Energy Efficiency, Acoustics & Daylighting in building

Prof. B. Bhattacharjee
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

Lecture – 01
Introduction & Environmental Factors

So, good morning everybody this is lecture one.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:20)

First it is related to functions of the building. So, what are the functions of buildings as
you can see this, first thing is it must provide a safe shelter structurally safe all right and
desired spatial environment within the space right, for any human activity for example,
this is a classroom. So, this is what is called teaching of readings, you know teaching of
readings. So, it must have good acoustics. So, that you can hear, must have good visual
environments. So, that you can write right and of course, comfortable from thermal point
of view, it is one of the most important thing right, thermal point of view.

So, for that human activity here is teaching, teaching of reading right which means
teaching learning interaction. So, that is what it is. So, building must therefore, provide
safe and comfortable environment internal environment against existing external and
unwanted internal conditions for a given human activity.
Now, what is external condition for example, high temperature outside lot of humidity
relative humidity high. So, I must have, I must have a comfortable environment against
such kind of external perturbation. Similarly noise outside or noise generated within. So,
it should be comfortable against such a thing, but; obviously, safety is most important
and building must accomplish all this economically.

We would normally one would be talking about lifecycle cost in this context, but anyway
cost is not enough, you know issue in our approval rate right. So, first to talk about safety
which you have learned through an undergraduate programs.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:22)

It is safe against all kind of natural forces right, safe against natural forces such as
gravity load first of all gravity, you know like if you have to stand somewhere they your
own weight would be there. So, gravity load small load. So, many of them are vertical
load wind rain etcetera wind and earthquake they also contribute to horizontal loading
into the building impacts and so on right.

Because of human actions load can also be there. So, if I show it schematically there are
many of them are gravity loads, most of them are gravity load and there could be
horizontal load as well because of earthquake and wind and it must be safe against all
these forces. So, that is what we are saying. So, that is the safety and we are not
discussing this in this course.
Safety is not already you have so much of elaborate understanding of the same. So, we
will not discussed this.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:20)

So, building interacts with surrounding environment earth, that is what we are looking
here and you have humidity air motion as you can see noise lightning pollution rain and
snowfall precipitation as we call it, sunlight, air temperature, solar radiation and all that.
So, as you can see these are the arms as you see building is at the center it interacts with
all those environmental factor outside.

So, to start with we will discuss this environmental factors how we account for them how
do we quantify them, how do we quantify them any measurable item how do we measure
them, because in technologies science and engineering you know, basically technology
science based engineering right not empiricity would like to reduce.

So, I would like to model effect of air motion on to the building we are looking at the
comfort not the loading part of it right, similarly effect of you know temperature outside
heat transfer into the building and so on. So, therefore, in order to do that we must
quantify them, we generally mathematically generalized physical system models when
we talk about mathematical modeling we generalize it basically it is a mathematical
generalization. So, that is what we like to do and therefore, we must look into each of
this one how they we measure them and how do you quantify them right, in physical or
terms of maths and physics let us see.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:50)

So, comfortable a moment convert it must be comfortable against external temperature,

relative humidity moisture and gas condensation etcetera right and must be comfortable
against man made external and internal, you know external as well as internal red
colored. So, it must be comfortable against man made external and internal agency
causing discomfort.

For example noise, besides micro climatic changes are I will tell you what is micro
climatic changes for example, you change the you know your activity human activity lot
of building they will change the thermal conditions surrounding the building. So, we will
talk about that later on.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:39)

So, examples if I say external temperature, humidity, solar radiation, occasional

perturbations such as heavy storm, rain, gust these are external, manmade, internal
external noise accidental initiation of fire which I am not discussing again in this course,
generation of wastes, odour fumes and gases etcetera. So, these are manmade thing they
can cause discomfort right ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:08)

Then desirable internal environment may require provision of adequate visual condition
through proper lighting. So, these are desirable condition and desirable internal also may
require reliable proper circulation of human movement and materials, you know space
this is an architectural issue again we are not discussing here. Circulation space,
comfortable ergonomics even you know space between 2 rows minimum distance
between 2 rows.

So, we are not talking of this in this class except for in case of auditorium design we will
talk a little bit related to this.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:46)

So, that is kind of you know interaction what we will have. Now, as I was telling you that
we look into the environmental features which we like to quantify and in terms of some
measurable items. So, temperature is one of them, first is the temperature. So, we are
looking at the thermal aspects. So, thermal environment temperature is one of them, now
temperature how do you measure we will come to that. Next one would be relative
humidity, air motion, air velocity, speed and directions is an important solar radiation
these are all related to thermal comfort. Then precipitation or rainfall because that is that
is what causes relative humidity change significantly and sunshine, hours how many
hours sunshine is there.

Then sky brightness is related to day lighting sky, sky brightness is related to day
lighting. So, these are the features of environment and based on this kind of features we
actually classify climate. So, climate is you know climate classifying or group the whole
globe into several climatic zones and then zones in a given region, also we will talk
about that a little bit later. So, these are the features based on we define them let us see
how do you measure temperature.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

If you want to measure air temperature is measured in what is called Stevenson screen.
Now, do I have a diagram of this, if I do not have I will just draw it for you no problem it
is like a box, it is simply like a box you might have seen and it will have louvers right.
So, it is a closed box. So, that direct sunlight does not come in, wind does not affect their
air motion, there is no air velocity significant air velocity inside it remains dry, there is
no rain coming into it protected from the rain and you measure what you call dry bulb
temperature inside. So, what you measure is a dry bulb for example, if it is a
thermometer well there are better varieties of measuring devices.

Liquid thermometers are well known, mercury thermometers where expansion of market
mercury you know because it has got a linear expansion or expansion does not vary with
the temperature itself rate of expansion. So, temperature change volume change per unit
temperature will remain constant over a very large range that is why mercury’s use, some
cases alcohols are used then there are other things like what we call, platinum resistance
thermometer because resistance has changes with temperature.

I am not discussing them you have a you, if you I I believe some of you might take a
course on lab. So, in laboratory class they might discuss this thermocouple is very
popular, what is the thermocouple you have a hot junction and a cold junction and if you
put this you know 2 dissimilar metal when you connect them together there is a potential
difference that would exist or alloys you can understand that you know for example,
different metal will have different tendency to lose electron.

So, if alloys will have similar sort of things. So, if you connect two dissimilar of them
momentarily there will be as current flow because there will be a potential difference
existing between the two, but if one of the end is at high temperature and another is at
lower temperature so there is a potential difference generated between these two. Now,
this potential difference is a function of the difference in temperature between hot and
cold junction.

So, since thermocouple works in this principle, but then again voltage EMF generated
part degree centigrade must be constant. So, every type of thermocouple will have its
own range of measurements for example, copper constantan, chromel alumel, platinum
and platinum rhodium thermocouples. So, these are these are used basically for
measuring temperature, thermistors there are several other measurement devices we are
not going in details into this. So, the unit is of course, degree centigrade is not degree
Kelvin, it is Kelvin, simply Kelvin written you know absolute scale of temperature.

So, this is one thing, this is all measure of temperature now relative humidity, what is
relative humidity? Let us first define relative humidity I think I will come to the algebra
part of it later on, but I think I have not defined yeah, you see the air is nothing, but a
mixture of let me go back to this and write it here straight away.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:50)

Here essentially is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, little bit of argon right
I think it is a a r argon not ag ag silver. So, a little bit of argon and obviously, moisture
vapour right. Now, this is around 78 percent as you know 21 percent or whatever it is I
am not really interested in this, but I am interested in this part. Now, it forms a kind of
gaseous phase solution. So, this is the vapour, moisture vapour and this moisture vapour
has got an importance related to thermal comfort, as usual see later on the body would
like to maintain a fixed temperature right, you know deep body temperature has to be
constant.

So, if outside surrounding atmosphere is warm, warm under the deep body temperature it
would actually you know heat flow to occur from outside to inside, but then what you
would like to reject it. We will discuss this mechanism sometime later on, but one of the
mechanism is losing by evaporative cooling. So, for example, in the skin moisture the
skin if it evaporates, latent heat of evaporation will be taken from the skin itself and it
will cool down the body itself it will cool down.

So, therefore, relative humidity or moisture content in the surrounding environment is

important because if it is dry it can absorb a lot of moisture, if it is already saturated
because it is a kind of a solution as I said. So, there is a air has got a capacity to you
know absorb moisture vapour and this is a function of temperature itself, higher the
temperature it can absorb more moisture vapour.
So, relative humidity is related to that, relative humidity is a kind of measure it is the
capacity for the surrounding environment to absorb moisture. So, we talk in terms of you
know we talk in terms of relative humidity.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:14)

We talk in terms of moisture content, that is if I denote it by phi it will be moisture

content g sometime we denote it by g moisture content we denote by g as we shall be
doing in this class divided by g s, saturated moisture content at that particular
temperature that is how we define so relative humidity we define this. Now, how do you
define partial vapour pressure or partial pressure of 2 gases supposing I have 2 gas and I
you know individually it occupies a volume v gas 1 the pressure is p 1 and second gas
which occupies the same volume its pressure is p 2 right.

Now, when I mix them together same mass of the 2 and mix them together and put in the
same volume the total pressure will be sum total of this one, you can understand from
basically connect theory of gases because pressure is nothing, but molecule hitting the
boundary of the vessel, when I pack them together 2 gases; obviously, they will exert
more pressure. So, partial pressure is the pressure of the gas in a mixture which is the
pressure when it occupies the same volume as the mixture itself. So, p is p 1 plus p 2
partial pressure. So, in case of air partial pressure of air for partial pressure of vapour is a
total pressure right.
Now, if I, if relative you know if the g is more moisture content is higher, this will be
also higher. So, I can relate this to partial pressure vapour pressure as we call it to the
relative humidity all right let us see how do you do it, let us see how do it.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:20)

So, partial pressure will be written like this and we treat them as ideal gases. So, P a let
us say it is only the dry air, V a is equals to the mass of the air there divided by molecular
mass of air RT, similarly for vaporize I can write in the same manner and both of them
are occupying same volume by definition. So, g is mass of the vapour divided by mass of
the dry air that is how we define the moisture content, this will be simply from this one it
follows right. So, g is mass. So, this divided by this and therefore, it would be this
divided P V, m V divided by p a m a right, v will cancel out from both the sides this will
also cancel out because temperatures are same right and this universal gas constant
because already we have taken end into account.

So, this value molecular mass of water is 18.02 and molecular mass of air is 28.96, now
what does it come because nitrogen we know is 28.78 multiplied by nitrogen molecular
weight of nitrogen because it occupies 78 percent is a, 78 percent is a nitrogen, oxygen
we know 21 percent or whatever it is. So, when we sum them up I get 28.96. So, this
therefore, p v by p a comes in and pa is nothing, but atmospheric pressure minus vapour
pressure.
So, you can see that moisture content is a function of vapour pressure and 0.622. So, it is
it is actually can be related to the vapour pressure of air right ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)

Now, there are some empirical. So, relative humidity is g by g s saturated moisture
content at saturation for the same temperature. So, there are some empirical formulae
maybe I will solve a problem sometime, but there are other ways of finding this out also
phi g etcetera, it is through psychometric chart I will come back to this sometime later
on.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:44)

This is called a psychometric chart, a psychometric chart is one where in this direction
here you have got dry bulb temperature dvt, you know you may not be able to see this
very clearly there could be difficulties, but my intention is not to show here or read it
here, but you might be familiar with it, because you can refer to this in sp 41 or any book
of the reference that I have given Marcus and Morris, Kenneth Berger and so on so forth
I hv guideline x ray hand book and so on many places you will find it.

Now, now this axis is DBT and this from minus 10 to I think it is plus 60. So, what this
range this particular graph is, I mean it is there for various ranges some will have up to
thirty or whatever it is. So, this DBT is along this direction this direction is a moisture
content in kg per kg, you know absolute moisture content kg per kg. Now, this is the
saturation line, this is a saturation line this is the saturation line this is the saturation line.
So, if you know DBT if you know moisture content relative humidity lines are you know
relative humidity lines of this saturation line there is 90, 80 etcetera etcetera. So, these
are relative humidity line.

So, you can actually if you know the moisture content relative humidity value we can
find it out from there, also there is something called wet bulb temperature, how do you
measure relative humidity then it will come. Now, this curves can be fitted into an
empirical equation as I said and you have vapour pressure is given a saturated vapour
pressure minus some constant into atmospheric pressure T minus T w is called wet bulb
temperature I will just define what is called wet bulb temperature and some again as I
said empirical formula is given psb and ps at any any temperature. What is the saturation
pressure those are those are values are empirically obtained maybe I will solve a problem
some time that will be clear I will come back to this later on.

But let me now define what is wet bulb temperature, let us see if it is there before the
mathematics comes in wet bulb.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:58)

Temperature is supposing I have got a thermometer I have got a thermometer right

something like this, supposing I put a wet cotton here it is a thermometer that
thermometric bulb, you know it is a thermometric bulb, thermoelectric bulb and I put
cotton here wet cotton here another case I have just the bulb and no cotton or anything of
that kind right. So, I will have the unit could be mercury simply. So, this is dry bulb
temperature now where will the supposing I have got relative immunity 100 percent right
where will be this height or reading of this thermometer.

Student: (Refer time: 21:56).

It will be same, because this is wet and nothing can evaporate right, but supposing the
relative humidity is low then what will happen moisture from here from the bulb, which
is covered with a wet cotton or jute will evaporate and this will result in depression of
this mercury here, which we call wet bulb depression right. So, this would be somewhat
lower, do you get it if I have some jute or wet cotton around wet it has to be wet. So, they
used to have something called wheeling hygrometer, where they will have you know a
wrapped around a jute wet jute draped around textile means very important you know
many other places temperatures relative memory is very important.

So, they will go on or in a room where you want to control humidity they will go on
moving around this and then measure the depression of the wet bulb temperature or
reading of the wet bulb temperature, the difference between these 2 is a function of
relative humidity, it will be maximum when, when it will be maximum? When it is 0, 0
you know it is totally dry environment, it will be maximum and there will be no
depression when the environment is saturated, environment is saturated.

Student: Saturated.

So, DBT and WBT wet bulb temperature. So, relative humidity, you know relative
humidity can be measured through wet bulb temperature, there are other techniques like
hygrometer you might have seen, a hygrometer willing hygrometer I was saying
hygrometer measures relative mobility. Earlier days they would use horses tail, you
know horses hair basically fibers are very sensitive to relative humidity their dimension
changes occur swell or shrink. So, they would use horses tail long one which will expand
or contract depending upon the relative humidity and this movement can be converted
into you know some kind of analog movement analog scale and all that. So, we used to
have one in the lab of the similar kind anyway. So, wet bulb temperatures can be
measured through hygrometer and one way is to measure the wet bulb temperature and
dry bulb temperature both right.

So, that is what it is. So, that is how we measure relative humidity, if I have to go to this
a little bit lets go to a little bit of physical chemistry or you know you might have heard
of osmosis.

Student: Permeable.

If I have a semi permeable membrane and I have a concentrated solution on one side and
you have simply the solvent on the other side after some time.

Student: Concentration.

Concentration becomes same on both the sides, now this can happen in air also right why
does it happen because the molecules the solute will have Brownian movement and if
they collide with the concentration is same on both the sides they collide with each other
and come back to their original. So, concentrations are does not change, now do not have
much of a relevance here, but still I will just quickly tell you, but supposing I have 2
columns one has got the solvent other has got the solution and I have a semi permeable
membrane in between I am not drawing the diagram, but just trying to explain you
quickly and if I put a pressure on the pure solvent side I find that concentration does not
change you know. So, that is osmotic pressure.

So, concentration gradient can cause movement same thing with vapour concentration
gradient. So, vapour concentration you know if there is concentration of the water
molecule where moisture vapour molecule is less at one place inside so there will be a
movement. So, this is given by fixed diffusion equation diffusion law. So, this dc is the
concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:17)

Dc dx rate of mass flow can be written as some diffusion coefficient into dc dx and c is
nothing, but concentration is mass per unit volume.

Student: Volume.

Student: Volume.

So, you know if I have rho v c concentration can be written in this manner, you know if
you have if you remember we had p v V v was equals to m v divided by m v into RT. So,
concentration will be given by V v divided by you know mv divided by vv concentration
is nothing, but m v by c is equals to m v by V v mass per unit volume and therefore, it
follows from here pv mv divided by RT right pv mv divided by RT right so that is what it
is. So, m dot now I can replace this pv I mean, I can write it like this you know diffusion
coefficient m dot you know combine this equation dc dt.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

So, you differentiate this with with respect to x this is constant this is constant right and
let us say temperature is constant then this will be function of simply vapour pressure
gradient.

So, mass flow is the function of vapour pressure gradient right, mass flow as a function
of vapour pressure gradient. So, the amount of moisture that can evaporate from your
body is a function of that vapour pressure gradient as well. So, you know and this I can
add to a frictional coefficient this is if there is no kind of a resistance, but there is a
frictional resistance then I will just put this mu as a frictional resistance term and that is
how I can write this mu dot and you know its convective. So, convective heat or
movement as usual see we will see that the rate can be proportional to this. So, I think we
will stop here.