :
— Rated supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil and a very low current (about 5% of full
load) is passed through the meter at unity p.f.
— This adjustment is done so that the meter runs at correct speed.
(vi) Full load-unity p.f. and light load adjustments are again carried out until the speed is correct for
both loads i.e., full load as well as light load.
(vii) The performance is rechecked at 0.5 p.f. lagging.
(viii) Creep adjustment :
— As a final check on light load adjustment, the pressure coil is excited by 110% of rated voltage
with zero load current.
— If the light load adjustment is correct, the meter should not creep under the above conditions.

3.10.7.3. Polyphase energy meters

In polyphase circuits, the energy can be measured by a group of single-phase energy meters
connected as required by Blondel’s theorem; the total energy consumed being the sum of the readings
of all energy meters (–ve sign being used for the reading of any meter which runs backward).
However, this is never done in practice as it would be both more expensive and more troublesome
than the use of polyphase meters.
In commercial measurement, polyphase meters are used.
• As in the case of wattmeters for measuring power in polyphase circuits, polyphase energy meters
are also constructed by combining two or more single-phase energy meters in one unit.
Polyphase meters may be ‘multi-disc type’ or ‘single disc type’. In the multi-disc type, each
element drives a separate disc. In the single disc type meter, all the elements drive the same disc. This
disc is slotted or laminated in sector to prevent interaction between eddy currents produced by one
element with the flux produced by another element.
Two element energy meter :
Fig. 3.108, shows a two element energy meter used for measurement of energy in 3- phase, 3-wire
circuit :
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Fig. 3.108. Two element energy meter.

— It consists of two discs mouned on common spindle.
— The moving system drives a single gear train. Each unit is provided with its own shading ring,
shading bands and brake magnet for adjustments.
— It is essential that the driving torque of two elements be exactly the same for the same power
passing through them. This condition is checked by energising the coils from a single circuit,
the two pressure coils being connected in parallel and the circuit coils in series, with one
reversed to oppose the other. This arrangement causes the two torques to be in opposition and
if the two torques are equal, the disc will not rotate. If there is slight motion, the magnetic
shunt is adjusted till the speed of the discs become zero.
— The lag, light load and unity p.f. adjustments are made independently for each element.
— For measurement of energy in 3-phase, 4-wire unbalanced system three element energy meters
are used.
• Polyphase energy meters are subjected to errors due to interaction between the elements, this
may be reduced by suitable positioning and screening of the elements. They also have
relatively large friction error owing to the greater weight of the rotating parts.
These meters are little cheaper than the corresponding number of single-phase meters and have the
clear advantage of giving the total power on a single register.
• When the currents and voltages of the circuits to be measured are high then use of instrument
transformers (C.T.s and P.T.s) is made with energy meters just as with wattmeters. If the line
voltage exceeds 440 V CTs and PTs are almost invariably used irrespective of the magnitude
of current in order to insulate meter from the line.
Example 3.103. A 5 A, 230 V meter on full load unity power factor test makes 60 revolutions in
360 seconds. If the normal disc speed is 520 revolutions per kWh, what is the percentage error ?
(Punjab University)
Solution. Energy consumed in 360 seconds

where, t is in seconds.
Energy recorded by the meter
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Example 3.104. The constant of a 230 V, 50 Hz, single-phase energy meter is 185 revolutions per
kWh. The meter takes 190 seconds for 10 revolutions while supplying a non-inductive load of 4.5 A at
normal voltage. What is the percentage error of the instrument ?
Solution. Energy consumed in 190 seconds

Example 3.105. The name plate of a meter reads “1 kWh = 15000 revolutions”. In a check up,
the meter completed 150 revolutions during 45 seconds. Calculate the power in the circuit.
Solution. Power metered in 150 revolutions

= 1 × 150/1500 = 0.01 kWh

If P kilowatt is the power in the circuit, then energy consumed in 45 seconds

Equating the two amounts of energy, we have

Example 3.106. A 230 V ampere-hour type meter is connected to a 230 V D.C. supply. If the
meter completes 225 revolutions in 10 minutes when carrying 14 A, calculate :
(i) The kWh registered by the meter.
(ii) The percentage error of the meter above or below the original calibration.
The timing constant of the meter is 40 A-s/revolution.
Solution. During 225 revolutions the meter would register 40 × 225 A-s or coloumbs. Since time
taken is 10 minutes or 600 seconds it corresponds to a current of
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Example 3.107. A single phase kWh meter makes 500 revolutions per kWh. It is found on testing
as making 40 revolutions in 58.1 seconds at 5 kW full load. Find out the percentage error.
(Nagpur University)
Solution. Number of revolutions made by the meter in one hour testing

Example 3.108. An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one unit of
energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when connected to a load carrying 40 A at
230 V and 0.4 power factor for an hour. If it actually makes 360 revolutions, find the percentage
error.
(Allahabad University)

Example 3.109. A 50 A, 230 V energy meter in a full load test makes 61 revolutions in 37
seconds. If the normal speed of the disc is 520 revolutions/kWh, compute the percentage error.
(Nagpur University)
Solution. Assuming unity power factor :

Example 3.110. The constant of a 25 A, 220 V meter is 500 rev./kWh. During a test at full load of
4.4 kW, the disc makes 50 revolutions in 83 seconds. Calculate the meter error.
(UPTU)
Solution. Number of revolutions which the meter should make in one hour at full load
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Example 3.111. A 16 A ampere-hour meter with a dial marked in kWh, has an error of +2.5%
when used on 250 V circuit. Find the percentage error in the registration of the meter if it is
connected for an hour in series with a load taking 3.2 kW at 200 V.
(Nagpur University)
Solution. Number of revolutions which the meter should make in one hour at full load

Since on the given load meter constant is same as the normal current of meter, hence in one hour it
would give a correct reading of 4.1 kWh.

Example 3.112. The disc of an energy meter makes 600 revolutions per unit of energy. When a 1
kW load is connected the disc rotates at 10.2 r.p.m. If the load is on for 12 hours how many units are
recorded as error ?
(Allahabad University)
Solution. Energy actually consumed = 1 (kW) × 12 (h) = 12 kWh
Total number of revolutions made by the disc during the period of 12 hours

= (10.2 × 60) × 12 = 7344 rev.

Since 600 revolutions record 1 kWh, therefore, energy recorded by the meter

Hence, extra unit recorded as error = 12.24 – 12 = 0.24 kWh (Ans.)

Example 3.113. A D.C. ampere-hour meter is rated at 5A, 250 V. The declared constant is 5A-
s/rev. Express the constant in revolutions per kWh. Also calculate the full load speed of the meter.

Example 3.114. A meter whose constant is 750 revolutions per kWh makes 15 revolutions in 30
seconds. Determine the load in kW.
(Allahabad University)
Solution. Energy consumed in 30 seconds
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Example 3.115. A correctly adjusted single phase 240 V watt-hour meter has a meter constant of
600 revolutions per kWh. Determine the speed of the disc for a current of 8A at a lagging power
factor of 0.6.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : V = 240 volts ; I = 8A ; cos ϕ = 0.6 ; meter constant = 600 rev./kWh.
Speed of the disc, N :

Example 3.116. A 230 V, 50 Hz single-phase energy meter has a constant of 200 revolutions per
kWh. While supplying a non-inductive load of 4.4 A at normal voltage, the meter takes 3 minutes for
10 revolutions. Calculate the percentage error of the instrument.
(Bombay University)
Solution. Energy consumed in 3 minutes

Example 3.117. A 230 V, single-phase domestic energy meter has a constant load of 4A passing
through it for 6 hours at unity power factor. If the meter disc makes 2,208 revolutions during this
period, what is the meter constant in revolutions/kWh ?
Calculate the power factor of the load if the number of revolutions made by the meter are 1,472
when operating at 230 V and 5A for 4 hours.
(AMIE)
Solution. Energy consumed in 6 hours
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Example 3.118. In a test run of 30 minutes duration with a constant current of 5A, the ampere-
hour meter registers 525 Wh. The supply voltage is 220 V. Calculate the error and state whether the
meter is fast or slow.
(Punjab University)
Solution. Given : t = 30 minutes or 0.5 h ; I = 5 A; Consumption registered by the meter = 525 Wh
or 0.525 kWh; Supply voltage, V = 220 volts.
% Error :

Example 3.119. The meter constant of a 230 V, 10 A wattmeter is 1800 revolutions per kWh. The
meter is tested at half load and rated voltage and unity power factor. The meter is found to make 80
revolutions in 138 seconds. Determine the meter error at half load.
(Bangalore Univeristy)
Solution. Actual energy consumed at half load during 69 seconds

Example 3.120. An A.C. energy meter is tested for half hour run at a supply voltage of 230 V and
a load current of 10 A at 0.8 lag power factor. The dial reading at the start was 57.35 and at the end
of the test was 58.25. The meter constant is 1200 revolutions per kWh. The meter made 890
revolutions in 30 minutes run.
Calculate :
(i) Error in registration.
(ii) Error in r.p.m. of the meter.
(AMIE)
Solution. Given : Supply voltage, V = 230 volts ; I = 10 A ; cos ϕ = 0.8 lag p.f.
Energy consumption recorded by the meter = 58.25 – 57.35 = 0.9 kWh
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(i) Error in registration :
Actual energy consumed in half an hour

(ii) Error in r.p.m. of the metre :

Actual revolutions required to be made by the meter for an energy consumption of 0.90 kWh

= 1200 × 0.90 = 1080 rev.

Revolutions made by the meter = 890

Example 3.121. A single-phase energy meter of the induction type is rated 230 V, 10A, 50 Hz and
has a meter constant of 600 rev./kWh when correctly adjusted. If ‘quadrature’ adjustment is slightly
disturbed so that the lag is 85°, calculate the percentage error at full load, 0.8 power factor lag.
(Bombay University)
Solution. Given : Supply voltage, V = 230 volts, I = 10 A ; f = 50 Hz ; Meter constant = 600
rev./kWh ; cos ϕ = 0.8 (lag)
Percentage error at full load :

When the voltage flux lagging adjustment is disturbed so that the phase angle between the voltage
flux and the voltage is less than 90°; the error is introduced.

Example 3.122. A 3-phase, 2 element energy meter has a constant of 0.2 revolutions of disc per
kWh. The meter is being used with a P.T. of ratio 22 kV/220 V and C.T. of ratio 100/5A. If the line
voltage is 220 V, current is 10 A, time to complete 10 revolutions is 30 seconds on unity power
factor, determine the error expressed as a percentage of the correct reading.
(Gorakhpur University)
Solution. Actual energy consumed during the test period

3.10.8. Maximum Demand Indicators/Meters

3.10.8.1. Introduction
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Firstly, we shall discuss how to determine the cost of generating electric energy and hence the rates
or tarrifs of charging for this energy. The cost consists of :
(i) Standing charges which are independent of the output.
(ii) Running or operating charges which are proportional to output.
— The size or capacity of the generating plant and hence necessary capital investment is
determined by the maximum demand of the system supplied by the generating plant.
— The demand of a system is its load requirement, usually in kW or kVA, averaged over a suitable
and specified interval of time of short duration. Thus the “maximum demand” of an
installation is defined as the greatest of all the demands which have occured during a given
period, such as a day, a month or a year.
— The instrument which measures the maximum demand is called maximum demand indicator or
meter.
— The primary requirement of maximum demand meters is that they shall record maximum power
taken by a consumer during a particular period. These meters should be so designed that any
sudden momentary increase in loads such as due to short circuits on the system or due to high
starting current of motors are not taken into account. Therefore, these meters must be designed
to record the average power over successive predetermined periods; these periods may be of
15 to 30 minutes duration.

3.10.8.2. Types of maximum demand indicators

Maximum demand indicators are of the following four types :
1. Recording demand indicators.
2. Average demand indicators (Merz price maximum demand indicator)
3. Thermal type maximum demand indicator.
4. Digital maximum demand indicators.
Out of all these, only average demand indicators will be described here.

3.10.8.3. Average demand indicator (Merz Price maximum demand indicator)

This indicator is not in the form of a separate instrument, but is a fitting which can be used with any
type of motor on clock meter to indicate the maximum consumption during a half-hour or other period
throughout a quarter of year (or other period between consecutive readings of the instrument).
• This indicator can be used to record either maximum current or maximum power.
Construction and operation : Refer to Fig. 3.109.

Fig. 3.109. Merz Price maximum demand indicator.

— It consists of a separate dial fitted inside the instrument, the pointer of which is driven by the
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spindle of the moving system of the meter through a train of gears and pin.
— Normally, the pointer is driven forward for half an hour period or other period known as
integrating time period and the energy consumed during this period is indicated on the dial by
the pointer. At the end of the time period, by means of a time switch and an operating
mechanism the pointer is disconnected from the gearing, returned to zero and reconnected to
the gearing.
— A maximum demand pointer is advanced by the driving pointer, but is held by friction when not
being driven. This pointer will be advanced to a new position when one half-hour’s energy
consumption exceeds than that in any preceding half hour, but will not be affected during the
half periods when the energy consumption is lower than that corresponding to its existing
position.
— There are a number of variations in details of construction. For instance, the cam may be
replaced by an electromagnetic relay and a clutch may be substituted for the bell crank
releasing device.
The average demand can be calculated as follows :

• These meters can also be used to measure the maximum demand in terms of kVAh or kVARh by
attaching to a suitable meter element which will measure such quantities.
Advantages :
(i) Uniform scale.
(ii) More accurate than the thermal type.
Disadvantages :
(i) More expensive than thermal type, since it involves mechanisms of greater complexity.
(ii) The serious disadvantage is that if the maximum demand occurs sometime after the start of one
time interval and continues over only a part of the next interval, the real maximum is not
indicated since it is split up into two different time intervals (thermal lagged meters do not
suffer from this disadvantage since their indication does not depend upon preselected times as
their integration is continuous).

3.10.9. Measurement of VAh and VARh

If a circuit has a supply voltage V, a load current I, and cos ϕ as the p.f. then we can write :

Eqns. (3.170), (3,171), and (3.172) hold good only for the condition that cos is maintained
constant; in practice, this condition is not usually met. Thus measurement of VAh or kVAh is not a
simple matter. Meters required for these measurements are a combination of watt-hour meters and
reactive volt-ampere hour meters.

3.10.9.1. Measurement of volt-ampere hours reactive (VARh)

Sometimes the metering of volt-ampere hours reactive (VARh) of a circuit is necessary in
connection with electricity tariffs. For this, a meter is required whose motoring action is proportional to
VI sin or VI cos (90° – ), where is the power factor angle. The measurement of VARh may,
therefore, be affected by employing a watt-hour meter, in which either the voltage flux or current flux
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is given a phase displacement of 90°. Thus an induction watt-hour meter with voltage flux in phase with
the voltage and current flux in phase with the current will register VARh.
• In order to measure VARh in single-phase circuits, use of specially compensated watt-hour meter
is made. Phase compensation is accomplished by suitable combination of resistance,
capacitance and inductance.
Normal induction type energy meter can be used to register VARh with the help of following
schemes, these schemes apply to 3-phase, 3-wire system :
1. Single element method.
2. Crossed phase method.
3. Auto-transformer method.
1. Single element method :
Fig. 3.110 illustrate the single element method of measuring VARh in a 3-phase, 3- wire system.

Fig. 3.110. Single element mehod of measuring VARh in a 3-phase, 3-wire system.
A normal single-phase induction type energy meter is used. The current coil is connected in series
with one of the phase while the pressure coil is connected across the other two phases as shown in Fig.
3.110(a). This connection is same as used for measurement of reactive power.

Thus, if a system is balanced the meter registers the total VARh.

• The disadvantage of this method is that it can only be used for balanced loads.
2. Crossed phase method :
This method can be employed for unbalanced currents in a 3-phase, 3-wire system.
Fig. 3.111, illustrates the cross phase method of measuring VARh in a 3-phase, 3-wire system :
— In this method a 2-element polyphase energy meter is used. A neutral point is obtained by a
choke as shown in Fig. 3.111(a).
— Each current is associated with a voltage differing in phase from the voltage normally used for
power or energy measurements [See Fig. 3.111(b)].
— In this method, we must ensure that torque acting on the two elements (Element- 1 and Element-
2) are opposite in direction.
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Fig. 3.111. Crossed phase method of measuring VARh in 3-phase, 3-wire system.

— Since the voltage across the pressure coil is of that used for power or energy measurements,
evidently the registration requires a multiplier of value , this is evident from the following :

3. Auto-transformer method :
This method uses a two element watt-hour meter with a phase shifting arramgement employing two
open delta-connected auto-transformers.

3.10.9.2. Measurement of volt-ampere hours (VAh)

Fig. 3.112 illustrate the two alternative methods of metering VAh.
• In Fig. 3.112(a) meter L is the watt-hour meter while meter M registers voltampere hours. The
meter M may be maximum demand indicator which gives VA demand.
The reading of meter B is in VAh
• In Fig. 3.112(b) meter L records watt-hours (Wh) while meter N registers voltampere hours
reactive (VARh).

This principle of vector addition is utilised for the constructin of a meter which measures VAh
directly.

Fig. 3.112. Methods of metering VAh.

Trivector meter :
A trivector meter measures kVAh and also kVA of maximum demand.
— It consists of a kWh meter and a reactive kVAh meter in the common case with a special
summator mounted between them.
— The summator is driven by both the meters through a complicated gearing which makes the
summator to register kVAh correctly at all power factors.

3.10.10. Testing of Energy Meters

3.10.10.1. General aspects
Prior to the installation of energy meters in domestic or commercial premises, it is essential by law,
to test the accuracy of the meter. The errors, under specified conditions, must lie within permissible
limits.
A.C. energy meter must be tested for the following conditions :
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(i) At 5% of marked current with unity p.f.
(ii) At 100% or 125% of marked current with unity p.f.
(iii) At one intermediate load with unity p.f.
(iv) At marked current and 0.5 lagging p.f.
Besides this, the meters should also be subjected to following tests :
(i) Starting test. The meter should start and run at 0.5% of marked value of current and with normal
voltage (Accuracy not to be checked at this current).
(ii) Creep test. The meter should not creep (should not revolve through more than one revolution)
with an applied voltage of 110% of its marked value and with the current circuit open.

3.10.10.2. Apparatus required for meter testing

The approved apparatus for testing of energy meters is listed below :
A. Standard apparatus :
(i) D.C. potentiometer, calibrated by National Physical Laboratory.
B. Substandard apparatus :
(i) Indicating wattmeter
(ii) Rotating meter
(iii) Ammeter
(iv) Voltmeter
(v) Electrolytic ampere-hour meter.
• Time standard – Ship’s chronometer or pendulum-type clock.
• Time substandard – Stop-watch or other suitable tuning device.

3.10.10.3. Methods of testing motor meters

Three main methods of testing motor meters are described below :
Method A : “Long-period dial tests,” using substandard rotating meters.
— In this method, a rotating substandard meter is used to measure the amount of energy passing
through the meter being tested in a given time.
— The current circuits of two meters are connected in series and thus carry the same current while
the voltage circuits are connected in parallel across the same supply.
— The meters are started and stopped simultaneously.
— The registrations of two meters are compared at the end of the test period (which is an hour or
even more) and the error is calculated as under :

This is the most rigorous of the three methods of testing.

Advantages :
(i) Reliability only on dial indications of the test meter.
(ii) The complete elimination of errors due to starting or stopping of substandard stop-watches.
(iii) Avoidance of any necessity for holding the load absolutely constant.
Disadvantage.
The main diadvantage is the length of time required for a single accurate test and thus for the
complete set of tests.
• This method is unsuitable if adjustments to the meters have to be made during testing.
Method B : “Short period test” using substandard or rotating meters.
This test extends over a short period and therefore it is known as a short period test.
— A rotating substandard meter is used in this method also.
— The current coils of the substandard meter and the meter under test are connected in series, and
their pressure coils are connected in parallel.
— Necessary provision is made to start and stop the two meters simultaneously.
• In this method either “revolutions” of the disc of meter under test are compared with those
made by the disc of substandard meter during the same time or “speeds” of the test and
the substandard meters are directly compared.
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(i) When revolutions are compared :

(ii) When speeds are compared :

• An additional requirement of this method is one “long period dial test” extending over an hour at
full load. This is done to check the registering mechanism and also the effect of time. The
meter is then again subjected to short time test at full load to check for any effect due to
heating.
Advantages :
(i) Less time required comparatively.
(ii) The complete elimination of error owing to starting or stopping of substandard or stop watches.
(iii) Avoidance of any necessity for holding the load absolutely constant.
Method C : Precision test
— In this method precision grade indicating instruments are used as reference standards.
— There indicating instruments are connected in the circuit of meter under test.
— The current and voltage are held constant during the test.
— The number of revolutions made by the meter disc during the test are recorded. The time taken is
also measured.

• In addition to this test, a ‘long period dial test’ is required to check the registration mechanism.
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Caution :
Before starting any of the test mentioned above on a watt-hour meter, its potential circuit must be
connected to the supply for one hour in order to enable the self-heating of the potential coil to stabilise.

3.10.10.4. Phantom or Fictitious loading

When the meter under test has high current rating, a test with actual loading arrangements would
involve a considerable waste of power. This can be avoided by using phantom or fictitious loading.
In phantom loading arrangement, the pressure circuit is supplied from a circuit of required normal
voltage and the current circuit from a separate low voltage supply (The rated current can be circulated
through the current circuit since the impedance of this circuit is very low). The total power supplied for
the test, in this arrangement, is the sum of power supplied due to the small pressure coil current at
normal voltage and that due to the circuit current supplied at low voltage. Thus, the total power
required for testing the meter with phantom loading is comparatively very small.
• For testing of meter of high capacity while in service, the pressure circuit of the meter is supplied
from the line in the normal way while the current circuit of the meter is removed from the
consumer load circuit and supplied from a source of low voltage.

3.10.10.5. Testing of A.C. meters

— When A.C. meters are to be tested, it is not only necessary to vary the voltage and load current,
but, in addition, the relative phases of the two quantities must be altered; in other words the
p.f. of the load must be variable also.
— Variation of the p.f. may be brought about by making up the load circuit with variable resistors,
inductors and capacitors, and adjusting these as required. This method is, however,
inconvenient in most cases, since it involves the waste of the power in the load and
necessitates several fairly expensive pieces of apparatus, these objections being particularly
apparent if the capacity of the meters is high.
• Due to this reason the load employed for testing purposes is usually a fictitious one, as in
the case of D.C. meter testing. Provision must, of course, be made for varying the phase
of the current in the current circuit relative to that of voltage circuit in addition to the
variation of the magnitude of the current.
— This phase of current is usually altered in one of the following two ways :
(i) Using two similar alternators coupled together and driven by a motor, with the stator of one
of them capable of rotation through any desired angle relative to the position of the
stator of the other.
(ii) Using a phase-shifting transformer.
• Fig. 3.113 shows the connections for the testing of the a single-phase meter X, using two coupled
alternators A1 and A2 for the supply to the voltage-and current-coil circuits respectively.
— The stator of A1 is capable of rotation for phase variation.
— A2 is connected first of all to a step-down transformer T whose secondary then supplies the
current coils of the two meters X and S, the latter being either a substandard indicating
wattmeter or a standard watt-hour meter, according to the method of test employed.
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Fig. 3.113. Connections for the testing of single-phase meters.

— The variable resistor R is for adjustment of the current in the current-coil circuit.
— V and A are a voltmeter and ammeter for the measurement of the load voltage and current.
A phase-shifting transformer may, of course, be used instead of the two alternators.
— The equilising lead shown is necessary when a fictitious load is used, in order to ensure that p.d.
between the current and voltage coils of the meters is zero, as it is when they are in service.
After making adjustment of power factor the load as desired for the test, the errors of the meters
under test can be determined either by timing a certain number of revolutions and measuring the load
by an indicating wattmeter or by comparing their rates of revolutions with that of a standard watt-hour
meter connected in the circuit so that it may measure the same load.
It may noted that the link between the current and voltage coils in each meter must be disconnected
for this test.
• Fig. 3.114 shows the connections for the testing of 3-phase, 3-wire meters :
— In this method, 3-phase supply is used for the following two purposes : (i) To supply the
stator of a phase-shifting transformer; (ii) To supply three step-down transformers, two
of whose secondaries supply the current coils of the meter.
— A regulating choke coil is connected in the primary circuits of these transformers.
— The motor of the phase-shifting transformer supplies two auto-transformers having
variable secondary tappings. These supply the voltage coils of the meters, the latter
consisting of a double standard wattmeter and one or more meters to be tested. These
are connected as shown.
— A1 , A2 and A3 are ammeters and V1 and V2 voltmeters, for adjustment of the load.
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Fig. 3.114. Connections for testing of 3-phase, 3-wire energy meters.

3.10.10.6. Measurement of kVA

For charging the industrial consumer on power factor tariff, in which consumer is penalized for low
p.f. of his load, maximum demand kVA indicator is required for measurement of maximum demand in
kVA.
One type of this instrument is essentially an induction type A.C. ampere-hour meter consisting of a
shaded pole, a continuously rotating disc and a braking magnet of permanent magnet type. It is used
with a timing device of the Merz type and records the maximum ampere hours during successive time
intervals of 15 minutes. The dial of the instrument is graduated in terms of kVA corresponding to the
circuit rated voltage. The readings of the instrument are independent of p.f. of the load and frequency of
supply within such variations of the latter might be expected in the normal supply system.

3.11. MISCELLANEOUS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Under this heading we shall discuss the following instruments :
1. Power factor meters.
2. Frequency meters.
3. Rotational speed measurements.
4. Synchronoscope.
5. Phase sequence indicators.

3.11.1. Power Factor Meters

3.11.1.1. Introduction
• Power-factor meters or phase meters indicate the power factor of a circuit directly, as distinct
from instruments from whose readings the power factor may be obtained by dividing the watts supplied
by the volt-amperes in the circuit.
The accuracy obtained with the use of power factor meters is sufficient for most purposes other
than high precision testing.
• Power factor meters like wattmeters have a current circuit and a voltage circuit. The former
carries the current in the circuit whose p.f. is to be measured, or a definite fraction of this current. The
voltage circuit is usually split into two parallel paths, one inductive and another non-inductive. The
deflection of the instrument depends upon the phase differences between the main current and currents
in the two branches of the voltage circuit, i.e. upon the p.f. of the circuit.
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3.11.1.2. Types of power factor meters
The following two types of power-factor meters are commonly used :
1. Dynamometer type power factor meters.
2. Moving iron type, power factor meter.

3.11.1.3. Dynamometer type single-phase power factor meters

Construction. Fig. 3.115 shows the construction of a single-phase dynamometer type power factor
meter :
— It consists of a fixed coil FF (split into two parts) which carries the current of the circuit under
test. Therefore, the magnetic field produced by this coil is proportional to the main current.
— The identical pressure coils A and B pivoted on a spindle constitute the moving system. Pressure
coil A has a non-inductive resistance R connected in series with it, and coil B has a highly inductive
choke coil L, connected in series with it. The two coils are connected across the voltage of the circuit.
The values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of current at normal
frequency, i.e., R = ωL.

Fig. 3.115. Single-phase dynamometer type power factor meter.

— The current through the coil A is in phase with the circuit voltage while that through the coil B
lags the voltage by an angle δ which is nearly equal to 90°. The angle between the planes of coils is
also made equal to δ. Connections to moving coils are made through thin silver or gold ligaments
which are extremely flexible and this gives a minimum control effect on the moving system.
Theory. Let us assume (to simplify the problem) that the current through the coil B lags the
voltage by exactly 90°. Also that the angle between planes of coils is exactly 90° (i.e., δ = 90°).
Fig. 3.116 illustrates the action of the instrument.
Let us assume that the field of the two fixed coils is uniform and in the direction arrowed. The
torque on each coil for a given coil current will be maximum when the coil is parallel to the field, i.e.,
along XX. Suppose that, when the system power factor angle is , the coils take up a position of
equilibrium displaced θ from the vertical. Then the torques due to the two coils must be equal and
opposite. Now, since the current in coil A is in phase with the system voltage, and the field in which it
moves is proportional to the system current, then coil A is essentially a wattmeter movement displaced
90° – θ from the maximum torque position. Then the torque of A,
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Fig. 3.116.

where, k is a constant.
Similarly, since the current in coil B lags 90° on the system voltage, coil B is in a sinemeter
movement displaced θ from the maximum torque position. Then torque on B is,

Hence, in the equilibrium position,

Therefore, the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the circuit.
• It may be noted that the instrument must be designed for, and calibrated at, the frequency of the
supply on which it is to be used. In case the meter is used for any other frequency or if supply contains
harmonics it will give rise to serious errors in the indication due to change in the value of reactance of
choke coil.

3.11.1.4. Dynamometer-type power factor meter for balanced 3-phase load

Fig. 3.117, shows the connections of a 3-phase power-factor meter, the readings of which are
correct only when the load is balanced :
— In this instrument the two moving coils are fixed with their planes 120° apart, and are connected
across two different phases of the supply circuit, the fixed coils being connected in the third
phase and carrying the current in the line. There is now no necessity for phase-splitting by
artificial means, since the required phase displacement between the currents in the two moving
coils can be obtained from the supply itself, as shown.
— Provided the two moving coils are 120° apart, the angle through which the pointer is deflected
from the unity power factor position is equal to the phase angle of the circuit.
• The 3-phase instrument gives indications which are independent of frequency and waveform,
since the currents in the two moving coils are both affected in the same way by any change of
frequency.
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Fig. 3.117. Dynamometer-type power factor meter for balanced 3-phase load.
Advantage : The dynamometer type instrument is more accurate than moving iron type.
Disadvantages :
(i) Limited scale arc.
(ii) The connecting ligaments or threads to the moving coils are required, which subject the moving
system of the instrument to a minimum of restraint, this is difficult to accomplish to a
satisfactory degree due to low working torque obtainable with this instrument.

3.11.1.5. Moving-iron power factor meters

There are two types of moving iron power factor meters :
1. Rotating field type.
2. Alternating field type.
1. Rotating field type for 3-phase loads :
Fig. 3.118 illustrates the principle of the Westing house instrument of this type :
— A rotating field is set up by the three coils A1 , A2 and A3 , which are supplied from the 3-phase
mains through current transformers.
— The coil B is placed at the centre of this system of coils, and is connected in series with a
resistance, across two lines of the supply. Inside coil B is a short pivoted iron rod, with sector-
shaped iron pieces S1 and S2 at its ends. Damping vanes and a pointer are also carried on the
same spindle. The moving system is shown in Fig. 3.118(b).
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Fig. 3.118. Rotating field type moving iron power factor meter for a balanced 3-phase load.
There are no controlling forces.
— The moving-iron system carries an alternating flux. It does not tend to rotate continuously, but
sets in a definite position which depends upon the relative phases of the current in coil B,
which is practically in phase with the voltage, and of the currents in coil A.
— The deflection of the moving system is approximately equal to the angle of phase displacement
between current and voltage in the 3-phase circuit.
— Owing to the presence of iron in the instrument and the dependence of the reactance of coil B
upon frequency it becomes necessary to calibrate the instrument at the normal frequency.
2. Alternating field type :
Fig. 3.119 shows an alternating field type (Lipman) moving iron power factor meter :
Construction :
— It consists of three sets of moving irons (B1 , B2 , B3 ) mounted on a single spindle one above the
other with nonmagnetic separating pieces (S) in between them and spaced at 120° in different
parallel planes.
— Each iron piece is magnetised by a separate coil known as pressure coil. The three pressure coils
(C1 , C2 , C3 ) are starconnected to the 3-phases of supply.

Fig. 3.119. Alternating field type (Lipman) moving iron power factor meter.
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— There is one current coil (AA) split up into two halves and placed on each side of the moving
system and pressure coils as shown. The current coil is connected in one of three phases of
supply circuit.
— The spindle of the moving system also carries a pointer and damping vanes but no control
device.
Working :
— When the instrument is connected across the supply circuit, whose power factor is to be
measured, the moving system of the instrument turns into such a position that the mean torque
upon one of the iron pieces is equal in magnitude and opposite in nature to the resultant
torque on the other two pieces i.e. the resultant torque on the whole moving system is zero. In
this steady position of moving system of the instrument, the deflection of that iron piece,
which is magnetised by the same phase as the current coil, is equal to the phase angle between
the voltages and currents of 3-phase supply circuit provided that the effects of iron losses and
of inductance of pressure coils are negligible.
— As the three pressure coils are at different levels, no resultant rotating magnetic field is set up by
them hence any tendency for the moving system to rotate continuously following the “drag”
of such a field is eliminated.
• The arranement shown in Fig. 3.119 is suitable for 3-phase balance system but it can be suitably
modified for use on unbalanced 3-phase circuits and for two phases and single-phase circuits.
Advantages :
1. The scale extends over 360°.
2. These instruments are simple and robust in construction.
3. They are comparatively cheap.
4. Large working forces, as compared with those in dynamometer type.
5. Use of ligaments is eliminated, since all the coils in a moving iron instruments are fixed.
Disadvantages :
1. The variations in supply frequency, voltage and waveform affect the calibration of these
instruments appreciably.
2. Less accurate than dynamometer type instruments, since errors are introduced in these meters
owing to losses in iron parts.

3.11.2. Frequency Meters

3.11.2.1. Introduction
The frequency of a local supply (other than that of the controlled grid system) can be measured by
various methods.
• A simple and very accurate method of determining frequency of supply from a local alternator
involves the measurement of speed (N) of the machine and knowing number of poles (p) on
the machine, the frequency (f) supply is given by :

• Certain A.C. circuits of bridge type are also used for the measurement of frequency over a wide
range but most of them are used when the source of alternating supply is not accessible or
where the frequency is in the audible range.
• Commercial frequency (i.e. frequency of the order of 50–100 Hz) is measured by portable
commercial instruments, known as frequency meters or indicators. Although the accuracy of
such instruments is less than that of above methods but sufficient for normal uses.

3.11.2.2. Types of frequency meters

The different types of frequency meters are :
1. Mechanical resonance type.
2. Electrical resonance type
3. Weston type.
4. Ratiometer type.
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5. Saturable core type.
6. Digital frequency meters.
• Measurement of audio and radio frequencies will also be discussed.

3.11.2.3. Mechanical resonance type (Vibrating reed type) frequency meter

This meter works on the principle of the mechanical resonance of thin flat steel reeds arranged
alongside and close to an electromagnet. This meter is also known as vibrating reed frequency meter.
Construction :
— It consists of a number of thin steel strips called reeds. These reeds are placed in a row alongside
and close to an electromagnet as shown in Fig. 3.120(a).
— The electromagnet has a laminated iron core and its coil is connected in series with a resistance,
across the supply whose frequency is to be measured.
— Each reed is approximately about 4 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick. All the reeds are not exactly
similar to each other; they have either slightly different dimensions or carry different weights
or flags at their tops. The natural frequency of vibration of the reeds depends upon their
weights and dimensions.
— The reeds are so designed and arranged that the natural frequency of one reed differs by one or
half a cycle from that of reed next to it. So if a frequency meter has a range of 47–53 Hz then
natural frequency of first reed will be 47 Hz, 47.5 Hz for second reed, 48 Hz for the third reed
and so on.
The reeds are fixed at the bottom end and are free at the top end. Since the reeds on a frequency
meter are arranged to be viewed end on, they have a portion bent over at free end to serve as a flag as
shown in Fig. 3.120(b). The flags are painted white to provide maximum contrast against their black
background.
Working :
— When the instrument is connected across the supply whose frequency is to be measured, an
alternating flux is set up. Due to this alternating field an attractive force is experienced upon
the reeds after every half cycle. Consequently the reeds tend to vibrate but only the reed
whose actual frequency is double of supply frequency will be in resonance and vibrate most
(with maximum amplitude). Normally the vibration of other reeds is so slight as to be
unobservable.
— If two adjacent reeds vibrate with equal amplitude then the supply frequency will be half way
between the frequencies of the two adjacent reeds. The usual range of frequency meters of this
type is about 6 Hz (say from 47 Hz to 53 Hz).
Fig. 3.120(c) illustrates the vibration of reeds at different frequencies.
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Fig. 3.120. Vibrating reed type frequency meter.

Fig. 3.120(c)–(i) illustrates that when supply frequency is 50 Hz, the reed having natural frequency
of 50 Hz vibrates with maximum amplitude.
Fig. 3.120(c)–(ii) illustrates that when frequency is 49.5 Hz then reeds having natural frequencies
of 49 Hz and 50 Hz will vibrate with equal and maximum amplitude.
Fig. 3.120(c)–(iii) illustrates that neither of the reeds has considerable amplitude, which indicates
that either magnetic coil is unexcited or frequency under measurement is out of range.
• The frequency range of a given set of reeds may be doubled by polarising the magnets. The
polarisation may be accomplished by using a D.C. winding in addition to the A.C. winding or
by using a permanent magnet.
Advantage.
The indications of the meter are independent of the waveform of the applied voltage and of the
magnitude of the voltage, provided that the voltage should be high enough to provide sufficient
amplitude for the reed vibration so as to make its reading reliable.
Disadvantage.
These instruments cannot read much closer than half the frequency difference between adjacent
reeds. Thus they cannot be used for precision measurements.

3.11.2.4. Electrical resonance type frequency meter

Fig. 3.121 shows a very simple form of indicating frequency meter, whose action is dependent
upon electrical resonance.
Construction :
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— It consists of a laminated iron core of varying cross-section, a fixed magnetising coil mounted
at one end of the iron core and a moving coil with a pointer attached to it and pivoted so that it
can move freely over the iron core as shown.
— The moving coil is connected across a capacitor C and the fixed coil is connected across the
supply circuit, whose frequency is to be measured.
Working :
— When the magnetising coil is connected across the supply circuit, current I flows through it and a
flux in phase with current is set up in the iron core and an e.m.f. e lagging behind the flux
by 90° is induced in the moving coil.
The current in the moving coil be lagging or leading the induced e.m.f. e, depending upon
whether the circuit of the moving coil is largely inductive or capacitive, as shown in Fig.
3.121(b–i) and (b–ii) respectively. The current in the moving coil will be in phase with e [Fig.
3.121 (b–iii)] when inductance reactance (XL) is equal to capacitive reactance (XC).

Fig. 3.121. Electrical resonance type frequency meter.

— The torque on the moving system (which has no controlling device) is given by :

From the eqn. (3.183) it is evident that the torque on the moving system will be zero when

• Referring now to the actual operation of the instrument, the capacitive reactance is
constant for any given frequency. The inductive reactance ωL (2πfL) depends upon the
position of the pivoted coil on the core. The nearer this coil approaches the magnetising coil
the greater is its inductance. The pivoted coil is pulled towards the magnetising coil, therefore
until when, as already seen, the torque is zero. Obviously the circuit of the moving
coil is in resonance when the torque is zero.
The value of the capacitor C is so chosen that the pivoted coil takes up a convenient mean position
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when the frequency is at its normal value. If the frequency increases decreases, and the coil moves
“off” the core, so that its inductance is reduced to the point where ω L again equals . The coil moves
farther “on” to the core if the frequency falls.
Advantage.
Great sensitivity can be obtained if the inductance of the moving coil changes slowly with the
variation of its position on the core.

3.11.2.5. Weston frequency meter

A Weston frequency meter is a moving iron instrument whose action depends on the variation in
current distribution between two parallel circuits, one inductive and the other noninductive, when
frequency changes.
Construction :
Fig. 3.122 shows the construction and internal connections of Weston frequency meter :
— Coils A and B are two fixed coils, each in two equal parts. These two coils are fixed so that their
magnetic axis are perpendicular, and at their centres is a pivoted soft-iron needle which is
long and thin. The spindle bearing the needle also carries a pointer and damping vanes but
there is no controlling device.
— The coil-A is connected in series with an inductor LA, across a non-inductive resistor RA, and coil
B is connected in series with a resistor RB, across an inductor LB as shown. The inductor L is
for the purpose of damping out harmonics in the waveform of the current through the
instrument, and so eliminating errors due to such harmonics.
Working :
— The two sets of coils A and B set up two magnetic fields at right angle to each other, whose
magnitude depends upon the magnitude of the current flowing through the respective sets of
coils. Both of these fields act upon the pivoted iron needle, so the position taken by the soft-
iron needle depends upon the magnitude of two fields or of currents in coils A and B. The
values of various resistances and inductances are so chosen that for normal frequency of
supply, the voltage drop across non-inductive resistor RA and inductance LB sends equal
currents through the two pairs of coils A and B so that the needle takes such a position that the
pointer is at the centre as shown in the figure.

Fig. 3.122. Weston frequency meter.

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— When the supply frequency increases above the normal one, the voltage across RA remains more
or less same and reactance of coil LA increases due to increase in frequency, so the current
through coil-A decreases. Simultaneously the current through the coil-B increases on account
of increase of reactance of inductive coil LB resulting in increase of voltage drop across the
coil-B. Thus the magnitude of field of coil-A decreases and that of coil-B increases and the
needle sets itself more in line with axis of coil-B; the pointer, therefore, swings over to the
right indicating increased frequency.
Decrease of frequency obviously has the opposite effect, and these variations of frequency are
followed by the pointer as shown.

3.11.2.6. Ratiometer type frequency meter

Fig. 3.123 shows the construction and connection diagram for a ratiometer type frequency meter :
— This type of frequency meter consists of a ratiometer which gives a clear relationship between
the current ratio and the deflection.
— The two coils of this ratiometer are fed with rectified output currents of two separate bridge
rectifiers as shown.
— The input sides of the two bridge rectifiers are connected to A.C. supply whose frequency is to
be measured. Input sides of one of the bridges rectifiers has a series capacitance C and the
other has series resistance R.

Fig. 3.123. Ratiometer type frequency meter.

• Let V be the supply voltage and f be its frequency.
Then, Output current of bridge rectifier-1 is given by :

Output current of bridge rectifier-2 is given as :

(The above relation is applicable to sinusoidal waveform only)

Then, the deflection (θ) is given by :

where K2 = a constant 2πK1 CR

— Thus, the instrument has a linear scale of frequency provided the ratiometer is so designed that
the deflection is directly proportional to the ratio of two currents.
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— Since the supply voltage V does not appear in the expression for deflection, the instrument may
be used for a fairly wide range of voltage below the maximum specified. However, the voltage should
not be too low otherwise distortions are introduced which make the meter read wrongly.
• This meter may be employed upto a frequency of 5 kHz.

3.11.2.7. Saturable core frequency meter

Fig. 3.124 shows the construction and connection diagram of a saturable core frequency meter.
Construction :
— This instrument has a saturable core transformer T as its primary detector.
— The core assembly consists of the following parts :
(i) An outer core made of magnetic material;
(ii) Leg A made of non-magnetic material;
(iii) Leg B made of magnetic material, it saturates at low values of m.m.f.
The cross-section of leg A being same as that of B.
— The primary winding P is wound around legs A and B. The secondary winding S consists of two
coils, one around leg A and the other around B as shown in the figure. The two coils are
connected in series. The e.m.fs. induced in these coils oppose each other.

Fig. 3.124. Saturable core frequency meter.

Theory of operation :
When there is saturation, the rate of increase of induced voltage in the secondary coil over leg A
will equal the rate of increase of induced voltage in secondary coil wound over the magnetic leg B.
Thus the rate of increase in these two coils will cancel, and secondary output voltage will not be a
function of the primary voltage but will be a function of frequency only.
If is the difference between the flux of leg A and leg B, then the induced e.m.f. in the secondary
winding is given by :

Now, the average secondary voltage per half cycle,

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where k is a constant after the magnetic leg B becomes saturated.

The output of this circuit is rectified and the current in the D.C. meter is :

where R includes the resistance of the bridge rectifier, the meter and the resistance R1 .

The deflection θ is directly proportional to current Iav. as current is detected by PMMC meter, or

Thus, the deflection of meter is directly proportional to frequency.

Advantage. This instrument can measure frequencies over a wide range.
Application. Well suited for use in tachometer systems.

3.11.2.8. Digital frequency meter

The principle of operation and basic circuit of a digital frequency meter are briefly described
below :
Principle of operation : Refer to Fig. 3.125
— The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an AND gate, as
shown.
— A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted during this
period indicates the frequency.
— The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train of pulses one pulse for
each cycle of the signal. The number of pulses occuring in a definite interval of time is then
counted by an electronic counter.

Fig. 3.125. Principle of digital frequency measurement.

Fig. 3.126. Basic circuit of a digital frequency meter.

Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown signal the number of counts is a direct
indication of the frequency of the unknown signal.
Since electronic counters have a high speed of operation, high frequency signals can be measured.
Basic circuit :
Fig. 3.126 shows the block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter :
— The signal may be amplified before being applied to Schmitt trigger.
— The Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into square wave with fast rise and fall times,
which is then differentiated and clipped. As a result, the output from a Schmitt trigger is a
train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
— The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to ‘Start’/‘Stop’ gate. When this gate is
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enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and are fed directly to the electronic counter,
which counts the number of pulses. When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the
incoming pulses. The counter displays the number of pulses that have passed through it in the
time interval between start and stop. If this interval is known, the unknown frequency can be
measured.

3.11.2.9. Measurement of Audio and Radio Frequencies

The audio and radio frequencies (AF and RF) can be measured by using the following
techniques/methods :
1. Bridge technique.
2. Heterodyne technique.
3. Wavemeters.
4. Interpolation technique.
Some of these methods/techniques are described below :
1. Bridge technique :
An unknown frequency can be determined by applying it to bridge in which the balance
dependent upon frequency and then calculating the frequency from the circuit constants is
required to give balance. Such arrangements find considerable use for measuring AF.
Any type of bridge or null network in which balance depends upon frequency can be used. Typical
examples are : Wien, Hay and resonance bridges and the null network.
• Fig. 3.127 shows “null network” for measuring AF; the frequency is calculated using the relation
:

• The “Wien bridge” is particularly satisfactory for measuring AF because it can be brought into
balance merely by varying resistive elements containing no inductance, and can be
conveniently proportioned to cover a wide frequency range (for details refer to Art. 6.3.11).
An accuracy in the order of 0.5 to 1.0 % can be readily obtained in frequency bridges. In the
frequency range 300 to 500 Hz, balance can be mostly easily made by the use of telephone
receivers. At frequencies outside this range some indicating arrangements, such as an
amplifier and VTVM combination, is normally required.

Fig. 3.127. Null network for measuring AF.

2. Heterodyne technique :
• The basis of heterodyne frequency meter is a stable and tunable oscillator.
• Heterodyne frequency meters are commonly provided with a detector, audio amplifier, and
headphones as shown in Fig. 3.128 :
— Energy from the oscillator is supplied to the detector by internal coupling, and in addition
provision is made whereby energy from an external source may be superimposed upon the detector
input. The frequency of the heterodyne meter can then be made the same as the unknown frequency by
adjusting so that the difference (or beat) frequency of the two oscillators as observed on the
headphones is reduced to zero.
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— These frequency meters are sometimes provided with a crystal oscillator calibrator. This is
simple but well-designed crystal oscillator utilizng a low temperature coefficient crystal to ensure good
frequency stability. The crystal oscillator produces a known frequency which can be used to check one
or more points on the frequency calibration of the heterodyne meter with the aid of detector audio
amplifier.

Fig. 3.128. Heterodyne frequency meter.

Uses : Heterodyne frequency meters are employed for the following purposes :
1. To produce known frequencies.
2. To measure an unknown frequency by comparison with the controllable and known frequency of
heterodyne frequency meter.
3. To interpolate between fixed frequencies.
3. Wavemeters :
Wavemeters are used to measure frequency when high accuracy is not required and where
simplicity and portability are important.
— A wavemeter is an adjustable resonant circuit provided with a calibration that gives the
resonant frequency in terms of setting of the tuning adjustments.
— A wavemeter may employ any type of resonant circuit that is convenient for the frequency
range to be covered; thus resonant circuits based on lumped constants including butterfly circuits,
coaxial two-wire lines, and cavities, all find use in wavemeter applications.
— Wavemeters can be constructed with lumped circuit elements up to about 1200 MHz. Such
arrangements are normally employed either as absorption or as reaction devices.
— The response of the wavemeter is commonly indicated by a crystal detector that is loosely
coupled to the resonant circuit and associated with a micrometer that indicates the rectified current.
— Arrangements employing a fixed inductance and variable capacitance are suitable for use from
the lowest radio frequencies up to about 100 MHz; this entire range can be covered by single variable
condenser provided with a suitable set of plug-in coils as shown in Fig. 3.129. In this the coupling
between the crystal and resonant circuit is made small by making capacitance C1 small and C2 large.

Fig. 3.129. Tuned-circuit type wavemeter.

— A variation of the inductance-capacitance wavemeter that is useful at very high frequencies
consists in varying both the coil and the condenser simultaneously. This increases the frequency range
that can be covered with a single coil and condenser combination, and is particularly useful at
frequencies of the order of 50 to 400 MHz.
• The accuracy obtainable with such type of wavemeters depends upon the circuit Q and upon
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details of construction. In general, accuracies of the order of 1% or, better are readily obtained but it is
quite difficult to make the accuracy as great as 0.1 %.
Cavity wavemeters :
• The resonant cavities are extensively used as wavemeter at microwave frequencies. They have
high accuracy, mechanical simplicity, and a large physical size in proportion to the
wavelength being measured.
• Practical cavity wavemeters are always in the form of cylinders which are tunable by means of a
piston that varies the cavity length, as shown in Fig. 3.130.

Fig. 3.130. Simple cylindrical cavity.

• Coupling to a wavemeter is accomplished by a loop or an orifice. A loop is used when co-axial
systems are used to excite a cavity or carry power from it, while orifice is normally used in a
waveguides system.
• The accuracy with which frequency can be determined using a well made cavity wavemeter is
quite high (Precision of the order of 1 part in 1000 is easy to obtain and 1 part in 100,000 can
be obtained by careful mechanical design combined with temperature compensation and
correction).
Frequency standards :
The fundamental standard of frequencies is the period of rotation of earth . It can be measured with
great accuracy by astronomical methods and is taken as a standard frequency of 1 cycle/day. The error
in the measurement is approximately 164 μs. All standards of frequency must ultimately be referred to
this fundamental source for calibration purpose.
Practical standards can be classified as follows :
(i) Primary standards. A primary standard of frequency is an oscillator which generates a frequency
that is constant over a long period and is checked directly with the earth’s rotation.
(ii) Secondary standards. These standards of frequency are very stable oscillators which have their
frequencies checked periodically against the primary standards.
• Recent developments in microwave spectroscopy have introduced the possibility of using
spectrum lines as frequency standard.

3.11.3. Rotational Speed Measurements

3.11.3.1. Introduction
The rotational speed of a machine can be measured by using electrical methods or methods
involving electrical-operated measuring equipment. If this machine is an alternator the speed is a
measure of the frequency of the A.C. voltage generated, the number of the poles of the alternator being
known.
One simple and direct method is to use a small generator with a permanent-magnet field, and to
measure, with a voltmeter, the generated voltage. This is proportional to the speed, and the moving-
coil voltmeter, with a uniform scale, can be calibrated directly in rotational speed (r.p.m. or r.p.s.).

3.11.3.2. Stroboscopic method for measurement of speed

Stroboscope is a device which emits periodic flashes of light of very short duration.
— The stroboscopes are generally calibrated to read the speed directly in r.p.m. The frequencies of
the flashes is adjusted until the body appears stationary and the speed is read directly from the
dial which is employed for adjusting the frequency. When the adjustment is calibrated to read
the speed directly, the stroboscope is called “Tachometer”.
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— A stroboscope can be used to measure speeds from a few hundred to many thousands of r.p.m.
• The procedure for measuring speed by stroboscopic method is as follows :
— A disc known as stroboscopic disc, with the geometrical pattern on it, is rigidly attached to
the shaft of the machine, whose speed is to be determined.
— The disc is illuminated by a series by rapid flashes, each being of very short direction in
comparison to time interval between successive flashes. The series of flashes for
illuminating the stroboscopic disc are obtained with the help of a stroboscope.
— The frequency of the flashes is adjusted such that disc seems to be stationary. This will
happens when the point adjacent to that viewed in the preceeding flash, has taken up the
same position and since all points are exactly identical, the eye cannot mark the change.
In other words, the disc will seem to be stationary when the disc moves one point pitch
during the time interval between the two successive flashes. Same effect will be caused
if disc moves through 2p, 3p, .... np between the successive flashes.

Fig. 3.131. Disc with a geometrical pattern.

Thus, if frequency of flashes is known, the rotating speed (N) of the shaft can be determined.
• The fact that the pattern will be stationary even if the actual speed is a whole multiple of N,
causes no confusion since the approximate speed can be measured by another but less accurate
method. So, the difference between N and its multiple can be easily known e.g. if the speed
determined by stroboscopic method is 300 and with a less accurate method 890, the accurate
speed of the machine is 900 r.p.m., multiplying factor being 3.
When the actual speed is a whole number of N then N is known as the primary speed of the
machine.
• A neon lamp with a tripping circuit is generally used with stroboscope to provide periodic flashes
of light of very short duration.
Disadvantages :
(i) This method is not as accurate as the methods using digital meters.
(ii) The stroboscope cannot be used for measuring speed in surroundings having ambient light
above a certain level.
Applications :
(i) This method is especially suitable for measuring the speed of small-power rating machines.
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(ii) Also suitable for determining the speed of machine parts which are not readily accessible or
where it is not practible to use mechanical methods or where the speed is variable.

3.11.4. Synchroscopes
3.11.4.1. Introduction
It may be logically assumed that one alternator is placed in parallel with one or more other
alternators only when an additional load requires it. Those alternators already carrying load are known
as the running machines, while that which is to be placed in the system is known as the incoming
machine.
At the time of synchronising the following conditions must be met :
1. The effective voltage of the incoming alternator must be exactly equal to that of the others, or of
the busbars connecting them.
2. The phase rotation, or sequence of the running and incoming alternators, must be the same.
3. The individual phase voltages which are to be connected to each other must be in exact phase
opposition. This is the same as saying that D.C. generators must be connected + to + and – to
–.
4. The frequencies should be the same, although it is more desirable that the frequencies at the
instant of paralleling be almost, but not quite, identical.
• A synchroscope is used to determine the correct instant for closing the switch which
connects an alternator with another alternator (or to the power station busbars).
— The voltages can be checked with the help of a voltmeter.
— For a 3-phase machine the phase sequence of the two should be the same. This condition is
verified by a phase sequence indicator.
— The function of a synchroscope is to indicate the difference in phase and frequency of
voltages of the busbar and the incoming machine.
Types of synchroscopes :
There are two types synchroscopes :
1. Moving iron type.
2. Electrodynamic (Weston) type.
Both are special forms of respective power factor meters.

3.11.4.2. Moving iron type synchroscope

Fig. 3.132 shows the construction and connection diagram of a moving iron type synchroscope,
which is due to Lipman :
Construction :
— It consists of a fixed coil A divided into two parts. This coil is designed for a small value of
current and is connected in series with a resistance across two phases of the busbar.
— There are two iron cylinders C1 and C2 mounted on the spindles. Each iron cylinder is provided
with two iron vanes whose axes are 180° out with each other.
— The iron cylinders are excited by two pressure coils P1 and P2 which are connected to two
phases of the incoming machine one of the coils has series resistance R and the other has a
series inductance L1 . This is done to create an artificial phase difference of 90° between the
currents of two pressure coils.
— There are no control springs.
— The pointer (provided in the instrument) moves over a dial marked “Fast” and “Slow”
Working :
— When the frequency of the incoming machine is equal to that of busbar, the synchroscope works
as a single-phase power factor meter, and so indicates the phase difference between the two
e.m.fs.
— When the frequency of the incoming machine is different from the frequency of busbar, the
spindle rotates continuously at a speed in r.p.s. equal to difference between the frequencies of
the two systems. The direction of rotation depends upon whether the incoming machine is
running too fast or too slow.
— The instrument has 360° scale. The displacement from the zero position indicates the phase
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difference between the e.m.fs. When pointer of the instrument is stationary at the centre or
zero position, the parallel switch should be closed.
• The moving iron type synchroscopes are commonly used because of the following reasons :
(i) They are cheap and robust.
(ii) They are inherently suitable for continuous operation.
(iii) No slip rings are necessary since there are no electrical connections to the moving system.

Fig. 3.132. Moving-iron alternating-field synchroscope.

3.11.4.3. Electro-dynamometer (Weston) type synchroscope

Weston synchroscope is an instrument of dynamometer type and is spring-controlled. Fig. 3.133 shows
the construction and connection diagram of this instrument.
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Fig. 3.133. Electro-dynamometer (Weston) type synchroscope.

• It consists of a three limbed transformer (also called lamp transformer). The winding on one of
the outer limbs is excited from bus-bars and that on the other limb by incoming machine. The
winding on the central limb is connected to a lamp.
— The two fluxes produced by the outer limbs are forced through the central limb. The
resultant flux through the central limb is equal to the phasor sum of these fluxes. This
resultant flux induces an e.m.f. in the windings of the central limb.
— The windings on the two outer limbs are so arranged that when the bus-bar and the
incoming machine voltages are in phase, the two fluxes through the central limb are
additive and thus e.m.f. induced in the central limb winding is maximum. Hence under
these conditions the lamp glows with maximum brightness.
— When the two voltages are 180° out of phase with each other the resultant flux is zero and
hence no e.m.f. is induced in the central limb winding, consequently the lamp does not
glow at all and is dark.
— When the frequency of incoming machine is different from that of busbar, the lamp will
flicker (i.e. will be bright and dark alternately). The frequency of flickering is equal to
the difference in frequencies of the busbar and the incoming machine.
The correct instant of synchronising is when the lamp is flickering at a very slow rate and is at its
maximum brightness.
• The above arrangement has the drawback that it does not indicate whether the incoming machine
is too fast or too slow. This is corrected by introducing electrodynamometer instrument as
shown in the lower part of Fig. 3.133.
— The electrodynamometer instrument consists of a fixed coil divided into two parts,
connected to incoming machine in series with resistance and inductance. The moving
coil is connected with busbar in series with a capacitor. Inductance in series with fixed
coil and capacitor in series with the moving coil are used to make currents of these coils
exact in quadrature when voltages of incoming machine and busbar are in phase.
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— Under the above condition (when the two voltages are in phase), the currents in the two
coils are in quadrature and as a result there is no deflecting torque on the moving coil
and pointer will remain stationary to indicate the synchronism of the incoming machine
with busbar (the lamp remaining dark). Control springs, which supply current to the
moving coil are so arranged that the pointer remains vertical in this condition.
— When the phase difference between the two voltages is 180° then the current in the coils
will as again be in quadrature and there will be no deflecting torque on the moving coil
and pointer will remain stationary in the vertical position but with the difference that in
this condition lamp glows with maximum brightness and this is the correct instant of
synchronisation. However in practice, the adjustment of speed of incoming machine is
not possible to extent that pointer takes stationary position, so it oscillates across its
centre zero position on the scale.

3.11.5. Phase Sequence Indicators

Phase sequence indicator (or phase sequence meter) is an instrument which determines the phase
sequence of the three phase supplies.
There are two types of phase sequence indicators :
1. Rotating type phase sequence indicator.
2. Static type sequence indicator.

3.11.5.1. Rotating type phase sequence indicator

This indicator works on the principle similar to that of three-phase induction motors.
— It consists of three coils mounted 120° apart (i.e. in star connection) in space. The three ends of
the coils are brought out and connected to three terminals marked R Y B as shown in Fig.
3.134.
— These star-connected coils are excited by the supply whose frequency is to be determined. On
the top of the coils is mounted an aluminium disc.
— The coils produce a rotating magnetic field and eddy current e.m.fs. are induced in the disc.
These e.m.fs. cause eddy currents to flow in the aluminium disc. A torque is produced due to
the interaction of the eddy currents with the field. Due to this torque the disc revolves and its
direction of rotation depends upon the phase sequence of the supply.
— The direction of the rotation of the disc is indicated by an arrow. When the direction of the
rotation is the same as that indicated by the arrow head, the phase sequence of the supply is
the same as marked on the terminals of the instrument. However, if the disc revolves opposite
to the direction indicated by the arrow head, the sequence of suply is opposite to that marked
on the terminals.

Fig. 3.134. Phase sequence indicator.

3.11.5.2. Static type sequence indicator

A static type sequence indicator may have the following two types of arrangement :
• One arrangement consists of two lamps and an inductor as shown in Fig. 3.135.
— When the phase sequence is RYB, lamp-1 will be dim and lamp-2 will glow brightly.
— In case, the phase sequence is RBY, lamp-1 will glow brightly and lamp-2 will be dim.
• In another arrangement, similar phase sequence indicator consists of two neon lamps and a
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capacitor basically as shown in Fig. 3.135(a). In practice, a resistor must be added in series
with each lamp to limit the current as shown in Fig. 3.135(b).

Fig. 3.135.
— When the phase sequence is RYB, lamp-1 will glow and lamp-2 will be dark, since when neon
lamps are used as indicators, the lamp which has the lower voltage will not glow at all, as the
voltage across it is lower than the breakdown voltage of the lamp.

HIGHLIGHTS
1. A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting presence of small currents or voltages in a
closed circuit or for measuring their magnitudes.
2. Ballistic galvanometer is used to measure the quantity of electricity (charge) passed through it.
3. Grassot flux meter, used for measurement of flux, is a special type of ballistic galvanometer in
which the controlling torque is very small and electromagnetic damping is heavy.
4. Vibration galvanometers are of D’Arsonval type having a moving coil suspended between the
pieces of a permanent magnet. When an alternating current is passed through the moving
coil, an alternating deflecting torque is produced which makes the coil vibrate with a
frequency equal to the frequency of the current passing.
These galvanometers are the most widely used “tuned detectors” particularly as null point
detectors in the A.C. bridges.
5. Duddell’s oscillograph is essentially a vibration galvanometer having a low period of vibrations.
6. Moving iron instruments are commonly used in laboratories and switch boards at commercial
frequencies because they are very cheap and can be manufactured with required accuracy.
7. The permanent moving-coil instrument is the most accurate type for D.C. measurements.
8. Meggers (megohm meters) are instruments which measure the insulation resistance of electric
circuits relative to earth and one another.
9. Hot-wire instruments utilise the expansion of wire heated by current being measured.
10. Thermocouple instruments are suitable for very high frequencies upto about 50 Hz.
11. A rectifier type instrument is more sensitive than any other type of A.C. meter.
12. Electrostatic instruments are always used as voltmeters and that too more as a laboratory rather
than as industrial instruments.
13. The wattmeters are of the following three types :
(i) Dynamometer wattmeters;
(ii) Induction wattmeters;
(iii) Electrostatic wattmeters.
Of these, the first two are most commonly used.
14. Induction wattmeters can be used in A.C. circuit only.
15. The electrostatic wattmeters are used for the measurement of small amount of power,
particularly when the voltage is high and power factor low.
16. According to Blondel’s theorem : “If a network is supplied through N conductors, the total
power is measured by summing the readings of N wattmeters so arranged that a current
element of a wattmeter is in each line and the corresponding voltage element is connected
between that line and a common point. If the common point is located on one of the lines,
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then the power may be measured by N-1 wattmeters”.
17. A polyphase meter is used to measure power in a polyphase (3-phase) system.
18. Energy meters are used to measure the quantity of electric energy supplied to a circuit in a given
time.
19. The various types of energy meters are :
(i) Electrolytic meters ...... Their operation depends on electrolytic action.
(ii) Motor meters ...... There are really small electric motors
— Mercury motor meters ...... Normally used on D.C. circuits.
— Commutator motor motors ...... Can be used both for D.C. as well as A.C. work
— Induction motor/energy meters ...... used only on A.C. circuits.
(iii) Clock meters ...... They function as clock mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Choose the Correct Answer :

Galvanometers
1. A d’Arsonval galvanometer uses a light and scale arrangement. The light source is placed 1 m
away from the moving system of galvanometer. The arrangement uses a circular scale
calibrated in mm. The deflection indicated by the scale is
(a) 1000 mm
(b) 2000 mm
(c) 500 mm
(d) none of the above.
if a current of 1 mA is passed through the coil. The spring stiffness is 2 × 10–6 Nm/rad and
the displacement constant is 2 Nm/A.
2. The time period of free oscillations in a galvanometer having a relative damping of 0.6 is 2 s. The
frequency of damped oscillations is :
(a) 0.5 rad/s
(b) 0.3 rad/s
(c) 0.4 rad/s
(d) none of the above.
3. The resistance required for critical damping in a circuit is 1000 Ω. The galvanometer circuit has a
resistance of 800 Ω. Is the galvanometer circuit
(a) underdamped ?
(b) undamped ?
(c) overdamped ?
(d) none of the above.
4. A galvanometer has a ratio of 0.9 for damped frequency oscillations to undamped frequency
oscillations. Suppose moment of inertia, stiffness constant and damping constant are made
twice their original value, what would be the new ratio of damped frequency oscillations to
undamped frequency oscillations,
(a) 0.9
(b) 1.11
(c) 4
(d) 2.
5. In d’Arsonval galvanometer, an iron core is usually used between the permanent magnet pole
faces. This is used so that
(a) flux density in the air gap becomes high thereby a large deflecting torque is produced.
(b) the effect of stray magnetic fields is reduced.
(c) moment of inertia of moving parts becomes smaller.
(d) none of the above.
6. Sometimes, the d’Arsonval galvanometers, do not use ferromagnetic cores between poles of the
permanent magnet. In this case
(a) the flux density becomes smaller resulting in low deflecting torque.
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(b) the dimensions of the moving coil can be made smaller thereby reducing the moment
of inertia.
(c) the magnetic field may not be radial resulting in a non-uniform scale even if spring
control is used.
(d) all of the above.
7. A current of 2 μA is passed though the moving coil of an undamped d’Arsonval galvanometer
which has a displacement constant of 2 Nm/A and a control constant of 10 × 10 –4 Nm/rad.
The moving oscillates with an amplitude of :
(a) 0.2 rad.
(b) 0.4 rad.
(c) 0.8 rad.
(d) none of the above.
8. If the damping in a d’Arsonval galvanometer is only due to electromagnetic effects, the resistance
required for critical damping is :

9. The relative damping in a galvanometer is 0.8. Its logarithmic decrement is approximately :

(a) 0.48
(b) 1.25
(c) 4.19
(d) – 4.19.
10. In a critically damped galvanometer the deflection at a time 0.9 times the time of free
oscillations after a current is passed through the moving coil is approximately
(a) 0.986 times the final deflection.
(b) 0.901 times the final deflection.
(c) 0.866 times the final deflection.
(d) none of the above.
11. A d’Arsonval galvanometer uses a lamp and scale arrangement. Its current sensitivity is 250
mm/μA. If the resistance of the coil is 100 Ω and the external resistance required for critical
damping is 900 Ω, (which is connected in the circuit), the voltage sensitivity is
(a) 0.25 mm/μV
(b) 2.5 mm/V
(c) 25 mm/μV
(d) 250 mm/μV.
12. Ayrton shunt is used in d’Arsonval galvanometers so as to limit the current in the galvanometer
coil to its maximum permissible value. The relative value of current through the
galvanometer coil and the shunt
(a) depends upon the value of resistance of galvanometer coil only.
(b) depends upon the values of resistance of galvanometer coil and the shunt.
(c) does not depend upon the value of resistance of galvanometer coil.
(d) none of the above.
13. A Ballistic galvanometer should be designed with
(a) a large period of natural oscillations and a negligble damping contant.
(b) a small period of natural oscillations and a high damping constant.
(c) a large period of natural oscillations and a high damping factor.
(d) a small period of natural oscillations and a low damping factor.
14. A Duddell’s oscillograph will give no amplitude disortion and phase displacement if its
(a) moment of inertia and stiffnes constant are zero.
(b) stiffness constant and damping factor are zero.
(c) moment of inertia and damping factor are zero.
(d) all of the above.
15. In a Duddell’s oscilloscope the phase displacements of fundamental and 13th harmonic are
calculated to be 3° and 36° respectively. The oscillograph will show the 13th harmonic to be
(a) 39° ahead of its true position.
(b) 38° ahead of its true position.
(c) 3° ahead of its true position.
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(d) 3° behind its true position.
16. A vibration galvanometer is to be tuned to a frequency of 50 Hz. The ratio of its control constant
to inertia constant should be
(a) 98696
(b) 2500
(c) 10.132 × 10–6
(d) none of the above.
17. A vibration galvanometer is tuned
(a) by changing the length and tension of vibrating coil.
(b) by attaching weight to the vibrating coil.
(c) by changing its damping constant.
(d) all of the above.
18. A Duddell’s oscillograph can be used for frequencies
(a) upto 50 Hz
(b) upto 500 Hz
(c) above 500 Hz
(d) upto 10 kHz.
19. In a fluxmeter
(a) the controlling torque is produced by weights attached to moving coil.
(b) the controlling torque is produced by springs.
(c) there is no controlling torque.
(d) none of the above.
20. In an unshunted flux meter, the sensitivity is dependent upon
(a) resistance of moving coil.
(b) resistance of search coil.
(c) resistance of both moving coil and search coil.
(d) none of the above.

Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters and Energy meters

21. The heater wire of thermocouple instruments is made very thin in order to have
(a) a high value of resistance.
(b) to reduce skin effects at high frequencies.
(c) to reduce the weight of the instrument.
(d) to decrease the over-ranging capacity of the instrument.
22. Electrostatic type instruments are primarily used as
(a) ammeters
(b) wattmeters
(c) voltmeters
(d) ohmmeters.
23. Creeping in a single-phase induction type energy meter may be due to :
(a) overcompensation for friction
(b) overvoltage
(c) vibrations
(d) all of the above.
24. A Merz Price maximum demand Indicator Indicates :
(a) maximum demand
(b) average maximum demand over a specified period of time
(c) maximum energy consumption
(d) all of the above.
25. The range of an electrostic voltmeter can be extended by using
(a) a capacitor in series with the voltmeter whose capacitance is greater than the capacitance
of the voltmeter.
(b) a capacitor in series with the voltmeter whose capacitance is smaller than the capacitance
of the voltmeter.
(c) a resistor in series with the voltmeter.
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(d) an inductor in series with the voltmeter.
26. The sensitivity of a PMMC instrument is 10 kΩ/V. If this instrument is used in a rectifier type
voltmeter with half-wave rectification, what would be the sensitivity ?
(a) 10 kΩ/V
(b) 9 kΩ/V
(c) 4.5 kΩ/V
(d) 22.2 kΩ/V.
27. The high torque to weight ratio in an analog indicating instrument indicates
(a) high friction loss
(b) low friction loss
(c) nothing as regards friction loss
(d) none of the above.
28. A PMMC instrument produces a deflection of 90° when a current 2 mA passes through its
moving coil. The instrument is spring controlled. Supposing the instrument is redesigned
with its spring constant as before, and its permanent magnet is replaced with a new
permanent magnet which produces twice the flux density as before, what would be the
deflection if a current of 1 mA is passed through the coil ? The other features of the PMMC
instrument remain the same.
(a) 180°
(b) 90°
(c) 45°
(d) 135°.
29. A PMMC meter rated at 50 μA is used in a rectifier type of instrument which uses full wave
rectification. What is the sensitivity on sinusoidal A.C. ?
(a) 20 kΩ/V
(b) 9 kΩ/V
(c) 22.2 kΩ/V
(d) 18 kΩ/V.
30. A reverse biased diode in addition to a forward biased diode is used in rectifier type voltmeters
using half-wave rectification. The use of the reverse biased diode is :
(a) it does not allow any current to flow through the meter during negative half cycle
(b) it short circuits the meter during the negative half cycle
(c) it does not allow the reverse leakage current to flow through the meter during the
negative half cycle
(d) all of the above.
31. VAh metering can be done by using
(a) a ball and disc friction gearing.
(b) Trivector meter.
(c) Bridge connected rectifiers.
(d) all of the above.
32. Light load adjustments for induction type energy meters are usually done at
(a) 10% of full load current.
(b) 5% of full load current.
(c) 50% of full load current.
(d) 1% of full load current.
33. In order to reduce errors on account of temperature, instruments are provided with shunts and
series connected swamping resistance. In order that errors on account of temperature changes
be low, the swamping resistance
(a) should be made of a material having a high resistance temperature co-efficient.
(b) should be made of a material having a low resistance temperature co-efficient with the
value of swamping resistance equal to meter resistance.
(c) should be made of a material having low resistance temperature co-efficient and should
have a value of about 20 to 30 times that of meter resistance. (d) should have an
infinite value.
34. A 4-range milliammeter having ranges of 0—10 mA, 0—50 mA, 0—100 mA and 0—500 mA
is used for measurement of current whose magnitude is not known. In order to prevent
damage to the instrument, the selector switch of the ammeter should be first placed at
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(a) 0—50 mA range
(b) 0—100 mA range
(c) 0—10 mA range
(d) 0—500 mA range.
35. The braking torque provided by a permanent magnet in a single-phase energy meter is
proportional to the
(a) square of the flux of the permanent magnet.
(b) speed of the meter.
(c) distance of the permanent magnet from the centre of the revolving disc.
(d) all of the above.
36. The braking torque provided by a permanent magnet in a single-phase energy meter can be
changed by
(a) providing a magnetic shunt and changing its position.
(b) changing the distance of the permanent magnet from the centre of the revolving disc.
(c) both (a) and (b).
(d) none of the above.
37. Which meter has the highest accuracy in the prescribed limit of frequency range :
(a) PMMC
(b) Moving iron
(c) Electrodynamometer
(d) Rectifier.
38. Which instrument is the cheapest disregarding the accuracy ?
(a) PMMC
(b) Moving Iron
(c) Electrodynamometer
(d) Rectifier.
39. Which instrument has the highest frequency range with accuracy within reasonable limits ?
(a) Moving Iron
(b) Electrodynamometer
(c) Thermocouple
(d) Rectifier.
40. In the single-phase induction meter, in order to obtain true value of energy, the shunt magnet
flux should lag behind the applied voltage by
(a) 90°
(b) 0°
(c) 45°
(d) none of the above.
41. In an induction type of meter, maximum torque is produced when the phase angle, between the
two fluxes is
(a) 0°
(b) 45°
(c) 60°
(d) 90°.
42. In an induction type meter, maximum torque is obtained when the parameters of rotating disc
are :
(a) R = 0
(b) X = 0
(c) R = X
(d) none of the above.
where R and X are respectively the resistance and reactance of eddy current paths in the disc.
43. A 1 mA ammeter has a resistance of 100 Ω. It is to be converted to a 1 A ammeter. The value of
shunt resistance is :
(a) 0.001 Ω
(b) 0.1001 Ω
(c) 100000 Ω
(d) 100 Ω.
44. Swamping resistance is connected
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(a) in series with the shunt to reduce temperature error in shunted ammeters.
(b) in series with the ammeters to reduce errors on account of friction.
(c) in series with meter and have a high resistance temperature co-efficient in order to reduce
temperature errors in ammeters.
(d) in series with the meter and have a negligible resistance co-efficient in order to reduce
temprature errors in shunted ammeters.
45. A quadrant type electrostatic instrument uses two types of connections (i) Heterostatic and (ii)
Idiostatic. An external battery is used
(a) for Idiostatic connection
(b) for Heterostatic connection
(c) for both Idiostatic and Heterostatic connections
(d) none of the above.
46. The size of electrostatic voltmeters is large as compared with that of corresponding
electromagnetic voltmeters because
(a) they are used for measurement of high voltages.
(b) energy density in an electostatic field is consideraly smaller than that in an
electromagnetic field.
(c) their frequency range is smaller.
(d) they have a high dielectric loss.
47. In a single-phase induction type energy meter, the lag adjustment is done
(a) to make the current coil flux to lag 90° behind the applied voltage.
(b) to make the pressure coil flux to lag 90° behind the applied voltage.
(c) to bring the pressure coil flux in phase with the applied voltage.
(d) none of the above.
48. In a circuit of a single-phase induction energy meter, the pressure coil lags the voltage by 88°,
the errors while measuring power in two circuits having power factors of unity and 0.5
lagging are respectively are :
(a) – 0.061%, + 6.1%
(b) + 0.061%, – 6.1%
(c) – 0.061%, – 6.1%
(d) – 6.1%, – 6.1%.
49. Horizontally mounted moving iron instruments use
(a) eddy current damping
(b) electromagnetic damping
(c) fluid friction damping
(d) air friction damping.
50. The reason why eddy current damping cannot be used in moving iron instruments is :
(a) they have a strong operating magnetic field.
(b) they are not normally used in vertical position.
(c) they need a large damping force which can only be provided by air friction.
(d) they have a very weak operating magnetic field and introduction of a permanent magnet
required for eddy current damping would distort the operating magnetic field.
51. Phantom loading for testing of energy meters is used
(a) to isolate the current and potential circuits.
(b) to reduce power loss during testing.
(c) for meters having low current ratings.
(d) to test meters having a large current rating for which loads may not be available in the
laboratory. This also reduces power losses during testing.
52. In an induction type energy meter, compensation for static friction is provided by
(a) shading bands which are actuated to provide a constant torque irrespective of load.
(b) lag circuits.
(c) drilling holes in the disc.
(d) none of the above.
53. An hypothetical electrostatic voltmeter with spring control is designed with one fixed and
another movable plate. Both plates are in the form of a circle with one plate over the other so
as to produce a rotatry motion. If a voltage is applied between them, no rotatory motion is
produced because
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(a) there is no change in the voltage.
(b) there is no change in the capacitance irrespective of the relative position of the two
plates.
(c) the spring force is very large.
(d) the applied voltage is small to produce any noticeable deflection.
54. An electrostatic voltmeter draws a small value of current on d.c.
(a) under steady state condition respective of the applied voltage.
(b) when switched on irrespective of the applied voltage.
(c) when measuring low voltages.
(d) when measuring high voltages.
55. In a household single-phase single phase induction type wattmeter, the meter can be reversed by
(a) reversing the supply terminals.
(b) reversing the load terminals.
(c) opening the meter connections and reversing either the potential coil terminals or current
coil terminals.
(d) opening the meter and reversing connections of both current and potential coil circuits.
56. If an induction type energy meter runs fast, it can be slowed down by
(a) lag adjustment.
(b) light load adjustment.
(c) by adjusting the position of braking magnet and making it come closer to the centre of
the disc.
(d) by adjusting the position of braking magnet and making it move away from the centre of
the disc.
57. The PMMC meters used in rectifier type voltmeters are provided with shunts even at the
expense of lowering sensitivity. Why ?
(a) The shunting of the meter causes the circuit current to be high thereby making the
rectifier work in the linear portion of its v – i characteristics.
(b) The shunt prevents the meter against sudden overloads.
(c) The provision of shunt increases the sensitivity of the circuit.
(d) All of the above.
58. Why are multimeters provided with separate scale for low a.c. voltages ?
(a) To improve the readability of the scale.
(b) To have high accuracy.
(c) To take into account the high value of resistance of rectifier at low voltages (and
currents) and also the fact that at low voltages (and currents) the value of rectifier
resistance is not constant but varies considerably even for small changes in voltages (or
current).
(d) None of the above.
59. A voltmeter has a resistance of 2000 Ω. When it is connected across a d.c. circuit its power
consumption is 2 mW. Suppose this voltmeter is replaced by a voltmeter of 4000 Ω
resistance, the power consumption will be :
(a) 4 mW
(b) 1 mW
(c) 2 mW
(d) none of the above.
The circuit conditions remain undisturbed.
60. A milliammeter of resistance 100 Ω is connected in series with a circuit. Its power consumption
is 0.1 mW. Supposing it is replaced with a milliammeter of 200 Ω resistance the power
consumption will be
(a) 0.2 mW
(b) 0.05 mW
(c) 0.1 mW
(d) none of the above.
61. A 1 mA d’Arsonval movement has a resistance of 100 Ω. It is to be converted to a 10 V
voltmeter. The value of multiplier resistance is
(a) 999 Ω
(b) 9999 Ω
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(c) 9900 Ω
(d) 990 Ω.
62. A d’Arsonval movement is rated at 50 μA. Its sensitivity is
(a) 20000 Ω/V
(b) 200000 Ω/V
(c) 200 Ω/V
(d) cannot be determined.
63. An Astatic movement in an electrodynamometer type of instrument is used for
(a) eliminating errors on account of external magnetic fields.
(b) increasing the operating torque of the instruments.
(c) providing eddy current damping.
(d) none of the above.
64. In order that an electrodynamometer type of instrument exhibits a pure square law response, the
meter range should be limited to
(a) –45° to + 45° about the position for zero mutual inductance between fixed and moving
coils.
(b) –45° to + 45° about the position for maximum mutual inductance between fixed and
moving coils.
(c) –22.5° to 22.5° about the position for zero inductance between fixed and moving coils.
(d) –90° to 90° about the position for maximum mutual inductance between fixed and
moving coils.
65. A d’Arsonval movement has a sensitivity of 40,000 Ω/V and its lateral resistance is 4000 Ω.
The resistance of multiplier to convert it to 1 V voltmeter is :
(a) 44000 Ω
(b) 36000 Ω
(c) 3600 Ω
(d) none of the above.
66. A PMMC instrument is spring controlled. The control spring stiffness decreases by about 0.04
percent per °C rise in temperature and the strength of magnets goes down by 0.02 percent per
°C rise in temperature. The rise in temperature is 10°C. The deflection
(a) decreases by about 0.2 percent
(b) decreases by about 0.4 percent
(c) increases by about 0.4 percent
(d) increases by about 0.2 percent.
67. Moving iron type of instrument can be used as
(a) standard instruments for calibration of other instruments.
(b) transfer type instruments.
(c) indicator type instruments as on panels.
(d) all of the above.
68. Moving iron instruments when measuring voltages or currents
(a) indicate the same values of the measurement for both ascending and descending values.
(b) indicate higher value of measurand for ascending values.
(c) indicate higher value of measurand for descending values.
(d) none of the above.
69. An electrodynamometer type of instruments finds its major use as
(a) standard instrument only.
(b) transfer instrument only.
(c) both as standard and transfer instrument.
(d) an indicator type of instrument.
70. The operating magnetic field in an electrodynamometer type of instrument has a flux density
typically about
(a) 1 Wb/m2
(b) 0.5 Wb/m2
(c) 0.05 Wb/m2
(d) 0.005 Wb/m2.
71. The power consumption of PMMC instruments is typically about
(a) 0.25 W to 2 W
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(b) 0.25 mW to 2 mW
(c) 25 μW to 200 μW
(d) none of the above.
72. In a series type ohmmeter
(a) 0 marking is on the left hand side of scale while ∞ marking is on the right hand side.
(b) 0 marking is on the right hand side of scale and ∞ infinity marking on the left hand side.
(c) any of the above two markings can be on left or right side of the scale.
(d) 0 marking is in the middle of scale.
73. The frequency range of moving iron instruments is
(a) audio frequency band 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
(b) very low frequency band 10 Hz to 30 kHz.
(c) low frequency band 30 Hz to 300 kHz.
(d) power frequencies 0 to 125 Hz.
74. Spring controlled moving iron instruments exhibit a square law response resulting in a non-
linear scale. The shape of the scale can be made almost linear by
(a) keeping rate of change of inductance, L, with deflection, θ, as constant.

75. A megger is used for measurement of

(a) low valued resistances.
(b) medium valued resistances.
(c) high valued resistances, particularly insulation resistance.
(d) all of the above.
76. The controlling torque in a megger is provided by
(a) springs
(b) weights attached to the moving system
(c) it does not need any controlling torque
(d) none of the above.
77. A voltage of 200 V at 5 Hz is applied to an electrodynamometer type of instrument which is
spring controlled. The indication on the instruments is
(a) 200 V
(b) 0 V
(c) the instrument follows the variations in voltage and does not give a steady response
(d) upto 1 MHz.
78. Thermocouple instruments can be used for a frequency range
(a) upto 100 Hz
(b) upto 5000 Hz
(c) upto 1 MHz
(d) 50 MHz and above.
79. A series type ohmmeter is designed with a d’Arsonval movement having full scale current of
0.5 mA and an internal resistance. It uses a battery of 3V and has a half scale resistance of
3000 Ω. The battery voltage goes down to 2.7 V. What is the value of shunt resistance
required so that full scale current is obtained if the meter terminals are short circuited.
(a) 62.5 Ω
(b) 2700 Ω
(c) 55 Ω
(d) 130 Ω.
80. A make break switch is provided to disconnect the battery when the meter is not in use in
(a) both series and shunt type ohmmeters.
(b) only in series type ohmmeters.
(c) only in shunt type ohmmeters.
(d) none of the above.
81. A moving iron instrument can be used for current and voltage measurements
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(a) in a.c. circuits only
(b) in d.c. circuits only
(c) in both a.c. and d.c. circuits for any value of frequency (in case of a.c. circuits)
(d) in both a.c. and d.c. circuits for frequencies upto about 125 Hz (in case of a.c. circuits).
82. In spring controlled moving iron instruments, the scale is
(a) uniform
(b) cramped at the lower end and expanded at the upper end
(c) expanded at the lower end and cramped at the upper end
(d) cramped both at the lower and the upper ends.
83. The moving iron voltmeters indicate
(a) the same value for d.c. and a.c. voltages.
(b) lower values for a.c. voltages than for corresponding d.c. voltages.
(c) higher values for a.c. voltages than for corresponding d.c. voltages.
(d) none of the above.
84. A moving iron voltmeter reads low for a.c. voltages than for corresponding values of d.c.
voltages. The meter can be made to read equally for both a.c. and d.c. voltages
(a) if the resistance of the multiplier is made very high.
(b) if the inductance of the coil is made small.
(c) if the resistance of the coil is made very large.
(d) if the multiplier resistance is shunted by a capacitor of appropriate value to make the
circuit non-inductive.
85. The power in a 3-phase 4-wire circuit can be measured by using
(a) 2 wattmeters
(b) 4 wattmeters
(c) 3 wattmeters
(d) 1 wattmeters.
86. The power in a 3-phase circuit is measured with the help of 2 wattmeters. The readings of one of
wattmeters is positive and that of the other is negative. The magnitude of readings is
different. It can be concluded that the power factor of the circuit is
(a) unity
(b) zero (lagging)
(c) 0.5 (lagging)
(d) less than 0.5 (lagging)
87. A capacitor is connected across a portion of resistance of the multiplier in order to make the
pressure coil circuit non-inductive. The value of this resistance is r while the total resistance
and inductance of pressure circuit are respectively Rp and L. The value of capacitance C is :

88. When measuring power with an electrodynamometer wattmeter in a circuit where the load
currents is small
(a) the current coil should be connected on the load side
(b) the pressure coil should be connected on the load side
(c) it is immaterial whether current coil or pressure coil is connected on the load side.
89. The power in a d.c. circuit is measured with the help of an ammeter and a voltmeter. The
voltmeter is connected on the load side. The power indicated by the product of readings of
two instruments (VI) is :
(a) the power consumed in the load.
(b) the sum of power consumed by load and the voltmeter.
(c) the sum of power consumed by load and the ammeter.
(d) none of the above.
90. When measuring power with an electrodynamometer wattmeter in a circuit where the load
current is large
(a) the current coil should be connected on the load side.
(b) the pressure coil should be connected on the load side.
(c) the pressure coil should be connected on the supply side.
(d) it is immaterial whether the pressure coil or the current coil is on the load side.
91. When measuring power with an electrodynamometer wattmeter in a circuit having a low power
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factor
(a) the current coil should be connected on the load side.
(b) the current coil should be connected on the supply side.
(c) the pressure coil should be connected on the load side.
(d) a compensated wattmeter with pressure coil connected on the load side should be used.
92. In electrodynamometer type wattmeters, current coils designated for carring heavy currents use
standard wire or laminated conductors
(a) to reduce iron loses.
(b) to reduce hysteresis losses.
(c) to reduce eddy current losses in conductors.
(d) all of the above.
93. In electrodynamometer type of wattmeters, the inductance of presure coil circuit produces error
(a) which is constant irrespective of the power factor of the load.
(b) which is higher at low power factors.
(c) which is lower at low power factors.
(d) none of the above.
94. In an electrodynamometer type of wattmeters
(a) the current coil is made fixed.
(b) the pressre coil is made fixed.
(c) any of the two coils i.e. current coil or pressure coil can be made fixed.
(d) both the coils should be movable.

THEORETICAL QUESTIONS

Galvanometers
1. What is the purpose of an instrument ?
2. How are instruments classified ?
3. Give the comparison between mechanical and electrical/electronic instruments.
4. What factors should be taken into considerations while selecting the instruments ?
5. Explain briefly the functions of instruments.
6. Give the comparison between analog and digital instruments.
7. How are electrical instruments classified ?
8. Discuss briefly essential features of indicating instruments.
9. Explain briefly the following damping methods :
(i) Air damping; (ii) Eddy current damping;
(iii) Fluid friction damping;
10. What is a galvanometer ?
11. List the various types of galvanometers.
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12. Describe the constuctional details and principle of operation of a D’Arsonval galvanometer.
Derive the expression for steady state deflection.
13. How are the constants of a D’Arsonval galvanometer determined ? Why the knowledge of these
constants is necessary ?
14. Explain with the help of a neat sketch the construction, and give the theory of operation of a
D’Arsonval galvanometer.
15. Name the four intrinsic constants of a galvanometer.
16. Explain briefly the effect of galvanometer resistance on damping.
17. Discuss briefly the following sensitivities of galvanometer :
(i) Current sensitivity;
(ii) Voltage sensitivity;
(iii) Megohm sensitivity.
18. Explain briefly the following three general types of galvanometers :
(i) Portable point type.
(ii) Laboratory reflecting type.
(iii) Box type.
19. Explain the function of Ayrton Universal shunt used for D’Arsonval galvanometers. Prove that
the current through the galvanometer does not depend upon the resistance of the
galvanometer in case an Ayrton shunt is used.
20. Define the terms “current sensitivity”, “voltage sensitivity” and “megohm sensitivity” as applied
to D’Arsonval galvanometers. Explain how current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be
increased.
21. Dscribe the construction and working of a ballistic galvanometer. Explain the different in
constructional details of a ballistic galvanometer and a D’Asonval galvanometer.
22. Prove that is a ballistic galvanometer, the charge is proportional to first swing of the moving
coil.
23. Describe the different methods used for calibration of a ballistic galvanometer.
24. Describe the construction and working of an unshunted fluxmeter. Prove that the flux is
proportional to the deflection of the fluxmeter.
25. Describe the function of a shunted fluxmeter. Prove that the deflection of a shunted fluxmeter is
independent of the resistance of its coil.
26. Explain the construction and working of a vibration galvanometer. Explain the term ‘tuning’
and describe low a vibration galvanometer is tuned.
27. Derive the expression for steady state deflection of a vibration galvanometer when a sinusoidal
voltage is applied to its coil.
28. Give the comparison of ballistic galvanometer with vibration galvanometer.
29. Explain the construction and working of Duddell’s oscillograph. List is applications.

Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters

30. Explain the working principle of a moving iron indicating instrument. Show that this type of
instrument can be used both of d.c. and a.c. measurements. Indicate also the errors involed.
31. Describe the constructional details and working of a moving iron attraction type meter. Derive
its torque equation.
32. Derive the expression for torque equation for a moving iron instrument and comment upon the
nature of scale.
33. With the help of neat diagrams explain the working principle of a repulsion type moving iron
instrument.
34. Explain the construction and operating principle of moving iron instruments. List the errors and
methods of compensation.
35. What is essential difference between a moving coil and a moving iron instrument ?
36. Explain the construction of a PMMC meter with the help of a neat sketch. How are different
forces produced ? Derive the torque equation. Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of
PMMC metres.
37. Describe the construction and working of a PMMC type of instrument. Derive the expression
for deflection for a PMMC ammeter if it is (i) spring controlled (ii) gavity controlled.
Comment upon the shape of scale in both cases.
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38. Describe the principle of operation, construction, main features and applications of a moving
coil instrument.
39. Give a sketch showing the construction of a moving coil voltmeter. Derive an expression for the
torque of moving coil instruments.
40. State the causes of change of accuracy in moving coil instruments with change of temperature.
Explain how compensation is made in ammeters for change of electrical resistance of the
moving coil with change of temperature.
41. Explain with the help of a neat sketch the construction of an electrodynamic type moving coil
ammeter. Give the equation for torque of the ammeter and the principal advantages and
disadvantages of these instruments. State the causes of change of accuracy with change of
temperature and frequency.
42. Describe in details the construction and principle of operation of a transfer instrument generally
used in the laboratory for measurement of current.
43. How are thermal instruments classified ? Explain their principles of operation. Explain the
operation of a hot wire ammeter with neat diagrams.
44. Draw an illustrative diagram and explain the working of a hot wire instrument. Why is it not
normally used as a standard meter ?
45. Describe briefly the constructional features of a thermocouple instrument and the principle of
operation. Point out the advantages and disadvantages of this type over the other types.
46. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the principle of operation of a rectifier type voltmeter
employing a bridge rectifier.
47. Explain with the help of a neat diagram the principle of operation of a rectifier ammeter. Also
briefly discuss the factors which influence the performance of a rectifier ammeter. Specify
the suitable current and frequency range of a rectifier ammeter.
48. Describe the construction and working principle of the electrostatic voltmeters.
49. Give the theory of quadrant electrometer. Explain how the instrument can be used for
measurement of voltage.
50. Describe the construction of a quadrant type of electrostatic voltmeter. Derive the expression for
deflection when idiostatic type of connections are used. The meter is spring controlled.
51. Derive an expression for the force of attraction between the plates in a parallel plate electrostatic
voltmeter.

Wattmeters
52. Draw the possible methods of connecting the pressure coil of a wattmeter and compare the
errors. Explain the meaning of “compensation winding” in a wattmeter and show how it
helps to reduce the error.
53. Discuss the erors introduced in the dynamometer type wattmeter due to the resitance of current
and potential coils. How is the error due to resistance of presure coil compensated for by
using a compensating coil ?
54. Discuss the various types of errors and their methods of compensation in the dynamometer type
wattmeters.
55. Describe the three-ammeter method for measurement of power and power factor in a single
phase circuit. Derive the expressions for power and power factor.
56. With neat connection and vector diagrams explain how power can be measured with three
ammeters in a single-phase a.c. circuit.
57. Give connection and vector diagrams for the 3-voltmeter method of power measurement.
58. Show with the help of neat diagram how would you extend range of a wattmeter using C.T. and
P.T.
59. Draw the circuit diagram of a measurement set-up using a curent transformer, a potential
transformer and a wattmeter.
60. Explain how you measure the total power in a 3-phase circuit with the help of twowattmetes
only.
61. Draw the necessary circuit diagram for measurement of three phase power by two wattmeter
method. Make necessary derivations. In case of balanced load, discuss the effects of the
following load power factors on the two wattmeter readings : Zero, 0.5 and unity.
62. Deduce an expression for the power factor of a balanced three phase load with the help of two
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wattmeter readings. What will be the power factors :
(i) When the readings of the two ammeters are equal.
(ii) When the reading of one of the wattmeter is zero.
(iii) When the readings of two wattmeters are equal and opposite.
63. Show that in two-wattmeter method of 3-phase power measurement the sum of the readings of
the two wattmeters gives the total power consumed in a 3-phase circuit.

where Φ is the phase angle of the load and W1 and W2 are the readings of the wattmeters.
64. What is Blondel’s theorem ? Explain with vector diagram how the total power and power factor
of a balanced 3-phase 3-wire circuit, can be measured by means of two wattmetes, proving
the formula employed.
65. With the help of circuit and phasor diagrams and using usual notations show that the total
power in a 3-pase, 3-wire, star-connected balanced load can be measured with the help of
only one wattmeter.
66. Show that the power in a 3-phase system is measured by the use of (i) only one wattmeter and
(ii) two wattmeters. Indicate how the power factor is determined. Comment on the accuracy
of the measuremens when the load is unbalanced and the supply is a four-wire system.
67. Explain the construction and principle of operation of a dynamometer type wattmeter. How it
can be made to read d.c. as well as a.c. ?
68. Explain the construction and working of an electro-dynamometer type of wattmeter.
69. Describe the constructional details and working of a single phase electro-dynamometer type of
wattmeter. Derive the expression for deflection for a.c. operation if the instrument is spring
controlled.
70. What is special feature of a wattmeter suitable for working on low power factor circuits?
Explain.
71. Describe the working principle and construction of an induction type wattmeter. How does this
instrument compare with the dynamometer type ?
72. What are the errors in induction type wattmeter, and how are they compensated ?
73. Describe the construction of an induction wattmeter with the help of a neat diagram. What is the
function of copper shading band ? Explain how torque is produced in an induction type
wattmeter. Prove that the torque is proportional to the power in the circuit.
74. Explain the theory of electrostatic wattmeter and discuss its merits over other wattmeters.
75. Draw a circuit diagram of thermal wattmeter and explain its principle of operation.
76. Explain with neat diagram as to how wattmeters are tested.
77. Describe, with connection diagram, the method of calibrating a dynamometer type wattmeter by
means of an electrostatic meter.

Energy meters and Measurement of energy

78. Give the essential components of motor meters. Describe the errors common to all meters.
79. Describe, with a neat sketch, the construction and working of a mercury motor meter. How it
can be used as a watt-hour meter ?
80. Describe with a neat sketch the construction and working of Elihu Thomson commutator meter.
How is braking torque provided in this instrument ? Give its merits also.
81. Describe with the help of diagrams the construction and working of a domestic single phase
energy meter.
82. Describe with neat sketch the working of single-phase energy meter. Discuss the friction
compensation and creep prevention in an energy meter.
83. Explain working principle of a single-phase induction type energy meter with the help of
connection diagam. Give the various sources of errors and their compensation.
84. Describe the construction and working of a single-phase induction type energy meter. Show that
the total number of revolutions made by its disc during a particular time is proportional to the
energy consumed.
85. Draw a sketch showing the essential features of construction of a single-phase energy meter.
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Give the theory of operation of the instrument explaining clearly the function of the
quadrature loops of the shunt magnet. Describe the mechanism of friction compensation.
86. Describe the expresion for torque for a single-phase induction type of energy meter. Explain
that this meter can measure the true energy consumed only if the phase angle between the
applied voltage and the pressure coil flux is 90°. Describe a method for making this
adjustment.
87. Draw the connection diagram of a 3-phase energy meter and explain its working. How do you
correct it, if it is found to be moving fast?
88. Draw the circuit diagram for the measurement of the energy in a 3-phase, 3-wire system using a
2-element energy meter. Is the above arrangement suitable for the measurement of energy in
a 3-phase, 4-wire system. Explain.
89. What are the errors in energy meter and how they are compensaed in multi-element induction
type energy meter ? How these energy meter errors will compare with that of watt-meter ?
90. Classify different types of integrating electricity meters. What type of meter is used for
measuring reactive kVAh ? How does it differ from a meter used for measuring kWh on the
same circuit ?
91. Explain the advantages of using “phantom load” in meter testing. Describe with the aid of
diagram how a single-phase energy meter is tested and calibrated with the help of rotating
sub-standard watt-hour meter.
92. Explain briefly how would you carry out single phase meter testing in the laboratory.
93. How will you test the single-phase energy meter ? Explain the procedure of adjustments of
different compensation systems.
94. Explain, with the help of a neat diagram the principle and working of a thermal type maximum
demand indicator.
95. Explain the working of Merz Price demand indicator.
96. Explain how the following adjustments are made in a single-phase induction type energy meter :
(i) Lag adjustment
(ii) Adjustment for friction compensation
(iii) Creep
(iv) Overload compensation
(v) Temperature compensation.
97. Explain the sources of errors in single-phase induction type energy meters.
98. Describe the construction and working of a two element induction energy meter.
99. Explain the different types of tariffs used. Explain the underlying principle for using different
types of tariffs for different types of consumers.
100. Describe the construction and working of a Merz Price maximum demand indicator.
101. Explain the different types of methods used for VAh metering.
102. What is a Trivector meter ?
103. What is Phantom loading ? Explain with an example how is it more advantageous than testing
with direct loading.
104. Describe a circuit for testing of a single-phase induction type energy meter at different loads
and power factors.
105. Enumerate the different types of tests that are carried out on single-phase Induction type watt-
hour meters. Describe the Long period dial test.
106. Describe the crossed phase method for measurement of VARh in 3-phase 3-wire circuits.

Miscellaneous Instruments
107. Explain the principle of operation of the moving iron power factor meter.
108. How the power factor of a single phase circuit is measured ? Describe one type of meter for
this purpose.
109. Explain with a neat sketch the construction and principle of a dynamometer type single phase
power factor meter. How would the accuracy of such an instrument be affected by frequency
and waveform variation ?
110. Discuss the construction, principle and theory of one type of frequency meter.
111. What methods can be used for the measurement of frequency ? Explain any one frequency
meter with its advantages and disadvantages.
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112. Explain the working of a frequency meter, which depends for its action on the phenomenon
of electrical resonance.
113. Describe the working of a frequency meter, which depends on mechanical resonance for its
action.
114. Describe the construction and give the theory of operation of one type of frequency meter.
Explain clearly whether the instrument performance will be affected or not by normal
changes in the supply voltage.
115. Draw a neat single sketch of a Weston synchroscope and explain its working.
116. Explain clearly and briefly the construction and working of a synchroscope.
117. Draw synchroscope internal circuit diagram and explain the working and uses. In a
synchroscope it is observed that the pointer is revolving once in every second. What is
frequency of the incoming machine ?
118. What are the uses of synchroscope ?
119. Describe the construction and working of rotating and static type phase sequence indicators.

UNSOLVED EXAMPLES

Galvanometers
1. The scale of a galvanometer is placed at a distance of 600 mm. A deflection of 42 mm is
observed. What is the angle through which the coil has turned ?
[Ans. 2°]
2. Determine the displacement constant of a suspended coil in a galvanometer of moving coil
vibrating type having 28 turns, 4 mm × 2 mm mean area and situated in a magnetic field of
0.8 tesla.
[Ans. 179.2 × 10–6 Nm/A]
3. Fig. 3.10 shows a galvanometer system in which a wire of 0.1 mm in diameter is used as a torsion
member. The wire is made of phosphor bronze for which modulus of rigidity is 40 GN/m2.
The polar moment of inertia for a round wire is , where d is the diameter of the wire. A
collimated ray of light is reflected by the galvanometer mirror shown. The radius from the
mirror to the scale is 200 mm. Calculate : (i) Torsional constant; (ii) Maximum allowable
torque if the shear stress is limited to 100 MN/m2; (iii) Sensntivity of the instrument in
m/Nm; (iv) Maximum possible scale deflection.
[Ans. (i) 52.6 × 10– 6 Nm/rad; (ii) 39.3 × 10–6 Nm; (iii) 7600 m/Nm; (iv) 298.7 mm]
4. The coil of a moving coil galvanometer is wound on a non-magnetic former whose height and
width are both 20 mm. It moves in a constan field of 0.12 Wb/m2. The moment of inertia of
its moving parts is 0.25 × 10–6 kg-m2, and the control spring constant is 30 × 10–6 Nm/rad.
Calculate : (i) The number of turns that must be wound on the coil to produce a deflection of
150° with a current of 10 mA, and (ii) The resistance of the coil to produce critical damping,
all damping being assumed as electromagnetic.
[Ans. (i) 164; (ii) 11.28 Ω]
5. In a moving coil galvanometer with free time period of 3 seconds, a current of 2.5 μA gives a
deflection of 300 mm on a scale at a distance of 1.5 m. The moving system has a moment of
inertia of 4 × 10– 6 kg-m2. Determine the total resistance in the galvanometer circuit for
critical damping.
[Ans. 29,400 Ω]
6. A moving coil galvanometer deflects 200 mm on a scale at a distance of 1 m from the mirror
when a current of 2 μA is passed through it. The free time period of the galvanometer is 4
seconds. The galvanoeter is dead beat when the total resistance in galvanometer circuit is
20,000 Ω. Determine the moment of inertia of the galvanometer moving system.
[Ans. 4.13 × 10–6 kg-m2]
7. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer which has a former of a nonconducting
material : The current sensitivity of the instrument = 0.001 μA/mm at 1 m; The period of
undamped oscillation = 6 seconds; The displacement constant of the instrument = 5 × 10–3
Nm/A. Calculate : (i) Control constant; (ii) Inertia constant; (iii) Total circuit resistance for
instrument to be dead beat.
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[Ans. (i) 10 × 10–9 Nm/rad; (ii) 9.12 × 10–9 kg-m2; (iii) 1309 Ω]
8. A d’Arsonval galvanometer has a rectangular coil wound on an aluminium former of resistivity
27 × 10–9 Ωm. The sides of the former, each of effective length 30 mm, move in a radial
field of uniform flux density 0.15 Wb/m2 against a control torque of 18 × 10–6 Nm/rad. The
width of the former is 20 mm, the ends being effectively outside the magnetic field, and the
moment of inertia of the moving system is 80 × 10–9 kg-m2. Determine the cross-sectional
area of the aluminium former if it is to provide critical damping, other sources of damping
being neglected.
[Ans. 0.8 mm2]
9. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer : Number of turns of the coil = 250; Flux
density in the uniform magnetic field = 0.05 Wb/m2; Torsion constant = 1.5 × 10–7 Nm per
radian; Dimensions of the coil = 15 mm (width) × 20 mm (height); Moment of inertia = 1.5 ×
10–7 kg-m2; Galvanometer resistance = 200 Ω; Total damping = 4 × 10–8
Nm/radian/second. Determine :
(i) The deflection of galvanometer in radian and in mm when a current of 2.5 μA is flowing
through the galvanometer, the scale is at a distance of 1.5 m from the mirror.
(ii) The curent sensitivity.
(iii) The voltage sensitivity.
(iv) The megohm sensitivity.
(v) Frequency of oscillations.
(vi) Relative damping.
(vii) Logarithmic decrement.
[Ans. (i) 0.0625 radian; 187.5 mm; (ii) 75 mm/μA; (iii) 0.375 mm/μV; (iv) 75 MΩ/mm; (v) 0.158 Hz;
(vi) 0.189; (vii) 0.6]
10. The following data relate to a moving coil galvanometer : Number of turns of the coil = 300;
Flux density in the magneic field = 0.1 Wb/m2; Control constant = 0.2 × 0–6 Nm/rad;
Dimensions of the coil = 20 mm (wide) × 25 mm (high); Moment of inertia = 0.15 × 10–6
kg-m2; Galvanometer resistance = 300 Ω; Resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer = 1000 Ω. Determine :
(i) The resistance to be connected to galvanometer for critical damping.
(ii) Relative damping.
(iii) Logarithmic decrement.
(iv) Frequency of free oscillations.
(v) First maximum deflection.
(vi) Period of undamped and damped oscillations.
[Ans. (i) 350 Ω; (ii) 0.5; (iii) 1.814; (iv) 0.184 Hz; (v) 1.163 θf ; (vi) 5.44s ; 6.3 s]
11. The Ayston universal shunt has a total resistance of 6,000 Ω and galvanometer has a resistance
of 2000 Ω. Determine the multiplying power of shunt for 1000 Ω, 2000 Ω and 3000 Ω
tapping.
[Ans. 8, 4, 2.667]
12. A ballistic galvanometer has a resistance of 150 Ω and an undamped period of 7.5 seconds. A
steady e.m.f. of 3.5 mV produces a deflection of 210 mm. Determine the quantitiy of
electricity discharged from a capacitor if the deflection produced is 750 mm. The relative
damping is 0.8.
[Ans. 307.5 μC]
13. A solenoid 1m long and wound with 800 turns has a search coil of 50 turns and crosssectional
area 300 mm2 at its centre. Reversing a current of 4A in the solenoid causes a deflection of 5
divisions in a ballistic galvanometer connected to the search coil. Calculate : (i) The
galvanometer constant in flux linkages per division; (ii) The flux linkage sensitivity.
[Ans. (i) 24.1 × 10– 6 weber turns per divisions ; (ii) 41.5 _ 10–3 divisions per weber turn]
14. The discharge of a capacitor through a ballistic galvanometer produces a damped frequency of
0.125 Hz and successive swings of 120, 96 and 76.8 mm. Calculate : (i) The damping ratio;
(ii) The logarithmic decrement; (iii) The period of undamped and damped oscillations.
[Ans. (i) 0.0708; (ii) 0.223; (iii) 7.98s; 8s]
15. A moving coil ballistic galvanometer of 150 Ω resistance gives a throw of 75 dicisions when the
flux through a search coil to which it is connected is reversed. Find the flux density in which
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the reversal of the coil takes place, given that the galvanometer constant = 110 μC/division,
and the search coil has 1400 turns, a mean area of 5000 mm2 and a resistance of 20 Ω.
Calculate also the ballistic and flux linkages sensitivities of the galvanometer.
[Ans. 0.1 Wb/m2; 9100 div./C; 60.67 weber turns/div.]
16. A galvanometer with an undamped period of 9 seconds and a current sensitivity of 1 μA/div. is
connected to a search coil in a circuit of 4000 Ω resistance. Determine the flux linkage
change in the search coil to produce a first swing of 100 divisions if the logarithmic
decrement is 0.2.
[Ans. 632 × 10–3 weber turn]
17. A ballistic galvanometer gives a first maximum deflection of 60° for a discharge of 1000 μC.
Find the quantity of electricity which when discharged through this galvanometer gives rise
to a spot deflection of 10 divisions on a millimeter circular scale 1 metre away.
[Ans. 4.77 μC]
18. A certain fluxmeter has the following constants : Air gap flux density = 0.05 Wb/m2; Turns on
moving coil = 40, Area of moving coil = 750 mm2. If the flux linking a 10 turn search coil of
200 mm2 area connected to the fluxmeter is reversed in a uniform field of 0.5 Wb/m2,
calculate the deflection of the fluxmeter.
[Ans. 76.5°]
19. A fluxmeter when used with single turn search coil gives full scale deflection if a given uniform
field linking with the search coil is reversed. It is proposed to extend the range of fluxmeter
to measure flux densities four times the above value using the same search coil and method
of reversals. If the resistance of search coil is 1.1 Ω, find the resistance of shunt to be
connected in parallel with the fluxmeter.
[Ans. 0.367 Ω.]
20. A magnetic circuit excited by an m.m.f. of 800 AT has a reluctance of 1,20,000 AT/Wb. A
fluxmeter is used to measure the flux. If the fluxmeter has 120 divisions and flux linkages
required for deflection of one division are 0.15 × 10–3 weber turn, calculate the resistance of
the shunt required for use with the search coil. Number of tuns of search coil is one and its
resistance is 0.025 Ω. The measurement is made by switching off the excitation.
[Ans. 0.00926 Ω]
21. The following data relate to a vibration galvanometer tuned to a frequency of 50 Hz : Inertia
constant = 0.01 kg-m2; Damping constant = 0.025 Nm/rad.-s–1 Calculate the ratio of
sensitivity for fundamental to that for third harmonic for the galvanometer.
[Ans. 1000]
22. The coil of instrument has 42½ turns. The mean width of the coil is 25 mm and the axial length
of the coil is 20 mm. If the flux density is 0.1 Wb/m2, calculate the torque on the moving
coil for a current of 15 mA through the coil.
[Ans. 3.187 × 10–5 Nm]
23. A moving coil voltmeter with a resistance of 20 Ω gives a full scale deflection of 120° when a
potential difference of 100 mV is applied across it. The moving coil has dimensions of 30
mm × 25 mm and is wound with 100 turns. The control spring constant is 0.378 × 10–6
Nm/degree. Find the flux density in the gap. Find also the diameter of copper wire of coil
winding if 30 percent of instrument resistance is due to coil winding. The specific resistance
for copper = 1.7 × 10–8 Ωm.
[Ans. 0.12 Wb/m2; 0.2 mm]
24. The inductance of a moving iron ammeter in μH is given by the expresion : L = 20 + 10 θ – 3θ2
where, θ is the deflection in radians from zero position. Determine the deflection of the
ammeter for a current of 10 A if the spring constant is 8 × 10–6 Nm/rad.
[Ans. 93°]
25. For a certain dynamometer ammeter the mutual inductance M varies with deflection θ
(expressed in degrees) as M = – 6 cos (θ + 30°) mH. Find the deflecting torque produced by a
direct current of 50 mA corresponding to a deflection of 60°.
[Ans. 15 μNm]
26. A PMMC meter gives reading of 40 mA when connected across two opposite corners of a
bridge rectifier, the other two corners of which are connected in series with a capacitor to 100
kV, 50 Hz supply. Determine the capacitance.
 Schand
[Ans. 1413 pF]
27. A PMMC meter is connected across appropriate points of bridge having resistance of each arm
of 35 Ω and connected across a supply of voltage, v = 5 sin θ + 0.2 sin 3θ. Determine the
reading of the ammeter if its resistance is 30 Ω.
[Ans. 32.25 mA]
28. An absolute electrometer uses a movable circular plate 70 mm in diameter. During a voltage
measurement, the distance between the plates is 3.2 mm and the force of attraction is 0.003
N. The medium is air. ∈0 = 8.85 × 10–12 F/m. Find V.
[Ans. 1343.1 V]
29. A moving-coil instrument gives full-scale deflection with 15 mA and has a resistance of 5 Ω.
Calculate the resistance to be connected : (i) in parallel to enable the instrument to read upto 1
A. (ii) in series to enable it to read upto 100 V.
[Ans. (i) 0.076 Ω, (ii) 6661.7 Ω]
30. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 10 ohms and gives a full-scale deflection when
carrying 50 mA. Show how it can be adopted to measure voltage upto 750 volts and current
upto 100 amperes.
[Ans. R = 14990 Ω, Rs = 0.005 Ω]
31. A 20 V moving-iron voltmeter reads correctly when put on D.C. and the instrument has a
resistance of 800 ohms and inductance of 0.15 H. Find out the reading on 20 V A.C. mains (i)
at 250 Hz (ii) 50 Hz.
[Ans. (i) 18.6 V, (ii) 19.87 V]
32. A 15 V moving-iron voltmeter has a resistance of 500 Ω and inductance of 0.12 H. Assuming
that this instrument reads correctly on D.C. what will be its reading on A.C. at 15 V when the
frequency is (i) 25 Hz and (ii) 100 Hz ?
[Ans. (i) 14.99 V, (ii) 14.83 V] Measuring Instruments
33. The total resistance of a moving-iron voltmeter is 1000 Ω and coil has an inductance of 0.765 H.
The instrument is calibrated with a full-scale deflection of 50 V D.C. Calculate the
percentage error when the instrument is used on (i) 25 Hz supply, (ii) 50 Hz supply, the
applied voltage being 50 V in each case.
[Ans. (i) 0.72%, (ii) 36%]
34. In a moving-coil instrument, the moving coil has 40 turns and is of square shape with a mean
length of 40 mm along each side. The coil hangs in a uniform radial field of 0.08 Wb/m2.
Find the turning moment of the coil when it is carrying a current of 10 mA.
[Ans. 512 × 10–7 Nm]
35. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 5 Ω between terminals and full scale deflection is
obtained with a current of 0.015 A. The instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt to
measure 100 A full scale. Calculate the error caused by a 10°C rise in temperature. ( i) when
the internal resistance of 5 Ω is due to copper only, (ii) when a 4 Ω manganin swamping
resistor is used in series with a copper resistor of 1 Ω. Take : αcopper = 0.004°C and
αmanganin = 0.00015/°C.
[Ans. (i) 3.7%, (ii) 0.8%]

Wattmeters
36. The volt circuit of an electrodynamic wattmeter has an inductance of 8 mH and a resistance of
2000 Ω. What is the percentage error of the instrument when measuring an inductive load
having phase angle of 89° and supply frequency is 50 Hz. Neglect the impedance of the
current coil and assume that the volt circuit current is negligible as compared with the load
current.
[Ans. 7.2%]
37. A dynamometer type wattmeter with its voltage coil connected across the load side of the
instrument reads 250 watts. If the load voltage be 200 volts, what power is being taken by
load ? The voltage coil branch has a resistance of 2000 Ω.
[Ans. 230 W]
38. An electro-dynamic wattmeter has a voltage circuit of resistance of 8,000 Ω and inductance of
63.6 mH which is connected directly across a load carrying 8A at a 50 Hz voltage of 240 V
and pf of 0.1 lagging. Estimate the percentage error in the wattmeter reading caused by the
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loading and inductance of the voltage circuit.
[Ans. 6.46% (high)]
39. The reading on the ammeters connected for the 3-ammeter method of power measurement are
2.5 A, 4A and 5.6 A in the non-inductive resistor, the load and the main respectively. The
terminal voltage is 300 volts. Calculate the value of (i) non-inductive resistor (ii) the load
impedance (iii) the power absorbed by the load and (iv) power factor of the load.
[Ans. (i) 120 Ω (ii) 75 Ω (iii) 546.6 W (iv) 0.455]
40. You are supplied with a wattmeter, the current coil of which can take a maximum current of 5A
and whose voltage coil can take a maximum voltage of 150 V. You are required to measure
the total power of 10 kW in a 250 V, single phase supply at 0.8 pf. What additional
equipment you need ? Connect them in proper circuit and find out the multiplying factor
which has to be used.
[Ans. CT of ratio 50/5A, PT of ratio 250/150V; 16.667]
41. The power in a single phase high voltage circuit is measured by using instrument transformers
with voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter. Observed readings of the instruments (assuming no
error) are 115V, 4.5 A, 200W. Characteristics of the transformers are PT : nominal ratio
11500/115V, ratio correction factor 0.995, phase angle–25 minutes; CT : nominal ratio
25/5A, ratio correction factor 0.997, phase angle +15 minutes. Neglecting the voltage coil
phase angle in the wattmeter, calculate the true power.[Ans. 99.86 kW]
42. Two wattmeters connected to read total power in a three phase system supplying a balanced load
gives readings of 8.5 kW and –3.5 kW respectively. Calculate total power and power factor.
[Ans. 5 kW; 0.2339 (agging)]
43. Two wattmetes used to measure the power input in a 3-Φ circuit indicate 1000W and 5000W
respectively. Find the power factor of the circuit (i) when both wattmeter readings are
positive, (ii) when the latter is obtained by reversing the current coil connections.
[Ans. 0.866 (lag); 0.189 (lag)]
44. Two wattmeters connected to measure the input in a balanced 3-phase circuit indicate 2000
watts and 500 watts respectively. Find power factor (i) when both readings are obtained in
same direction of connecting switch. (ii) when second reading is obtained after reversing the
connection of current coil of the instrument.
[Ans. (i) 0.694 (lag); (ii) 0.325 (lag)]
45. The power input to a 2,000V, 50 Hz, 3-phase motor running on full load at an efficiency of 90%
is measured by two wattmeters which indicate 300 kW and 100 kW respectively. Calculate
(i) input (ii) power factor (iii) line current and (iv) hp output.
[Ans. (i) 400 kW (ii) 0.756(lag) (iii) 152A (iv) 490(metric)]
46. A 30phase motor draws a line current of 50A from 220V source while starting. The pf is 0.4.
Find the readings of the two wattmeters connected to measure power.
[Ans. 8.85 kW; (–)1.23 kW]
47. A balanced load is supplied from a 3-Φ, 400V, 3-wire system whose power is measured by two
wattmeters. If the total power supplied is 26 kW at 0.75 power factor lagging, find the
readings of the each of the two wattmeters.
[Ans. 19.62 kW; 6.38 kW]
48. The power flowing in a 3-Φ, 3-wire balanced load system is measured by the two-wattmeter
method. The reading of wattmeter A is 5000 watts and on wattmeter B is –1,000 watts. ( a)
what is the power factor of the system ? (b) If the voltage of the circuit is 440 volts, what is
the value of capacitance which must be introduced into each phase to cause the whole of the
power measured to appear on wattmeter A?
[Ans. (a) 0.359 (b) 5.4 Ω]
49. In a particular measurement, the wattmeter readings were 5 kW and 1 kW. Calculate the power
and power factor, if (a) both meters read direct, (b) one of the meters has been reversed.
[Ans. (a) 6 kW; 0.656 (b) 4 kW, 0.359]
50. In balanced three phase system power is measured by two-wattmeter method and the ratio of
two wattmeter readings is 2 : 1. Determine the power factor of the system and deduce the
relation used.
[Ans. 0.866]
51. In a dynamometer wattmeter the moving coil has 500 turns of means diameter 3 cm. Estimate
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the torque if the axis of the field and moving coils are at (a) 60° (b) 90° when the density in
the field coils is 15 mWb/m2, the current in the moving coil is 0.5 A and power being
measured has a power factor of 0.866.
[Ans. (a) 199 × 10–6 Nm (b) 230 × 10–6 Nm]
52. In a test of 30 minute duration with a constant current of 5 A such a meter registered 0.50 kWh.
If the meter is subsequently used on a 200 V supply, determine its error, and state whether
the meter is running fast or slow.
[Ans. No error]
53. A d.c. ampere-hour meter is rated at 10 A, 250 V. The declared constant is 5 A-s/revolution.
Express this constant in revolutions per kWh. Also determine the full load speed of the meter.
(Ans. 2,880 revolution per kWh; 2 revolutions per second)
54. A meter, whose constant is 600 revolutions per kWh, makes 5 revolutions in 20 seconds.
Calculate the load in kW.
[Ans. 1.5 kW]
55. An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one unit of energy.
Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when connected to a load carrying 20 A at
230 volts at 0.8 pf for an hour. If it actually makes 360 revolutions; find the percentage error.
[Ans. 368 revolutions, 2.175% slow]
56. The constant of a 3-phase 2-element energy meter is 0.24 revolution of disc per hour. If the
meter is normally used with a PT of ratio 22 kV/220 V and a CT of ratio 500/5 A, determine
the error expressed as a percentage of the correct reading, from the following test results :
Line voltage 220 V, current 5.25 A, power factor 1.0, time to complete 80 revolutions 61
seconds.
[Ans. 1.65% slow]
57. The declared constant of a 5 A, 220 V d.c. watthour meter is 3275 revolutions per kWh.
Calculate the speed of the disc at full load. In a test run at half load, the meter takes 59.5 s to
complete 30 revolutions. Calculate the error of the meter.
[Ans. 1 r.p.s., 0.84% fast]
58. A 50 A, 230 V meter on full load test makes 61 revolutions in 37 s. If the normal disc speed is
520 revolutions per kWh, find the percentage error.
[Ans. 0.75% low]
59. A wattour meter is calibrated to measure energy on a 250 V supply. On test a steady current of
15 A is passed through it for 5 hours at unity power factor. If the meter readings before and
after the test are 8234.21 kWh and 8253.13 kWh respectively, calculate the percentage error.
If the spindle turns through 290 revolutions during 5 minutes when a current of 20 A is
passing through the meter at 250 V and 0.87 power factor, calculate the meter constant.
[Ans. 0.9% high ; 800 revolutions/kWh]