UNIT II

PERSONALITY
The term personality has been derived from the Latin term person which means to “speak
through”. It refers to the mask worn by actors in ancient Greece or Rome in plays which signifies
the role which the actor displays to the public. Personality refers to the enduring characteristics
and behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests,
drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.
Meaning: Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with
others.
Definitions:
Weinberg & Gould - “The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique”
R.B. Cattell - "Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation."

Carl Rogers views personality in terms of self, an organized, permanent, subjectively perceived entity.

Foundations of Individual Behavior

Physiological Variables

• Age
• Gender
• Physiological Characters
• Heredity
• Psychological Variables
• Intelligence
• Learning
• Personality
• Attitude
• Motivation
• Social Cultural Variables
• Value systems
• Cultural Background
• Traditions

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Organizational Variables
• Type of Organization
• Type of supervision
• Type of subordinates
• Type of Co- employees
• Type of incentives
• Training
• Social environment at work place
• Physical and Job variables
• Method of work
• Type of work
• Physical job variables
• Condition of working equipments

DETERMINANATS OF PERSONALITY
The following five factors of personality significantly contribute to the formation and
development of human personality.

• Biological Factors
• Social Factors
• Cultural Factors
• Physical Factors
• Situational Factors

Biological Factors of Personality: Biological factors of personality are very important for the
formation of human personality. Children are born in a family; inherit many traits and features
from their parents. Children get physical and psychological characteristics from their parents
which becomes a part of their personalities. Some of the inherited traits are bravery, cowardice,
intelligence, weakness etc.

Social Factors of Personality: An individual’s personality is influenced by his family and social
group of which he is a member. A child acquires behavior patterns that are acceptable and
customary to the standards of the family and community where the family lives. The status of the
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family in the society influences the individual's perception about self, others and money. Family
and social factors shape a person's personality through the processes of socialization and
identification.

Cultural Factors of Personality: An individual living in his/her culture adopts the traits
consciously or unconsciously and acts accordingly. Culture of any society determines the
behaviors and personality of an individual. Culture dictates the ways that an individual is
expected to behave in various situations. A person follows all the social norms of a culture which
results in the formation of an ‘acceptable’ personality. So, the culture in which an individual
seeks satisfaction adjusts himself/herself and develops personality accordingly.

Physical Factors of Personality: Many physical factors will determine a person’s personality.
These physical factors include the overall physical structure of a person: his height, weight,
color, gender, body language, etc. It also indicates an individual’s mode of dressing, manner of
walking, posture, body build, health and facial expressions.

Situational Factors of Personality: Situational factors are the external factors that affect
personality & behavior. The traits shown through situational factors usually vary a lot as
different people exhibit different situational personality traits. For example, a teacher may be
rigid and strict with students but may not with his/her family. An officer may behave with the
subordinates differently as compared to his/her friends.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
Sigmund Freud and other associates formed this theory. Clinical techniques were used to develop
this theory. Patient’s behaviour was studied to derive this theory. According to this theory Man is
motivated by unforeseen forces that is controlled by conscious and rational thought. Freud

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says that personality of a person is determined by a constant interplay of the three parts: The Id,
The Ego, The Super Ego.

Personality is made up of 3 parts:

The Id: It is the unconscious emotional part . It is a sea of biological urges and drives where
different instincts exist. E.g. Hunger, thirst etc
It works on the principles of pleasure and pain. Any person seeks to satisfy his raw, animalistic
needs and urges, obeys no laws and rules, wants to seek immediate gratification of biological or
instinctual needs. It would proceed unchecked to satisfy motives. As an individual matures he
learns to control id.

Ego: - It is the logical and conscious part or the rational practical and factual side. It evaluates on
the principle of what is possible and not possible. It works on the principle of right and wrong. It
keeps id in check through realities of the environment by intellect and reason.

Super Ego: It is the ethical moral side. The individual not only cares about right and wrong but
also care about the societal norms. Hence it controls the above two parts and directs them
constantly.

SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY:
Human personality depends on his inter-relationship in society. This model suggests that human
behavior results from three predominant- interpersonal orientations.

Based on which Individual can be categorized as:

Aggressive people: Motivated by the need for power. They want good positions more power.
They go for challenging jobs and want to raise high in positions. They are not attached with the
society and hence go against the society
Detached people: These are self-sufficient people who are not more attached with the society.
They are happy in their solitude. They do not depend on others. They are away from the society.

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Compliant people: These people are more depended on society. They live to be with friends and
families. They seldom quit organization. They do not have any interest for position, power and
money. They move towards the society.

TRAIT THEORY:
Some psychologists have tried to understand personality on the basis of individual’s traits. This
theory attempts to understand how a set of set of personality variables exerts on one’s behavior.
This theory defines that individual personality is composed of definite predisposition attributes
called traits. Traits in an individual define his personality. Traits are stable, traits are common but
may vary is absolute quantities in individuals and also traits can be inferred form the
measurement of behavioral indicators. Examples of traits are Dominance, Submissiveness,
Cheerfulness, Honesty, wiseness, foolishness, thriftiness, irritableness etc.

SELF THEORY : Carl Rogers has developed this theory. In this theory the following four
factors are included:-

Self-image: It is the way one sees oneself. Every person has certain beliefs about who he is and
these believes form his Self-image.

Ideal Self: It denotes the way one would like to be. Any individual admires personalities (family
members or outsiders) in his environment and tries to imitate them. This forms the basis for his
ideal image.

Looking glass Self: It is a perception about how others perceive one self. It if formed on the
basis of the interactions and conversations with others.

Real Self: All the above three stages help the individual to know about himself based on which
he get tips to develop his personality, evaluates himself and adjusts his self-image.

TYPES OF PERSONALITY
Introvert and Extrovert
Based On Characteristics, There Are Two types of personality, i.e. introvert and extrovert. When
a person is reserved and does not open up easily, he or she is said to be an introvert. An introvert
is a person who remains isolated, or enjoys the company of few closed ones.

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 • Self-contained
• They think before speaking.
• Recharges with solitude
• Spends more time with themselves
• Inward focused
• Have few friends
• Do not accept change easily.
• Openly communicate about themselves with people they know and trust.
• Deeply concentrate for long period.

An extrovert is an outgoing and outspoken person who enjoys being around and talking to
people. Extrovert is a social, talkative person and makes friends quickly. An extrovert is an
outgoing and outspoken person who enjoys being around and talking to people.
• Gregarious
• They reason things out by speaking them.
• Recharges with social interactions
• Spends more time with family and friends
• They reason things out by speaking them.
• Recharges with social interactions
• Spends more time with family and friends
• Outward focused
• Have many friends
• Accept change easily.
• Openly communicate about themselves with anyone.
• Get distracted easily.

Type A and Type B personality Type A Personality

Type A personality implies a temperament which is stress prone, concerned with time
management. They are ambitious, rigidly organised, hard-working, anxious, highly status

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conscious, hostile and aggressive. Individuals who possess Type A personality have the
following behavioural patterns:

• They move, walk and eat fast.

• Great at multitasking.
• Self-driven feels guilty when relaxing.
• Feels impatient with the pace of things, dislikes waiting.
• They have a busy schedule and does not have time to enjoy life.
• Uses nervous gestures, like clenched fist or banging hand on the table.
• They are high-achievers, perform beyond par.
• They do not easily accept failure.
Type B Personality
Type B personality is one that is less prone to stress, easy going, work steadily, enjoy
achievement, modest ambition, and live in the moment. They are social, creative, thoughtful,
procrastinating. Individuals who possess Type B personality are associated with the following
behavioural traits:

• They are not concerned about time.

• They compete for fun, not to win.
• Mild-mannered.
• Never in a hurry and has no pressing deadlines.
• Does not brag.
• Focus on quality rather than quantity.
• Laid back and live stress-less life.
•
Judging and Perceptive
Judging (J) and Perceiving (P) are how you interact with the world outside yourself, either in a
structured or flexible manner. Judging and Perceiving are opposite preferences. A person‟s
natural tendency toward one will be stronger than the other.

Judging: Judging people think sequentially. They value order and organization. Their lives are
scheduled and structured. Judging people seek closure and enjoy completing tasks. They take
deadlines seriously. They work then they play. The Judging preference does not mean
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judgmental. Judging refers to how a person deals with day-to-day activities.

Judging Characteristics
• Decisive
• Controlled
• Good at finishing
• Organized
• Structured
• Scheduled
• Quick at tasks
• Responsible
• Likes closure
• Makes plans

Perceiving (P) : Perceivers are adaptable and flexible. They are random thinkers who prefer to
keep their options open. Perceivers thrive with the unexpected and are open to change. They are
spontaneous and often juggle several projects at once. They enjoy starting a task better than
finishing it. Deadlines are often merely suggestions. Perceivers play as they work.
Perceiving Characteristics
• Adaptable
• Relaxed
• Disorganized
• Care-free
• Spontaneous
• Changes tracks midway
• Keeps options open
• Procrastinates
• Dislikes routine
• Flexible

PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Self Esteem: Self Esteem refers to the feeling of like or dislike for oneself. “Self Esteem is the
degree of respect a person has for himself.” This trait varies from person to person as people
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differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves.
Locus of control: Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief that events are either within
one’s control are determined by forces beyond one’s control.

People with internal locus of control believe that they are the masters of their own fate. Where as
people with external locus of control take life as it comes. They see themselves as pawns of fate,
believing that whatever happens to them in their lives is due to their luck or fate.
Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism is the ability to influence others for one’s own benefit.
High Machiavellianism refers to a personality trait which sees a person so focused on their own
interests that they will manipulate, deceive, and exploit others to achieve their goals.
Risk taking : The propensity of people to assume risks or avoid risks varies from person to
person depending upon the willingness of the people to take chances. This human trait will affect
the decision making capability of a manager. This individual personality trait will determine how
long will it take a person to take a decision or how much information will be needed before he
takes a decision
Introvert and extrovert : These two terms are generally associated with the interpersonal
behaviour of an individual and his sociability. Extroverts are gregarious and sociable individuals
while introverts are shy, quiet and retiring. It has been observed that introverts and extroverts
people have different career orientations and require different organisational environment to
maximize performance. Extroverts are more suitable for positions that require considerable
interaction with others that is why managerial positions are dominated by extroverts.
Type A and Type B : People who are impatient, aggressive and highly competitive are termed
as ‘Type A’ personality. But those who are easy going, laid back and non-competitive are termed
as ‘Type B’ personality. Type ‘A’ people tend to be very productive as they work very hard.
Their negative side is that they are very impatient, more irritable and have poor judgment. Type
‘B’ people do better on complex tasks involving judgment and accuracy rather than speed and
hard work
Self monitoring : As self-monitoring refers to the individual’s ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external factors, individuals with high self-monitoring can show considerable
adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external, situational factors than low self-monitoring
individuals.

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PERCEPTION

Perception means perceiving, i.e., giving a meaning to the environment around us. It can be
defined as a process which involves seeing, receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting and
giving meaning to the environment.
Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets information
to create a meaningful picture.

Definition by Stephen P Robbins : Perception can be defined as “the process by which

individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environments.”

Importance of perception :
Perceptions vary: Perception is very important in understanding human behavior because every
person perceives the world and approaches life problems differently. Whatever we see or feel is
not necessarily the same as it really is. When we buy something, it is not because it is the best,
but because we take it to be the best.One person may be viewing the facts in one way which may
be different from the facts as seen by another viewer.

Perception can be predicted: If people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict
their behavior in the changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the
environment. With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined,
because people’s perception is influenced by their needs.

Enhances Manager’s understanding: Perception is very important for the manager who wants
to avoid making errors when dealing with people and events in the work setting. This problem is
made more complicated by the fact that different people perceive the same situation differently.
In order to deal with the subordinates effectively, the managers must understand their
perceptions properly.

Identifies Roles: Perception builds character (not necessarily good or bad character) that defines
different roles individuals fall into the clown, the hypocrite, the self-righteous, the victim, etc..

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Helps Empathize:It is vitally important if we want to get along with others to try to see things
from their perspective or walk in their shoes for a while. If we walk in their shoes we will gain a
new perspective about things and in that understanding of the other wi ll he l p u s t o
e m p a t hi z e.

Nature of perception

• Perception is the intellectual process.

• Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process.
• Perception becomes a subjective process and different people may perceive the same
event differently.

Perceptual Mechanism:

Perception is much more than sensation. There is a distinction between sensation and perception.
Sensation is the response of a physical sensory organ. The physical senses are vision, hearing,
tough, smell and taste. e.g., of sensation may be reaction of eye to colour, ear to sound and so on.
Sensation precedes perception. Perception depends upon the sensory raw data. The perceptual
mechanism adds to or/and subtracts from the sensory world. Perception is determined by both
physiological and psychological characteristics, of the individual.Sensation only activates the
organs of the body and is not affected by such psychological factors as learning and motives.
Activation of eyes to see an object is sensation and the inference what isbeing seen is perception.

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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Perception is a process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking and reacting to

stimuli. This is like an input-through put-output process in which the stimuli can be considered
as 'inputs' transformation of 'input' through selection, organization and interpretation as 'through
puts' and the ultimate behavior/action as 'output'. The whole perceptional process can be
presented as follows:

Receiving Stimuli: The first process in the perception is the presence of stimuli. The stimuli are
received from the various sources. Through the five organs. It is a physiological aspect of
perception process. Stimuli may be external to us (such as sound waves) and inside us (such as
energy generation by muscles).

Selection of Stimuli: After receiving the stimuli or data, some are selected. Others are screened
out. Two types of factors affect selection of stimuli for processing: external and internal factors.
External factors relate to stimuli such as intensity of stimuli, its size, movement, repetition, etc.
Internal factors, relate to the perceiver such as his/her age, learning, interest, etc. Normally, he
will select the objects which interest him and will avoid that for which he is indifferent. This is
also called 'selective perception'.

Organization of Stimuli : Organizing the bits of information into a meaningful whole is called

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"organization". There are three ways by which the selected data, i.e., inputs are organized. These
are :
(i) Grouping, (ii) Closure and (iii) Simplification.

Grouping: In grouping, the perceiver groups the various stimuli on the basis of their similarity
or proximity. For example, all the workers coming from the same place may be perceived as
similar on the basis of proximity.

Closure: When faced with incomplete information, people fill up the gaps themselves to make
the information meaningful. This may be done on the basis of past experience, past data, or
hunches. For example, in many advertisements, alphabets are written by putting electric bulbs
indicating the shape of the concerned alphabets but broken lines. In such cases, people tend to fill
up the gap among different bulbs to get meaning out of these.

Simplification: People identify main stimulus features and assesses how they are organized.
Individual when faced with intense stimulus situation with overload of information, the perceiver
tries to simply the information and organize the same.

Interpretation: After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and
organized the information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense to us using our existing
information about the world. Interpretation simply means that we take the information that we
have sensed and organized and turn it into something that we can categorize. By putting different
stimuli into categories, we can better understand and react to the world around us.

Action: The perceptual process ends with the resultant behavior caused after interpreting the
data received through sensory organs.

Perception Distortion

Perceptual distortions are incorrect understanding or abnormal interpretation of a perceptual

experience. A perceptual distortion occurs when a person’s responses to stimuli varies from
how it is commonly perceived. The various perceptual distortions are:

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Projection: Personality of the perceiver greatly influences the perception of other persons.
Personality influence perception because of 2 reasons. First, the perceiver tries to project his
personality attributes in others, known as projection. Second, the perceiver tries to fit his attitude,
beliefs, expectation to reality known as process of self-fulfilling.

Mental Set: Mental set is the tendency on has to react in a certain way to a given situation. In
organization setting, people have tendency to perceive about others on the basis of this mental set
which cause misperception. For ex. Suppose you are a contestant in a track meet and are
positioning yourself in your starting blocks as you hear the preparatory command, get ready, get
set when you hear the command, Go you take off at once since you are already set and ready to
this command.

Attribution: Attribution is the process by which we make sense of our environment through our
perception of our causality. Attribution is simply the process of attaching or attributing causes or
reason to the actions and events we see. Causality is usually described in terms of internal
causality and external causality. For ex. We may explain a particular individual’s success or
promotion with reference to his/her superior skills and knowledge (internal causality) or with
reference to luck, 'friends in high places‟ and coincidence (external causality).

Halo Effect: The term halo effect was used by the psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1920. A
HALO Effect is a judgment based on single striking characteristics such as an aspect of dressing,
speech, posture, or nationality. HALO Effect can be negative as well as positive.
For ex. An interviewer having a favorable impression of a candidate because of the cheerful
disposition the candidate exhibits during the interview.

Horn Effect: The horn effect is a cognitive process in which an individual immediately ascribes
negative attitudes or behaviors to someone based on one aspect of their appearance or character.
For example a hiring manager may have a bad impression based on how a candidate speaks or
his/ her body language and expressions.

Stereotyping: Stereotyping occurs when the perceiver judges or perceives a person on the basis
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of characteristics of the group to which he belongs. The person is not perceived as an individual
with specific set of his characteristics but on the basis of his group characteristics.
For ex. There are some stereotyping at the international level like; Japanese are industrious,
Italians are quick tempered or that Americans are materialistic and ambitious.

First Impression: It is very common that people evaluate others on the basis of first impression.
The evaluation based on first impression may be correct if it is based on adequate and significant
evidence. However, since first impression evaluation is not based on adequate information, it
may not be true reflection of peoples being perceived. This can be corrected by more frequent
interaction, though erasing of first impression evaluation is not that easy.

Factors Influencing Perceptual process

External Factors
• Size : Bigger size attracts the attention of the perceiver
• Intensity : A loud sound, strong odor or bright light is noticed more as compared to a
softsound, weak odour or dimlight.
• Repetition: A repeated external stimulus is more attention getting than a single one.
Advertisers use this principle.
• Novelty and Familiarity: A novel or a familiar external situation can serve as
attentiongetter.
• Contrast: It is a kind of uniqueness which can be used for attention getting. Letters of
bold types, persons dressed differently than others, etc., get more attention.
• Motion: A moving object draws more attention as compared to a stationary object.
Advertisers use this principle.

Internal Factors

• Self-concept : The way a person views the world depends a great deal on the concept or image
he has about himself. The concept plays an internal role in perceptual selectivity.

• Beliefs : A person's beliefs have profound influence on his perception. Thus, a fact is
conceived not on what it is but what a person believes it to be.
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 • Expectations: These affect what a person perceives. A technical manager may expect
ignorance about the technical features of a product from non-technical people.
• Inner Needs: The need is a feeling of tension or discomfort, when one thinks he is
missing something. People with different needs experience different stimuli. According
to Freud, wishful thinking is the means by which the Id attempts to achieve tension
reduction.
• Response Disposition: It refers to a person's tendency to perceive familiar stimuli rather
than unfamiliar ones.
• Response Salience : It is the set of disposition which are determined not by the
familiarity of the stimulus situations, but by the person's own cognitive predispositions.
Thus, a particular problem may be viewed as a marketing problem by marketing
personnel, a control problem by accounting people and human relations problem by
personnel people.
• Perceptual Defence : It refers to the screening of those elements which create conflict
and threatening feelings in people. People tend to deal by denying the existence or
importance of conflicting or threatening information.

Learning :

Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect
experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and
experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively
permanent.

Components of Attitude
Attitudes are multidimensional and consist of three main components:
Cognitive Component: The cognitive component represents the beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge
associated with the attitude object.
Affective Component: The affective component encompasses the emotional responses and
feelings triggered by the attitude object.
Behavioral Component: The behavioral component refers to the inclination to act or behave in a

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certain way towards the attitude object.

THEORIES OF LEARNING :
Learning can be understood clearly with the help of some theories that will explain our behavior.
Some of the remarkable theories are −
• Classical Conditioning Theory
• Operant Conditioning Theory
• Social Learning Theory
• Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic
learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned
stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

Many experiments illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single
pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog) can
lead to a lasting phobia which is a conditioned response (being afraid of dogs). The theory assumes that all
learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment shapes behavior.

Operant Conditioning Theory : Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental

conditioning. This theory is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by
its outcomes. It states that behavior is influenced by its consequences. It is also known as
instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning involves:

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Reinforcement: Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated.
Punishment: Behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.
"Reinforcement" refers to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.
Psychologist B.F. Skinner coined the term in 1937.For example, reinforcement might involve
presenting praise (a reinforcer) that strengthens or increases a behavior.

Social Learning Theory

The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −

• Learning is not exactly behavioral, instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a
social context.
• Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the outcomes of the
behavior (known as vicarious reinforcement).
• Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and
making decisions regarding the performance of the behavior (known as observational
learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in
behavior.
• Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for
learning.
• The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and
behavior all mutually influence each other.

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Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about
himself and environment.

This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation based
upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives that a
person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response depending upon
the meaning assigned to the stimuli.

This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores organized
information about the various events that occurs.

Principles of Learning

Participation

During the learning process, the learner’s active participation should be permitted and
encouraged. Participation increases motivation and tends to engage more senses in the learning process
When people engage, they learn more quickly and retain their information for a longer time.

Most people never forget how to ride a bicycle since they were actively involved in the learning process.
Thus, learning activities should be experiential rather than informational. As a result, trainers should
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create a physical atmosphere that encourages small group interaction and sharing ideas.

Repetition / Reinforcement

One of the most important aspects of learning is allowing students to practice and repeat. If you want
to get the most out of training, acquired behaviors must be learned repeatedly to guarantee smooth
performance so that individuals don’t forget the teachings that they receive. Individuals’ capacity to learn
and retain new skills improves when they visualize themselves performing the activity.

Relevance

Learning is aided when the material that is taught is meaningful and relevant to the learners. We should
prioritize content-based learning above problem-based learning. People are more likely to learn when
instruction is directly related to fixing a current problem. It’s not as motivating to study something just
because someone says, “it's critical.”

Transference

Because the training takes place in a unique environment, it’s critical to assess if what you’ve learned will
apply in the real world. Transfer of training occurs when learners can apply their learnings in their job. If
the information learned in one setting does not transfer to the workplace, the training can’t be considered
successful.

Feedback
Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite for
learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their mistakes but also by
providing reinforcement for learning.

Knowledge of results is a positive reinforcement in itself. Learning activities have more intrinsic interest if
feedback is available.

Barriers to Learning

Resistance to change

Resistance to change is the first emotional learning barrier we’re going to discuss – it was something
we saw as companies moved to work-from-home setups with employees refusing to adopt necessary online pro
cesses and tools critical for remote work.

This resistance to change often appears as resistance towards adapting to new technology or, in some cases,
resistance to stop doing things the “old way” and try something more efficient but unfamiliar.

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2. Peer pressure

Peer pressure is an emotional learning barrier that we often compare to light bullying for adults. In the
workplace, this often appears as senior management pressuring subordinate-rank staff to undertake courses or
go through training as a must, without explaining the feasibility or benefit to the employee.

Another type of peer pressure is an employee attending training they don’t have to just to not feel left out.

3. Fear of failure
Fear of failure is another one of those deep-rooted emotional barriers to learning that often stems from an
unresolved and unpleasant experience. In this scenario, the learner is full of self-doubt and is convinced that
they won’t be able to understand the new information or learn the new skill.

4. Lack of focus

Learning in the workplace is challenging regarding focus and finding an environment without interruptions.
Lack of focus is another learning barrier in the category of emotional obstacles. The prevalence of ADHD in
adults also challenges L&D professionals to overcome, as each employee may be predisposed to a lack of
focus.

Additionally, the use of smartphones and other digital devices nowadays has lessened the attention span of your
employees. Maintaining uninterrupted focus on one task for prolonged periods can prove challenging.

5. Lack of goals

All effective L&D strategies include ways to motivate and engage the employees. One of these ways is often
setting SMART goals. This works because having something to work for or aim to reach is at the base of
human psychology.

No goals = procrastination. Goals = motivation and productivity.

Managers often struggle to set concrete objectives to reach or develop ones that are too far in the future or
difficult to grasp. This makes the goals inefficient in providing sufficient motivation for learning.
What is the benefit of this course for the employee?

6. Lack of previous knowledge

Lack of previous knowledge is a motivational obstacle that can make a person completely lose their will
to learn. This often happens with employees attempting to switch careers or learn an unfamiliar skill
from scratch. In this scenario, the learner is overwhelmed and feels lost in the subject. It becomes
difficult to believe they could ever understand what they’re being taught.

7. Not understanding the importance of the training

No matter how many excellent employee engagement ideas you implement to make staff more interested
in their training, it won’t work until they can understand its importance logically.

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Attitude:
An attitude is a positive; negative or mixed evaluation of an object that is expressed at some
level of intensity. It is an expression of a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, place,
thing or event.
Attitudes involve a complex organization of evaluative beliefs, feelings, and tendencies toward
certain actions. How much we like or dislike something determines our behavior towards that
thing.
According to Stephen P. Robbins – “Attitude is manner, disposition, feeling and position with
regard to a person or thing, tendency or orientation especially in the mind.”

According to Reitz “Attitude is the persistent tendency to feel and behave in a favorable or
unfavorable way towards some object, person, or ideas”

Characteristics of Attitude are:

• Attitudes are the complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs,
values, behaviors, and motivations.
• It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.
• All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.
• An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our
actions, and influence how we judge people.
• Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can
view a person’s attitude from his or her resulting behavior.

• Attitude helps us define how we see situations, as well as define how we behave toward
the situation or object.

• It can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitude is those that we are consciously
aware of an implicit attitude is unconscious, but still, have an effect on our behaviors.
• Attitudes cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.
• An attitude is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false which one holds
towards an idea, object or person.

• It has aspects such as direction, intensity, generality or specificity.

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FORMATION OF ATTITUDES:
Attitudes are not inherited. They are acquired and learned by the people from the environment.

Factors affecting Attitude Formation are:

Needs and Satisfaction:

People develop positive attitudes towards things that satisfy their needs. For example, a student may
have a positive attitude towards using the internet for their studies because it meets their academic
needs. As is well known, whenever something hinders our reaching a goal or stop us from doing
something that we want to or frustrate our attempts to satisfy our goals and needs, we feel negatively
for those things which stand in our way

Experience:

One’s direct experience with an object or person serves as a powerful source of his/her attitude
formation ,i.e. attitudes are formed on one’s past experiences.
E.g.:- Some of you may like HR, some other may like finance or marketing. This is an attitude
which is formed by studying the subject and getting a fair knowledge from the same. Attitudes
derived from direct experience are powerful, stronger, durable and difficult to change.

Social learning:

This is another factor that plays an important role in the development of attitude. Three
processes of learning affect development of attitudes and these are (i) Classical conditioning (ii)
Instrumental conditioning and (iii) Observational learning. These are being discussed below:

Classical Conditioning:
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious
or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
Many experiments illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many

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cases, a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience
(being bitten by the dog) can lead to a lasting phobia which is a conditioned response (being
afraid of dogs). The theory assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the
environment and that environment shapes behavior.

Operant Conditioning:

Operant conditioning is a learning theory that states that behavior is influenced by its
consequences. It is also known as instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning involves:
Reinforcement: Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated.
Punishment: Behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.
"Reinforcement" refers to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.
Psychologist B.F. Skinner coined the term in 1937.For example, reinforcement might involve
presenting praise (a reinforcer) that strengthens or increases a behavior.

Observational Learning:
A number of behaviors are learned by watching the activities of others and the outcome of such
activities. Children growing often watch parents and significant others in the family and society
doing things which they follow without questioning the wisdom or logic behind these activities.

Group Affiliations
Group affiliations are an important source of formation and development of attitude.
Social learning starts from early age when children derive attitudes from their parents, friends,
teachers, educational institutions etc. An individual adopts the values, norms, opinions, beliefs
and way of behaviour in order to become an acceptable member of that group.
Primary group is immediate group of the individual that is family, peer group etc. Such groups
have limited number of members and enjoy face to face interactions. Since primary groups are
based on close cooperation, affinity and compassion members of primary group often develop
similar attitudes.

Secondary Group is a large, impersonal group of people who share goals and interests.
Secondary groups are often temporary and focused on achieving a common purpose. They can
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be found at work and school, and examples include committees and fellow students or
coworkers. This group also has an significant impact on attitude.
Reference group is a group, the individual is not a member of which but he aspires to be like
members of that group. Thus such a group is used as standard for reference or comparison.
Usually a person identifies with such groups by changing or adopting values, norms, goals
similar to that of reference group.

Cultural Factors:
Cultural factors also affect the development of attitudes. Every society has its culture and every
culture has its traditions, norms, values, religion etc. Thus socialization of every person is
affected by the cultural factors of that society. Studies reveal that people reared in different
cultures exhibit different attitudes while people reared in the same culture show similarity of
attitudes.

Personality Factor: Personality traits also have an important role to play in the formation and
development of attitudes. Attitudes which are in consonance of personality traits are acquired
easily. In a research study it was found that persons with highly organized attitudinal system
accept merits and demerits of their personality as a matter of conscience

Learning attitudes involves 4 processes:

Attention: Attention must be focused on model.

Retention: What was observed from the model must be retained.
Reproduction: Behavior must be practiced again and again
Motivation: The learner must be motivated to form the model.

Type of Attitudes:-
Though an individual can have numerous attitudes, but OB focuses on job related attitudes. Job
related attitudes are of 3 types:

• Job satisfaction
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 • Job involvement

• Organizational commitment
• Perceived Organizational support

Job satisfaction refers to an individual pleasurable or positive emotional state towards his/her
job. Job satisfaction is related with five specific dimensions of job pay, work itself, promotion,
opportunities, supervision and co-workers, positive attitude lead to job satisfaction.

Job Involvement: - It is the degree to which employee immerse themselves into their jobs
&investtime& energy

Organizational commitment: - It is attitude of the employees towards their organization. It is

the measure of the employee’s willingness to remain with a firm in the future.

Perceived organizational support (POS) is how employees believe their organization values
their contributions, cares about their well-being, and fulfills socioemotional needs.
Factors that contribute to POS include:
Supervisor support, Work conditions, Rewards, Fairness, Organizational rewards, Favorable job
conditions.

MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE:
Measurement in its broadest sense is the assignment of numerals, to objects or events.The
methods are classified in to four types:-
• Self report
• Indirect tests
• Direct observation technique
• Psychological Reaction Techniques.

Self Report:
This technique usually elicits response from employee through questionnaires dealing with their

feelings about their work and related matters. This report is carried out through the use of
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attitude surveys. Attitude surveys contain a set of statement or question to be answered by the
employee.

Indirect tests:

These tests may not be brought directly to the employees notice. But the test will be fixed and
employee’s performance would be evaluated with out his knowledge. Indirect test may be also
conducted where the employee will answer to questions which may seem to be very simple in
answering but these answers when evaluated will help the employer to know his attitude.

Direct observation technique:

It is very simple where the employee will be directly observed on his work and his attitude will
be known.

Psychological Reaction Techniques:

Employees psychological reaction towards work and work environment will be judged and their
attitudes will be observed to understand his/her attitude towards job aspects.

Attitude and Behavior - Comparison

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Points Attitude Behavior
Definition Attitude refers to a person's beliefs, Behavior refers to observable actions or
feelings, and evaluations towards a conduct that can be seen, measured, and
particular object, person, or situation. It analyzed. It is the way individuals act or
represents one's internal thoughts and respond in different situations.
opinions.
Nature Attitude is subjective and resides within Behavior is objective and can be
an individual's mind. It is influenced by observed and measured by others. It is
personal experiences, values, beliefs, and influenced by attitudes, social norms,
socialization. environmental factors, and situational
contexts.
Expression Attitudes are expressed through verbal Behavior is expressed through actions,
expressions, body language, facial gestures, choices, decision-making, and
expressions, and other non-verbal cues. observable conduct.
Stability Attitudes can be relatively stable over Behavior can vary and be influenced by
time, but they can also change and various factors, including attitudes,
evolve through experiences, education, situational cues, social pressure, and
and exposure to new information or personal motivations.
perspectives.
Consistency Attitudes are not always consistent with Behavior may or may not align with
behavior. There may be inconsistencies attitudes. People may act differently
between what a person believes or claims based on situational factors, external
to believe and how they actually behave pressures, or personal motivations, even
in specific situations. if their attitudes suggest otherwise.
Influence Attitudes can influence behavior by Behavior can also influence attitudes
shaping one's perceptions, intentions, and through a process known as cognitive
motivations, leading to certain actions or dissonance, where individuals adjust their
choices. attitudes to align with their actions.
Measurement Attitudes can be measured through self- Behavior can be measured through direct
report measures, surveys, questionnaires, observation, behavioral assessments,
or scales that assess individuals' tracking actions, or collecting data on
opinions, beliefs, or evaluations. specific actions or choices made by
individuals.
Consensus Attitudes are subjective and can vary Behavior can be observed and agreed
among individuals. Different people can upon by multiple observers, providing a
hold different attitudes towards the same more objective understanding of how
object or situation. individuals act or respond in specific
circumstances.
Predictability Attitudes may not always predict Behavior can be relatively predictable
behavior accurately due to the influence and provide insights into future actions
of situational factors, social norms, and based on past behavior patterns.
individual variations. However, it may still be subject to
situational influences and other
contextual factors.
Context Attitudes can vary based on the context Behavior can also vary based on the
Dependency or situation. People may hold different context or situation. Individuals may act
attitudes in different environments or differently in different situations,
social settings. adapting their behavior to fit social norms
or situational demands.
Internal vs. Attitudes are internal and subjective, Behavior is external and observable,
External existing within the individual's mind and visible to others, and influenced by both
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 influencing their thoughts and internal factors (such as attitudes) and
evaluations. external factors (such as social norms or
situational cues).
Flexibility Attitudes can be relatively resistant to Behavior can be more flexible and
change, especially deeply held beliefs or adaptable, influenced by situational
attitudes formed over a long period. factors, external pressures, or personal
However, they can still be influenced and motivations, leading to changes in
modified through various factors. behavior over time.
Examples Examples of attitudes include having a Examples of behavior include going for a
positive attitude towards exercise, having daily run, choosing healthy food options,
a negative attitude towards certain foods, or voting for a specific candidate in an
or having a favorable attitude towards a election.
particular political party.

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