Computer Hardware

INPUT DEVICES.
Before a computer can process any data, it must be given the data & program instructions by use
of an Input device.
Input is a term used to describe all that goes into the computer memory (usually the raw data &
instructions) to await processing.
Input involves entering data & instructions into the computer by use of suitable devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES.
An input device performs the following functions/ tasks:
1. Accepts data & instructions from the user into the computer system.
2. Read data from the medium on which it is stored.
3. Converts the human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable form (i.e. a form that can
be understood by the computer)
4. Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from the user.
5. Data input can either be Online or Off-line.
Once the data is entered into the computer, it finally enters the Main storage.
Exercise.
1. Give THREE main functions of a computer input device.
2. State four examples of input devices you know.

Classification of Input devices.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data into a computer.
These include.
(a). Keying devices.
(b). Pointing devices such as the Mouse, Trackball, etc.
(c). Scanning and other data capture devices, e.g., Scanners, Digital cameras, etc.
Data capture devices are those devices that automatically capture data from the source.
(d). Speech recognition or Voice input devices such as Microphones.
(e). Touch screen and Digitizers.

KEYING DEVICES.
These devices are used to enter data into a computer by typing.
The most common input devices are the Keyboard & the Keypad.
KEYBOARD.
The keyboard is used to enter data in form of text into the computer.
Each key is simply a switch, which when pressed, results in a digital code being sent to the
computer.
Example;
Pressing the ‘A’ key produces the code 01100001 representing small ‘a’. Holding down the Shift
key at the same time produces the code 01000001 representing capital ‘A’.
Advantages of Keyboards.
1. The keyboard is very reliable compared to other methods of text input such as voice input or
optical character recognition which are prone to errors.
2. the keyboard is very cost effective, since every computer comes with a keyboard, and there is
no additional cost involved.

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KEYPAD.
A Keypad is a miniature (tiny) Keyboard which is mostly used on small portable computers,
Calculators, Palmtops, Mobile phones, etc.

POINTING DEVICES.
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
Examples of pointing devices are; Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, and Light pen.

MOUSE.
A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small ball and is used to control the movement of the
cursor (or, a pointer) on the computer screen.
The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). It issues commands to the
computer by activating certain simple graphic images called Icons displayed on the screen.
Advantages of using a Mouse.
1. The mouse is easy to learn & convenient to use. This is because; it is used to select options
(icons) displayed on the screen.
2. It is inexpensive.
3. Most modern software includes an option to use it.
4. It performs operations much easier & much more quickly than a keyboard. It is very fast to
work with as it lets the user provide simple “point” & “click” instructions to the computer.
5. Can be used in art and design work because; it allows diagrams to be drawn & modified
easily.
Disadvantages of using a Mouse.
1. The mouse cannot be used to input text easily.
2. It is relatively slow for selecting menu options. A user who is familiar with the keyboard
commands can select the options more quickly.
3. It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
4. The mouse requires a flat surface to operate.

TRACKBALL.
A Trackball works just like the mouse, but instead of moving it on a flat surface, it has a ball
fixed on its top which is rolled using the index finger.
As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen. The user can then click its button to execute
the selected command.
The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that, a Trackball doesn’t require a flat surface for
movement.
Note. Today some computers come with a trackball on top of a Keyboard and a Mouse.

LIGHT PEN.
A Light Pen is a hand-held device similar in shape to a ball-point pen, and has a light sensitive
point. It consists of a pen-like device called a stylus connected by a cable to a computer
terminal.
A Light pen is used together with a graphic VDU that is able to sense light shining on the screen
using special hardware & software. A Light pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the
light emitted by the display using a photosensitive detector at its base.
When the pen is moved across the screen, its position is sensed because of the light it produces.

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√ A Light pen provides a direct input mode. It can be used to read data directly from the source
document. It allows the user to point directly to an object on the screen, thus identifying it to
the screen.
√ Light pens can be used to read bar-codes on the different items.
√ It can also be used to select items from a given list of ‘menus’ displayed on the screen by
simply pointing the pen at the item required & then pressing a button on the pen.
√ Light pens are usually used as design aids - they can be used to draw images on the screen,
which can be printed. They can also be used to indicate a point on a screen or pad, for
example, to select options for drawing.

TOUCH-SENSITIVE SCREENS.
A Touch-sensitive screen uses the human finger as the input medium, (i.e. one can select items or
options from a given list by touching the screen with a finger).
This method of input is usually used with a VDU, which is able to sense the touched points on
the screen.
When the user touches the screen with a finger, it blocks out the light emitted from that portion
of the screen. The computer detects the position of the finger. The screen can then determine
which part is being touched, and therefore, which selection is required.
Touch screens are mostly used in public places like banking halls, hotels, in airports (to provide
guidance information), etc.
Notes.
• Both the Light pen & the Touch provide fast input modes.
• There is no typing or printing required; however, they operate under the influence of complex
programs.

JOYSTICKS / GAME PADDLES.

These are hand-held Input devices, which enable the user to interact with a program. They are
used for playing computer games.
A Joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever. It is an analogue-to-digital
converter where the input involves moving the control lever sideways, upwards or downwards to
control the movement of the cursor on the screen.
Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in
playing video games.
A Game paddle may consist of a button, which can be pressed by the user to input data to the
program. When the program senses that the button has been pressed, it takes the appropriate
action, such as, firing a missile or reversing the direction of a tank.
A Game paddle can also consist of a dial which when rotated; it conveys information to the
program. The program must immediately act on the information supplied by the dial setting, e.g.
a goalkeeper may be moved across the face of the goal to intercept a shot.
Note. Data processing should be very fast.

DIGITIZERS.
The Digitizers are input devices that convert graphical drawings or images on the paper or other
material into digital data and convey them to the computer memory.
Digitizers are slow, but easy to handle and errors are hardly present.
1. GRAPHICS PADS/ TABLETS.
Graphic Tablets are used for entering drawings directly into the computer.

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A Graphics tablet consists of a pad or tablet (that is sensitive to touch) & a pointing device,
which is similar to a ball-point pen called a stylus.
A paper is placed on the graphic pad & the user can trace lines and draw pictures using the
pen. As the stylus moves on the tablet, the tablet senses the pressure on it & translates it into
digital signals giving its corresponding position on the screen. It then converts this ‘pressure’
into x-y co-ordinates, which describe what is being drawn. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can display the drawings on the screen or have them printed.
Uses of Graphic Tablets.
Graphic tablets are mostly used;
(a). In Engineering & Architectural design as it lets the user create his/her own images. It is
very easy for the user to ‘try out’ different designs.
(b). In Computer-Aided Design work as diagrams & maps can be traced or drawn &
transferred into the computer memory to be further worked on using Graphics programs.
(c). By Banks & Insurance companies to verify signatures. A signature written on a pad is
compared against another formerly stored in the computer.
(d). Pads are also good at detecting forgeries.

2. VIDEO DIGITIZERS.
These consist of special hardware & software, which converts video signals frame-by-frame
into a digital representation in computer memory, which can be saved on disk, if necessary.
A sequence of frames can have graphics, cartoons, text added, etc.

DIGITAL CAMERAS.
A Digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be streamed (entered)
directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a
special cable.
There are 2 types of digital cameras; one that can take still (motionless) images, i.e.,
photographs, and another that takes motion pictures (video).

VOICE INPUT DEVICES (Speech Recognition Devices - SRD).

Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone connected to a computer
system (through some extra circuitry) is used to enter data in form of spoken words into the
computer.
The SRD accepts spoken commands & convert them into electronic pulses/ signals, which can be
processed by the computer.
The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed & filed for identification.
Uses of Voice Input devices.
(a). Voice input is a fast & easier method mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those
with impaired hands.
(b). In Security & Access control – Each person has a unique ‘Voiceprint’ that can be used for
identification. This approach could be used in; -
- Electronic Money transfer.
- House/ Car security using voice activated locks.
- Office security for room access.
(c). In Voice-activated toys & games.
(d). In Quality control & automation (computerization/mechanization) in factories.

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A checker whose hands are busy does not have to stop working to make entries in log books,
instead he/she can simply give a running (spoken) comments on the goods he/she is
examining. For example, in Japan, speech input is used to order robots about.
(e). In Automated materials handling – in airports, handler’s give spoken commands that direct
the luggage to the appropriate conveyor belt.
(f). In Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – A designer, e.g. of buildings, working at a terminal can
call up design patterns which are frequently used, instead of having to punch catalogue nos.
into a Keyboard.
Limitations (disadvantages) of Speech Input/Recognition devices found Today.
1. Homophones – some words have same sounds.
2. Word separation.
The speech must be “clipped” i.e. each word must be followed by a short period of silence.
This enables the device to recognize the end of each word. If this is not done, the device
might not be able to tell the difference between ‘Command” and “Come and”, depending on
the accent of the speaker.
3. Speaker variability.
The speed, tone (quality of sound), accent, loudness and pronunciation of an individual
speaker can vary
Voice input is complex to develop, and it does not take care of speech related problems such
as accents and tone. This implies that the device must learn the unique speech of an
individual.

4. Limited vocabulary understood & the no. of speakers they can recognize.
Most speech systems can recognize a limited, standard vocabulary of spoken words. The
simplest SRD can recognize the voice of only one speaker. .
The device must also be ‘taught’ the voice patterns of the speaker. For example, if a device
can store a vocabulary of 25 words, the user will speak the 25 chosen words into the device.
The device then stores the patterns for the spoken words. Later, when the user speaks a
word, the device compares the pattern of the word spoken with those patterns it had
previously stored. If a match is found, the word is recognized. If not, the speaker may be
requested to repeat the word or use a synonym (a word that means almost the same thing).
5. The response rates of these devices are still relatively slow.
When you compare the no. of words in English & the total no. of words that can be said at a
given point, show that speech recognition is slow.
6. Speech input is complex to develop & is still at the early stages of development.
Review Questions.
1. Explain briefly how the following types of devices work.
(a). Speech recognition.
(b). Graphic (digitizing) tablet.
(c). Touch sensitive screen.
(d). Light pen.
2. State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of using Speech recognition devices.

SCANNING DEVICES.
These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly.

IMAGE SCANNERS.

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A Scanner is used to input pictures or photographs into the computer. This is because a
Keyboard or a Mouse cannot perform these tasks.
Scanners are usually used to capture existing documents in an electronic form into the computer
for further processing or incorporating into other documents.
It converts text & graphics into machine sensible format. Once the text & graphics are scanned,
the images can be manipulated by changing the colors, the sharpness and contrast.
There are 2 main types of Scanners: -
(a). Page scanner:
This is a desktop machine that looks like a small photocopier. It scans a whole page at a
time. An example is the Flatbed scanner.
Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real object or a picture by placing it on a glass plate
exactly the way a photocopying machine works. The text or the picture scanned is displayed
on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.
(b). Hand scanner:
A Hand scanner is held in the hand and passed over a document.
Scanners are very useful when large amounts of existing documents need to be converted into
electronic form for feeding into a computer system.
For example, if the contents of the Bible are to be entered into a computer system, you can either
type everything using a Word-processor, or scan each of the pages and import them into a word-
processor, which is faster and also more accurate.
Each character is compared to all known shapes or patterns so that the appropriate code can be
entered into the computer.

Scanner Problems.
1. The scanner is on but there is no image when you scan.
♦ Make sure the DMA, IRQ and Address jumper settings on the interface board matches
the settings you selected in the Scan Mate installation program.
♦ Check the brightness control dial on your Scanner. If the dial is at the brightest settings,
you may not be able to see the image.
2. The light on the scanning window cannot turn off.
This shows that there is a conflict with resident software on DMA channel.
3. The images printed look blotchy (discoloured/ spotted).
To prevent this, do not rescale the image. If you scale the image, you will lose some of the
details when you print. If the image is too big, scan at lower resolution.
4. The Scanner turns off as soon as you start scanning.
This shows there might not be enough RAM to scan the images.
5. The scanned image on the screen is much larger than the original.
This occurs if your image is displayed at a lower resolution than you scanned.
Note. The Size of your screen image depends on your Monitor’s size & your VGA card.

DOCUMENT READERS.
A Document reader is an input device, which can read data directly from source documents,
such as bank cheques, & convey it to the computer in form of electronic signals.
Types of codes on documents that can be recognized by a Document reader: -
(i). Marks – short lines made by hand, usually in pencil on a document.
(ii). Characters – hand-written (e.g. on meter-reading) or printed in magnetic ink on cheques.
(iii). Printed lines – e.g. the bar codes.
Document readers can be classified into; Optical readers and Magnetic Readers.
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Optical Readers.
Optical readers use the principles of light to sense the document contents or to capture data. A
special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to
be entered into the computer. The reader converts the data into digital form, and then passes it to
the computer for processing.
There are 2 types of Optical readers: Optical Character Reader (OCR) & Optical Mark
Reader (OMR).
Magnetic Readers.
They use the principles of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been written
using magnetized ink.
Example; Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).

OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR).

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a data capture technique, which enables the computer
to read printed or hand-written documents directly.
The characters are formed onto the document by a Typewriter or computer Printer using a special
type font. Handwriting can also be recognized if the characters have been carefully/well formed.
The reading is done by OCR, which can be connected directly to the computer. An OCR is able
to distinguish one character from another by its shape.
As the OCR reads/ scans the document, each character reflects different amounts of light, which
is sensed by the OCR using a photoelectric device & converts the shape sensed into electronic
signals. These signals represent a particular pattern.
Note. The Reader has a memory that stores reference patterns for a given character set or font.
The sensed pattern is then compared with the stored patterns of the characters, which the reader
can recognize. If a match is found, the character sensed is identified; otherwise, the document
may be rejected by the reader.
Uses of Optical Character Recognition devices.
OCR devices are used by companies that do a large amount of processing on a regular basis. For
example, Public utility companies, Insurance companies, Airlines, Banks & the Postal service
(for reading postal codes).
 Public utilities – OCR is used to process documents produced as output and which can be re-
used as input by the computer. For example, an Electricity bill has a returnable slip, which is
printed with all the information required for re-input into a computer, i.e., customer code and
amount owing. If the customer pays the exact amount stated, the returned portion of the bill is
used for direct input to the computer.
 Used in Sales Order forms.
The forms can be printed by the computer with standard data, e.g. Stock codes, Account code,
etc. The Salesman then enters details of the order form and returns it for OCR processing.
 Used in Stock-taking sheets.
The computer can print out stock sheets in OCR characters. The stock checker then enters the
actual stock quantities on the form in careful handwriting. The sheet can then be optically
read into the computer for amending the stock records.
Disadvantages of OCR.
(i). The document should be handled carefully (e.g. it should not be folded or creased) for
accurate reading.
(ii). Document size & type area may be limited for accurate reading.
(iii). It requires special typing & character formation and a paper with the required quality.

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The user must make sure that characters are well-formed; if they are not, reading errors may
arise, making output results unreliable.

OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR).

The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. These positions can then be
marked by, let say, a pencil.
The OMR detects the presence or absence of a mark on a form by sensing the reflected light of
these positional marks. The reader is then used to convert the marks into computer-readable data
& send the value of the sensed data into the computer in form of electronic signals.
The accuracy of an OMR depends on the marks being made properly. If a mark is too light or
not solid enough, it may be misread, giving rise to errors.
Uses of OMR.
OMR forms are used in situations where the data to be input is simple, or the volume of data is
large enough since using other methods would be more expensive.
 Used in marking Multiple-choice examination papers where the answers are filled in a form
with special pencils.
The OMR can sense the presence of a pen or pencil mark. The person taking the test makes a
pencil mark in the box, which he/she thinks corresponds to the answer. An ‘OMR’ is then
used to ‘read’ the answers given by sensing the marks made. This data is then relayed to the
computer, which can then check the answers given and grade the paper.
 In Insurance premium collection.
 To read marked research questionnaires.
 In Supermarkets for stock recording.
 Traffic surveys.
Comparative advantages of OMR vs OCR.
(i). Speeds up data input. They ensure faster & more accurate processing of data.
They read data directly from the source document & enable data to be given directly to the
computer for processing.
With an OCR it is possible to read up to 10,000 A4 sized documents in 1hr.
(ii). They read data directly from the source document & therefore, no data preparation is
required.
(iii). Errors are easily corrected.
(iv). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery.
(v). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence reliable.
(vi). The sensitivity of an OMR can be altered to allow for different surface, pencils and inks.
(vii). OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR.
(viii). With an OCR, no typing or transcription/recording process is involved & therefore, not
prone to transcription errors.
Comparative disadvantages of OMR and OCR.
(i). They are expensive methods of input, because they require specialized techniques &
equipment.
(ii). Verification of marked data is difficult.
(iii). Documents may be difficult to design, understand and fill in.
(iv). The document reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document design.

MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR).

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is the machine recognition of characters printed
with Magnetic Ink.

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The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron (II) Oxide that gives them a
magnetic property.
After forming the characters onto the document, the inked characters are magnetized by passing
the document under a strong magnetic field.
During the reading process, the magnetized characters cause current to flow through the read
head depending on the magnetized surface area occupied by individual characters.
The reader differentiates characters depending on the magnetic patterns that bring different
amount of currents. The MICR recognizes these patterns & conveys them into the computer in
form of electrical signals.
Uses/ applications of MICR.
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used in banks to process the many cheques
being written each day.
The MICR mostly uses a font known as E13B, which consists of 14 characters (i.e. digits 0-9,
& four special characters).
A cheque is usually pre-printed with the Identification number of the bank, the Account
number of the customer, Serial number of the cheque, Branch number, using a special ink
containing particles of Iron Oxide (Magnetic Ink). When the cheque is presented for payment,
the amount is written on the cheque in magnetic ink, using a special device. The cheque can
then be read by a MICR. The data read is then transmitted directly to the CPU for immediate
processing, or can be stored on magnetic disk for latter processing.
 In Local Authorities for payment of rates by installment.
Advantages of MICR over OCR.
(i). An MICR can read data faster & accurate since the information on the document is usually
pre-printed.
(ii). Difficult to forge.
(iii). Document can still be read when folded, written on, etc. This means that, MICR is more
‘robust’.
(iv). A wider range of fonts can be used, including hand printing & normal type. However, there
is no standard-type font.
(v). Faster than OCR. It is possible to read about 2,400 A4 sized documents 1 minute.

POINT-OF-SALE (Pos) TERMINALS.

This is a general class of Input devices of which a Bar-code reader is an example.
A POS terminal can be used as an Input device when online processing is required. Data arising
out of a transaction (e.g. the purchase of an item) is entered on the terminal and is immediately
processed by the computer.
POS terminals are widely used in the Banks & computerized Wholesale or retail industries, such
as Supermarkets.
Each item in the store has a code; Universal Product Code (UPC) printed on it, that identifies
the item.
The POS terminal consists of a Numeric keypad & a few Control (Functional) keys for entering
data, a Screen and a Printer to print out the list of items and price for the customer.
The Item code, Quantity & Price of the goods purchased by the customer is entered into the POS
terminal directly by the operator. The terminal produces the customer receipt. The details of the
sales are then entered directly into a backing storage device and the Stock level is also
automatically decreased.
A Bar code reader, a Credit card or a Kimball tag Reader could be attached to a POS
terminal to reduce the data entry.
BAR-CODE READER.
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This is a device used to read the bar-codes printed on many items in Supermarkets &
Pharmacies.
Each item is given a code known as Bar-code (a Bar-code is a set of parallel bars of varying
thickness & spaces of varying widths representing a number code). A space represents a “0”
while a bar represents a “1”. The coded data can be read by using the principles of light.
A computer is used to store the code of the items, item description, price, amount in stock, etc.
When a Bar-code reader is moved across the bars by the Cashier, the reader scans the bar codes
printed on the item using a laser beam, which generates electrical pulses corresponding to the
reflected light received. The bar code is then converted to a number (which is the code for the
item).
The interpreted data is sent to the computer memory in form of signals. These pulses are
compared with standard codes stored in the computer and is used to look up the price of the item.
The details of the price & description are printed out on a receipt for the customer. The Store
Inventory may also be updated at the same time.
Bar codes are also used in Library lending Systems. Each user is given a library card, which is
coded with his library User Number. The relevant details of the user; let say, Name, Address,
Telephone number, category of user (e.g., Staff or Student), No. of books borrowed, date of
expiry of the card, etc are stored in a file on a disk.
When the user wishes to borrow a book, a Bar-code reader ‘reads’ his card, and transmits the
code to the computer. The computer uses the code to retrieve the user’s record from disk.
The Library Assistant will then update the user’s record by entering the relevant information
such as the name (or number) of the book, the date borrowed & the date on which it is to be
returned.
Note. Bar-codes cannot be used on goods such as Fresh Fruits & Vegetables.
Advantages of using a Bar-code reader.
(i). They are very fast & accurate provided that the bar-code has been printed clearly. For
example, if the bar-code is soiled by dirty hands or has broken bars, errors may occur when
an attempt is made to read the code.
(ii). It is a cost-saving method.
(iii). Saves time. The prices do not have to be attached to each item in the store because the
items details are already held in a master file.
(iv). Does not require special skills to operate.
(v). It improves customer convenience.
Disadvantages of using a Bar-code reader.
(i). Requires standby facilities.
(ii). Requires very expensive equipments.
(iii). The prices are not stamped on the product, and therefore, high chances of incorrect data
being entered.

KIMBALL (PUNCHED) TAGS.

Some manufacturers use Kimball tags; small paper punched cards attached to clothes or other
commodities on sale mostly in supermarkets. The data is incorporated in the small punched
holes. The holes alternate with spaces to represent data in binary digits.
An optical scanning method is used to read the Kimball tag and extract the product code & price
from it. The tags are removed at point of sale and transferred to the data processing department
for their contents to be used in updating the stock files.
Note. POS terminals, Bar-code readers & Kimball tags speed up customer service & also ensure
accuracy. They may also be used to manage inventory, accounts & maintain up-to-date
sales information.
Advantages.
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(i). Data is already coded, hence easy to process.
(ii). No transcription requirements.
Disadvantages.
(i). Difficult to handle because they are small.
(ii). Store small volume of data.

CARDS / BADGES.
These are small rectangular cards made of plastic that incorporate data in both machine-sensible
& human-sensible forms, e.g. Credit cards.
Ways of Coding data onto badges: -
 Magnetized marks, e.g. a short strip of magnetic tape sealed into the card’s surface.
 Optical marks.
 Punched holes.
The cards are read using Badge readers. The data recorder machine records data on these
badges automatically, once manually inserted, using magnetized marks, optical marks or
punched holes.
For reading, the badge is slotted into the reading unit where the converter machine (the reader)
accepts the contents of the badge and conveys them directly to the computer as input for
processing.
The badges are used in banks as Credit and Service cards, e.g., in the Automated Teller Machine.
The Badge contents are usually static, though some cards contents can be altered by the reader,
e.g., Phone credit cards whose currency value keeps on changing until zero currency value is left.
(a). SMART CARDS.
A Smart card is a special type of badge whose data can be changed by a special badge
reader.
A Smart card can be used as a form of electronic money. As the customer purchases an
item, the badge reader can deduct units from the card. This process continues until the card
has no more currency units left.
(b). CREDIT CARDS.
A Credit card has a strip of magnetic tape fixed on it. The tape contains coded information,
which is usually the owner’s code. The card is inserted into a slot where magnetic data
may be picked. Details of the transaction are then recorded against the credit card no. &
the owner’s account is credited with the transaction.
Uses of Cards / Badges.
 In Car parks – badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry to or exit from a car park.
 In Banks – Credit and Service cards, i.e. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) give out cash
automatically when customer inserts a plastic card & follows the instructions issued.
 In Access control – Access control cards are used in many offices to control access to
buildings or rooms for security reasons.
 In Production control – Punched cards can be used to hold data in a factory such as
employee’s details, etc, which is used for production scheduling (arrangement), stock control
and job costing.

DIRECT INPUT FROM INSTRUMENTS.

Sensors are devices that can be connected to computers & are used to record physical quantities
like Temperature, light, humidity.
Examples of direct input instruments: -

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(a). Sensors used to record temperature, light, humidity in a Green house to ensure the best
conditions for plant growth.
(b). Thermostats connected to a Central heating system controlled by a computer in order to
monitor temperature & to help save electricity.
(c). Pressure pads on a road connected to computer-controlled traffic lights to speed traffic
flow.
(d). The continuous logging of temperature data in order to monitor & subsequently control a
chemical process. The automatic capture of data for use in such processes is usually known
as Data logging.
Advantages of using devices, which can read data directly from source documents.
(i). They ensure faster & accurate processing of data. This is because the data is read directly
from the source document, and no data preparation is necessary.
(ii). No typing or recording required, and therefore, not prone to transcription errors.
(iii). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery.
(iv). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence reliable.
(v). Errors are easily corrected.
(vi). Difficult to forge.
Review Questions.
1. (a). What are document readers?
(b). Describe various kinds of document readers.
2. (a). What is the difference between OCR and OMR?
(b). State two advantages & two disadvantages of each.
3. The diagram below shows coded data that could be input into a computer.

(i). What is the name given to the above method of input?

(ii). State TWO applications that would use this method.
(iii). For one of the applications you have given, state TWO items of information that
might be represented by the coded data.
(iv). State what hardware is needed to enter the coded information into a computer and
briefly describe how this hardware works.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the following:
(i). OCR.
(ii). OMR.
(iii). MICR.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF INPUT DEVICES.

The following factors should be considered when selecting an input facility for use in a computer
system: -
1. Cost.
The initial cost of the input device(s) & the running cost (i.e. the cost of using the device on
a day-to-day basis) should be considered in deciding which method of input to adopt.
These costs must be weighed against the expected benefits of the facility.
The cost involved in acquiring the machinery, space, environmental requirements, cost of the
media, and operation costs should also be considered.

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2. Input Speed.
If quicker response is required, then a fast method of data input is necessary. For example,
Document readers may be suitable in areas where speed is critical, though they are
expensive.
3. Volume.
The input device selected should cope with the volume of data to be input within the
appropriate timing.
4. Accuracy Required.
The degree of accuracy that a given application requires will help to decide which input
device to use.
For example, the best way to maintain accuracy at a Supermarket checkout counter is to use a
Bar-code reader to read the codes instead of the Cashier reading the prices marked on the
goods & entering the values on the cash register, because the Cashier can make mistakes.
Therefore, the data being input should be accurate and give confidence & appropriateness in
the intended application.
5. Reliability.
The Input facility selected should be known to have a success record in the market on the
application it is to be acquired for.
6. Appropriateness.
The most appropriate input facility is arrived at by weighing out the merits & demerits of the
concerned facility depending on where it is to be used.
For example, the Document readers may be considered to be very fast input devices suitable
for (e.g., MICR –Banking. OCR –billing), but they require standardized documents
appropriate for the reader.
Key-to-disk systems are more suitable in providing fast & bulk input in an online system.
7. Type of Processing used (Mode of operation).
The choice of input medium to be used is also determined by the nature of the data
processing system. This depends on how fast the data is to be processed.
Generally, there are 2 types of data processing: -
(a). Online Processing.
(b). Batch (Off-line) Processing.
ONLINE PROCESSING.
In an Online system, the data is processed as soon as it is available.
Characteristics of Online Processing system.
 The input device is connected directly to the computer. If the device used for data entry
is connected to the computer, it is said to be Online to the computer.
 Immediate processing of the transaction data is necessary.
 Processing is completed within a short time (usually 1 or 2 minutes), depending on the
speed of the system.
An example of an Online system is the use of Automated Teller Machines (ATM) also
known as Bank cash points.
The customer inserts a plastic card into the machine. This card contains identification
information, such as Customer No. or Account No.
The ATM then requests the user to enter his own unique password (commonly known as
Personal Identification Number - PIN).
The ATM passes this information onto the computer, which matches the password with the
account number. If everything is OK, the ATM gives the customer access to the system. The
customer can then specify, for instance, how much money he wishes to withdraw.
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The ATM again passes on the request to the computer, which confirms that there is enough
money in the account to cover the withdrawal. The ATM then releases the money.
BATCH/ OFF-LINE PROCESSING.
In Batch processing, the data is gathered, recorded on a medium, such as a Magnetic disk or
tape & is later input to the computer in batches/ groups.
Characteristics/ Features of Batch processing system.
 The input device does not necessarily need to be connected to the computer.
If the device used for data entry is not connected to the computer, it is said to be Off-Line
(away from the computer).
 The data is not immediately input into the computer, and it is not even immediately
recorded in a machine-readable form.
 The speed of processing is not important. Processing is done at whatever time is most
convenient.

Revision Exercise.
1. Match each application with the most appropriate input device or medium.
Low volume input of data in a small business system POS Terminal
Direct input of large volumes of data recorded in a special printing font OCR
Capture of sales data in a shop VDU
Processing of bank cheques MICR

2. List FIVE factors that should be considered when selecting an input device.
3. Explain the difference between Online processing and Batch processing.
4. (a). Name 2 input devices which enable data to be read directly from source documents.
(b). What are the advantages of using devices which can read data directly from source
documents?
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i). Light pen.
(ii). Touch sensitive panels.
(iii). Digitizers.
(iv). Punched tags.
(v). Bar-codes.
(vi). Badge readers.
(vii). Key-to-disk systems.
6. (a). Explain the technique of Optical Character Reader as a method of data input.
(b). List the advantages and disadvantages of this method.
(c). Briefly describe THREE different applications in which a System analyst might
recommend its use.
7. State TWO examples of O.C.R devices
8. Briefly explain 5 considerations which affect the choice of an input device in a particular
situation.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) / PROCESSOR.

The CPU is described as the computer’s ‘brain’ that monitors all the computer operations. It is
the unit inside the computer where all software instructions, math and logic operations are
carried out.
In Microcomputers, the CPU is implemented in a single silicon device called a Microprocessor
(Computer chip), which is made by combining a very large no. of transistors together using a
technology referred to as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
Notes.

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 The CPU is one of the most expensive components of the Motherboard & also a very
delicate piece of equipment.
 The CPU has a label, such as “486” or “Pentium” to show its type, and the chip
manufacturer’s logo on it.
 It has a large fan (known as the Heat sink) screwed on top of it, that keeps the CPU cool
while the system is on. This is because the CPU gets very hot when it is in operation.
Functions of the Processor (Central processing unit).
1. To control the use of the Main memory in storing of data & instructions.
2. To control the sequence of operations within the computer.
3. To give commands to all parts of the system.
4. To carry out data processing.

MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE.

Basic features (functional elements) of a Microprocessor system.

The Processor is made up of 3 major/ main components;
(i). Control Unit (CU).
(ii). Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
(iii). Main Memory Unit (MMU).
Other components include;
√ Registers.
√ Accumulator.
√ Buses.
Note. The elements making up the Computer system communicate through electronic paths
called Buses. The buses carry data, instructions, information, control commands and power
between the communicating elements.

CONTROL UNIT (CU).

The CU acts as the manager of the computer. Its main work is to control, supervise & co-
ordinate all the activities of the various units of the computer, enabling the machine to perform
useful tasks.
The CU is usually described as the Nerve centre of a computer system. It co-ordinates &
controls the activities of the different components of the computer system in the same way that
the brain directs the actions of the body.
The CU carries out the fetching, decoding & execution of the instructions. It fetches/ selects the
required instruction from Main storage, stores it in a no. of special Registers, interprets the
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instructions, and causes the instruction to be executed by sending appropriate signals to the
appropriate hardware devices.
In order to execute an instruction, the CU must do the following:
 Fetch (get) the instruction from the Memory.
 Decode the instruction, i.e., determine what the instruction is saying. For example, whether
to ADD or COMPARE two numbers.
 Get the data required by the instruction. E.g., the two numbers.
 Activate the right circuits for the instruction to be obeyed, e.g. call into action the circuits
which perform addition.
Note. The CU automatically repeats this cycle of operations until either it is instructed to stop or
the last instruction has been executed.
In order to enable the Control Unit to carry out the various functions, certain registers are used.
(a). Sequence Control register (also known as the Program Counter).
It controls the order in which the instructions are carried out.
It contains the address of the next instruction in the computer program to be executed.
For the next instruction to be executed, it must be brought from the memory into the
Processor. When an instruction has been fetched from memory, the Program Counter is
increased by 1, and is then ready to find the next instruction.
Therefore, the Sequence Control register sequentially points to the address of the
instruction to be carried out, reads it into the Instruction Register, and automatically moves
to the next instruction in the processing sequence.
(b). Instruction Register.
It stores a copy of the instruction being processed.
Note. An instruction has 2 parts;
 Operation part, e.g., Multiplication.
 Address part.
The Instruction Register is connected to the Instruction Decoder.
(c). Instruction Decoder.
It decodes (interprets) the instruction received from the Instruction Register & sends
signals to the control switches of the computer.
(d). Address Registers.
Each location in a memory has its own address, which allows us to get directly to any
program instruction or item of data stored within the memory.
Address – A label, name or a number identifying a storage location, or a device from
which information is received or to which it is transmitted.
Address Registers are 16-bit registers used for the storage of addresses. They are
connected to the Address Bus.
The Address part of the instruction goes to the Address Register, which retrieves the
required data item in the address indicated and copies it in the ALU so that the operation
instruction may be executed.
Address modification – the process of changing the address part of a machine instruction
by means of coded instructions.
(e). System Clock.
In order to be able to fetch & execute instructions, the CU uses a timing signal provided by
a System Clock attached to the CPU. The Clock is an electronic system that is used to
control the Processor on when to fetch the next instruction from the Main memory.
The Clock sorts out all the internal paths inside the Processor to make sure that data gets
from the right place & goes to the right place.
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The clock is an Oscillator that generates timing pulses (at a frequency of several
Megahertz) to synchronize the computer’s operations & ensure that the operation occurs
at the right time.
The CU performs 1 step of the instruction in 1 clock pulse. The speed of processing will
depend on:
(i). CPU Frequency, i.e., time duration of 1 clock pulse.
(ii). The no. of steps involved in executing a full instruction.
(iii). The Access time of the computer, i.e., the time required to access any one memory
address.
Functions of the Control unit.
1. It co-ordinates & controls various parts of the computer system, namely; Main memory, ALU
& the Peripheral devices.
2. It maintains order & controls all the operations or activities inside the Processor.
The CU controls the activities of all the other units of the computer by using the appropriate
control signals. For example, it instructs the ALU on which arithmetic or logical operations
are to be performed.
3. It connects the required circuits to enable the ALU to process the data in storage, as specified
by the program.
4. It directs sequence of operations, i.e., it generates synchronization signals & manages
commands exchanged between the ALU, I/O units & the Memory.
5. It retrieves and interprets instructions from the Main storage & makes the computer to
execute these instructions by giving commands to the rest of the computer elements.
6. It controls the transfer of unprocessed data to the Main storage & results from the Main
storage.
7. It stores the results in the memory.
8. It determines the location of the memory that contains the next instruction to be retrieved.
9. It monitors the CPU operations & identifies problems, such as equipment malfunction,
illogical instructions or erroneous data finding its way into the system, and flashes them on
the computer screen.
Note. The CU does not perform the actual processing on the data. Its function is to maintain
order and direct the flow of sequence of operations and data within the computer.
It also instructs the Input device when to start and stop transferring data to Storage unit, and also
tells the Storage unit when to start and stop transferring data to Output devices.
INTERNAL CPU REGISTERS.
Internal registers are temporary storage locations within the Processor. They are used to hold
data & instructions temporarily during processing.
The computer can handle the contents in the Registers more faster than those in the Main
memory. However, the Registers are more costly than the Main memory.
Registers are special-purpose storage locations usually used by the CU during the fetch-execute
cycle to store control instructions, and by the A.L.U to store data enabling the ALU to
manipulate the data at high speed.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU).

This is the part of the Processor that performs all the arithmetic operations, such as adding or
multiplying figures, & logical operations needed to solve a particular problem.
For example, if two numbers are to be added or multiplied, this is done by the ALU.
Logical operations involve sorting and comparison of figures to determine, lets say, whether
one quantity is greater than another. They allow us to choose alternatives based on whether or
not a given condition is true.

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The ALU contains a large no. of electronic circuits, which help to carry out a variety of
arithmetic and logic (decision making) functions under the direction and command of the CU.
Example: A teacher processing end-of-term results.
Suppose the teacher wanted a list of students whose Average was over 50%? Then, the
processing would be: -
Step 1: Find Total Score for the students.
Step 1: Find Average.
If Average is greater than 50, THEN put this student on the list, ELSE
 Go back to Step 1.
For each student, the teacher has one of two alternatives, either the student goes on the list or not.
The alternative chosen depends on whether a certain condition is true.
The condition is: AVERAGE IS GREATER THAN 50.
If the condition is true, the student is put on the list. If it is false, i.e. if the Average is Less than
or Equal to 50, then the student does not go on the list.
Here, the ALU performs the arithmetic operations of finding the Total Score and the Average. It
also performs the logical operations of comparing the Average with 50, and detecting if it is
more or less.
The ALU also performs Logic Functions, e.g., AND, NOT, OR, TRUE, FALSE & IF.
How the ALU operates.
The CU issues commands to the A.L.U, indicating where in the Main memory to get the data to
be manipulated. The various data types to be processed are taken from the Main memory and
stored in registers within the CU. The data is then taken to the ALU where it is interpreted.
The ALU determines the addresses from which the data is required & the CU fetches the
necessary data so that the ALU can complete the execution of the instruction. The data then
undergoes the required operations (+, /, *, -) and the CU returns the results back in the Main
storage and fetches the next instruction.
Notes.
 A computer does not subtract, multiply or divide, it always adds. In order to perform a
subtraction, it adds complements. Multiplication is carried out by repeated addition.
Division is repetitive complementary addition.
The basic ADD & SUBTRACT operations are carried out by means of dedicated circuits
called Micro-programs, built into the ALU.
 During an arithmetic operation, the Accumulator Register holds one operand, while the
Temporary Register holds the other operand. The result is usually stored in the
Accumulator.
 In Logical operations, the results (lets say, subtracting one number from another) will
determine different course of action to be taken by the CU. This gives the computer its
decision-making ability.
 These arithmetic & logical operations take place at incredibly high speeds; for example, 10
million numbers may be totaled in 1 second.
Functions of the ALU.
The ALU has 2 main functions:
1. It carries out the Arithmetic operations.
2. It performs logical operations and comparison on data.
Other minor functions include;
√ It performs output of variable (logical) functions.
√ It performs branching of prefixed conditions.

The Math Co-processor (or Floating Point Unit - FPU).

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A Co-processor is an additional processor that may be installed to help the Main processor to
perform certain tasks more quickly.
A Math co-processor is used to solve complex scientific or mathematical problems, helping the
CPU do its job faster. It takes care of the floating-point calculations.
It is required especially when running math intensive software such as CAD drawing or other
software that deals with arrays, irrational numbers or trigonometric functions.
Note. Spreadsheet doesn’t require/use a Math processor since it is mostly addition & subtraction.
ACCUMULATOR.
 It is a storage device in the A.L.U, where all the answers from both arithmetic & logical
operations are stored temporarily before being transferred to the memory.
 A Register in the ALU in which operands are placed, and in which arithmetical results are
formed.
COMPUTER BUS.
A computer bus consists of a set of parallel wires connecting the Processor to the other devices
of the computer.
 It is a communication path/medium within the computer that allows different elements of the
computer to communicate with each other.
 An electrical connection linking internal sections of a computer, such as Processor,
Expansion cards, and peripherals such as Keyboard and other Input devices.
 A parallel collection of conductors that carry data and control signals from one unit to
another.

There are 3 major types of computer buses:

(i). Data Bus.
It is a bi-directional (2-way) bus that carries information & data to and from the Processor,
i.e., it carries data from the Processor to the memory during Write operations & from
memory to the Processor during Read operations.
The Data bus usually carries data for processing.
It consists of 4, 8 or 16 lines each carrying 1 bit at a time.
Note. The Data Bus determines the Bus Width of the microprocessor. Its size indicates the
moving capability of information of the chip.
(ii). Address Bus.
It is a unidirectional (1-way) bus from the Processor to the external devices. It usually
contains the address of the memory location or device to be acted on by the Processor (i.e. it
conveys addresses).
The Address bus is wide (usually between 4 – 32 lines) to enable it to address as many
devices as possible.
The size of the Address Bus tells you how much memory the chip can handle.
(iii). Control Bus.
It’s a unidirectional (1-way) bus that carries command (i.e. timing & control) signals from
the Processor. These signals are necessary to coordinate the activities of the entire system.
For example, the command for the Printer to prepare to receive data is a control signal from
the processor.
They usually have 3 – 10 lines.

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Note. Buses are implemented as actual communication lines. They may be Internal buses,
which are usually laid down as a circuit on the chip itself, or they may be External buses,
implemented as cables.

MICROPROCESSOR OPERATION CYCLE (COMPUTER PROCESSING CYCLE)

The cycle of processing within the computer begins with the data & programs being loaded into
the computer storage from an Input device, the processing are carried out, and the results passed
outside the computer system through an Output device.
During normal operation, the Processor sequentially fetches & executes instructions. Usually the
execution of an instruction takes place in 3 phases/ stages: -

(1). Fetching.
The address (e.g. X12Y) of the instruction to be executed, which was loaded in the
Program Counter from a computer program, is used to locate the instruction in the
memory or I/O device.
The instruction (e.g. 11001010) is then fetched or read from the memory or I/O device
through the Data Bus into the Instruction Register.
(2). Decoding.
Once the instruction is in the Instruction Register, it is decoded by the Decoder of the CU.
Decoding enables the Processor to determine the kind of operation it is required to perform.
Note. Decoding is only performed on instructions, not data.
(3). Execution.
The CU issues the appropriate sequence of signals depending on the decoded information.
These signals then effect the required execution.
Typical Operational procedure.
Suppose a microprocessor is required to add 20 to 39.
 The nos. must be stored in the Main memory for them to be added.
 The ADD instruction is fetched & placed in the Instruction Register where it is decoded.
 The first data element (20) is fetched & placed in one of the Internal Registers.
 The next data (39) is fetched & also placed in one of the Internal Registers.
 The ALU is then used to perform the addition operation.

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Example: To show how the Memory, CU & the ALU interact in order to multiply
two numbers.
Suppose the memory locations contain the following information: -
Multiply the numbers in Store the result in
21 18
500, 501 502
100 101 500 501 502
Remember that, the memory of a computer is used for storing instructions and data.
 Locations 100 & 101 contain instructions, while locations 500 & 501 contain data.
 Assume that, the CU ‘fetches’ the instruction in location 100 and ‘decodes’ it, i.e. it
determines that a Multiplication is required. It also determines that, the nos to be multiplied
are to be found in location 500 & 501.
Since an arithmetic operation is to be performed, the CU activates circuits, which cause the
two numbers (21 & 18) to be placed in the ALU. It then instructs the ALU to do the
multiplication. The ALU multiplies the two numbers & leaves the result (378) in a special
location called an Accumulator or Register.
 After the execution of this instruction is complete, the CU will fetch the next instruction
(which is to store the result in location 502). Since the CU ‘knows’ that the result is in an
Accumulator, it will activate circuits to cause this value to be copied into location 502 &
then go to the next instruction.
The complete process of fetching an instruction from the store, decoding it & carrying it out
is called the Fetch-Execute cycle.

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS.
There are 2 basic factors (parameters/ considerations) used to classify Microprocessors.
1. Clock speed.
2. Width of the Data Bus.
Clock Speed.
Every Microprocessor has a clock that drives its operation. Clock speed is the speed at which
the processor runs.
Microprocessor speed refers to its Clock speed, which is measured in Megahertz (MHz – 1
million cycles per second).
The Clock speed varies from one processor to another. Microprocessors with faster clocks
perform operations much faster compared to those with slower clocks. Therefore, the speed of a
microprocessor gives its power – the higher the speed, the more powerful the microprocessor.
Note. The speed at which a computer can process data is also affected by the speed at which the
memory can work.
Bus Width.
The size of the Data Bus determines the Bus Width of a microprocessor. It indicates the moving
capability of information of the chip.
Higher Bus widths provide higher computer performance. For example, fetching a 16-bit
instruction from memory using a Data bus width of 16 bits would require a single fetch
operation, whereas an 8-bit Data bus would require 2 cycles to fetch the same instruction; hence
slowing the execution of the instruction.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS.
(i). Microprocessors.
(ii). RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors.
(iii). CISC (Complete Instruction Set Computer) processors.
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MICROPROCESSORS.
The Microcomputers use Microprocessors, which usually have all the required functions on one
chip.
Some of the manufacturers who make microprocessor chips include;
 Intel Inc., AMD (American Device Manufacturers) & Cyrix who manufacture
microprocessors for IBM compatible microcomputers.
 Motorolla for Apple computers.

MICROPROCESSOR TRENDS.
The following are some of the Microprocessors manufactured by Intel Inc:
Processor Year Speed No. of Data Size of Maximum No. of
(MHz) Transistors Bus Internal addressable memory
width Registers memory Address
(Bits) (Bits) Lines
8088 1979 5-8 __ 8 16 1 MB 20
80286 1982 10 130,000 16 “ 16 MB 24
80386 1985 12 -16 275,000 32 32 4 GB 32
80486 1989 33 - 66 1 Million “ “ “ “
Pentium 75 1993 90 –200 3 Million 64 “ “ “
Pentium Pro 1995 180 –200 5,500,000 “ “ 64 GB 36
Pentium MMX 1997 166 –233 7,500,000 “ “ “ “
Pentium II Xeon 1998 233 –300 “ “ “ “ “
Pentium III 1999 500 –550 “ “ “ “ “
Pentium MMX has Multimedia instructions such as 3-D bitmap manipulation built in them. The
Pentium III Multimedia instructions are 4 times more powerful than those of Pentium MMX
Microprocessors.

ADVANCED CPU’s.
Larger computers such as Supercomputers, Mainframes & Minicomputers use Processors made
of separate, high speed sophisticated components. That is, the CPU components in large
computers are not all on one chip.
RISC Processors.
The RISC processors are used in manufacture of Minicomputers.
RISC machines are much faster than Micro-processor based machines, i.e. in RISC machines, the
time required to execute an operation is much shorter compared to the time a Micro-processor
would take to execute the same operation.
RISC chips generally use 128 or fewer instructions to execute their tasks. This means that, the
processor has few instructions to locate. They can execute these instructions more quickly & are
therefore very fast.
Again, each instruction is exactly 32 bits long. So, the processor does not waste any power
determining where the instructions begin or end. This makes RISC processors more superior.
They are also cheaper to produce.
Most of the 64-bit RISC machines are manufactured by: -
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

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 Sun Microsystems.
 Hewlett-Packard, and
 IBM (International Business Machine Corporation).
CISC Processors.
CISC chips use between 200 – 300 instructions. Therefore, the processor has more instructions
to look up.
The instructions are usually between 8 -120 bits long. This means that, a CPU devotes at least
part of its circuit time determining where instructions begin and end, making them run slowly.
Note. Microprocessor manufacturers are designing new chips that recognize CISC instructions,
and then convert them into RISC-like instructions. For example, Pentium, Pentium Pro, and their
clones all use some kind of hybrid “RISC/CISC” technology.
Factors that affect the performance of a Processor.
- Overheating.
- Incorrect configuration (construction / arrangement).
- Failed components.
- Running the processor at the wrong speed.
- Jammed or clogged or too small heat-sink / cooling fan.
- Incompatibility.
- Processor inserted the wrong way.
MULTI-TASKING.
This occurs when a processor executes more than one application at a time. Multi-tasking has to
be supported by a Multi-tasking Operating system.
MULTI-PROCESSING.
This is whereby several processors are used in a computer system. It helps to improve on
system performance.
The connection between a computer & the Processor.
A Computer program consists of a series of steps called Instructions. These instructions are
stored in the computer’s Main memory & are used to tell the computer what to do. Each
instruction involves a basic arithmetic or logic operation.
It is the work of the Processor, which controls the computer, to fetch a single program instruction
from the memory, decode the instruction (decide what to do), and then execute (carry out) any
action that might be needed.
The Processor carries out the fetch-decode-execute cycle over and over again operating from the
instructions it obtains from the Main memory. This cycle is often referred to as Fetch-Execute
cycle.
Electrostatic Discharge.
Your body routinely builds up static electricity that discharges to the ground when you touch
something conductive. This discharge is known as Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), sometimes
referred to as an Electrical Strike Disaster.
The size of the CPU, in relation to the no. of transistors on it, makes it extremely susceptible (at
risk/ prone/ vulnerable) to ESD.
Before you touch any component inside a computer, you should ground yourself by touching a
metal part of the Chassis, (e.g. the Power supply casing or the metal frames of the chassis).
A better way is to have an ESD kit, which consists of a Wrist strap with a ground wire and a
specially made floor mat also with a grounding wire.

Data and Command flow.

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Data is communicated from the Input devices through the communicating channels connecting
the Input devices to the C.P.U into the Main memory to await processing.
During computer operation, data and instructions are communicated to the CU from the Main
memory. In the CU, the instructions are decoded (interpreted), which then responds with control
influences that activate the relevant hardware components to operate accordingly.
C.U issues commands to all the other computer elements, i.e., the control/command flow
originate from the C.U intended to the other elements.
For example, from the Main memory, the data is transferred to the A.L.U under the influence of
the C.U commands for arithmetic and logical operations.
The results generated are communicated back to the Main memory where they are held as
intermediate results, before they are transmitted as computer output through the Output devices.
Data or instructions communicated to the Main memory from the Input devices, which are not to
be processed instantly may be transferred to a Backing store, from where they may be
subsequently recovered when required and be brought back into the Main memory for
processing. If the data is updated, it is again communicated back to the Backing store.
Qn. Explain the concept of Data and Command flow.

SUMMARY: DATA PROCESSING CYCLE.

The main processes under which data undergoes to become information.
When a computer manipulates data, it actually performs a no. of separate functions, namely;
1). Data collection.
2). Data Input/ capture.
3). Data Control.
4). Data Processing.
5). Data Storage.
6). Information Output.
INPUT.
This involves entering data & instructions into the computer by use of Input devices.
The Input devices normally present data to the computer in a way that provides easy conversion
into its own electronic pulse-based forms.
STORAGE.
Storage is done within the computer memory (or by devices within the computer cabinet). The
storage could be within the Main memory or by Secondary storage devices.
Before the computer executes any instruction, it must have been written in its memory. It is from
the memory that the computer is able to read the instruction & carry out the required task.
When the data enters the main storage, it is held internally before, during and after processing.
CONTROL.
Control –A process that determines the execution and interpretation of instructions in proper
sequence, including the decoding of each instruction and the application of the proper signals to
the A.L.U in accordance with the decoded information.
A computer has an electronic unit called the Control unit (CU) that performs the control
function.
The CU supervises the transfer of data. It receives instructions from the main storage, interprets
them & issues the necessary signals to the rest of the computer elements for execution.
PROCESSING.
It is carried out by the Processor.
The Processor performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory.
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OUTPUT.
It involves receiving information from the computer through the suitable Output devices. This
may be a Printer, in which the information is automatically converted to a printed form or the
Monitor, which displays the information on the screen.

Exercise (a).
1. Draw a well-labeled diagram showing the components of a computer Hardware model.
2. Compare with the aid of a diagram, the physical appearance and the electronic components of
a Microcomputer.
3. (a). What is the Central Processing Unit?
(b). What parts make up the Central processing unit?
4. (a). Define the acronym A.L.U.
(b). Identify TWO functions of the above unit.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i). Control unit.
(ii). Arithmetic logic unit (A.L.U).
(iii). Main memory.
6. (a). Define Registers.
(b). List THREE types of Registers and state their functions.
7. (a). What is a Computer Bus?
(b). List 3 types of computer buses and explain their functions.
8. Explain briefly the Microprocessor operation cycle.
9. State TWO factors that determine the type of processor.
Exercise (b).
1. Name and explain 3 main parts/ components of the Processor.
2. What is the function of registers in a processor?
3. List the electronic components of a Microcomputer.
4. Draw a block diagram for a simple Microcomputer showing its four main parts. Say what
each part does.
5. Describe the functions of each of the following in a Processor:
(a). Control unit.
(b). Arithmetic Logic unit.
(c). Accumulator.
(d). Internal Registers.
6. Draw a carefully well labeled diagram showing the architecture of a typical Microprocessor.
7. Explain in a sentence the function of each of the following components in a Control unit.
(a). Clock.
(b). Program Counter.
(c). Instruction Register.
8. Name the 3 stages/ phases of the computer processing cycle.
Exercise (c).
1. (a). Give the meaning of the initials CPU, and state its other name.
(b). Describe the 3 main components of the CPU.

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(c). State two functions of the Central processing unit.
2. Outline the FIVE main processes under which data undergoes to become information.

COMPUTER MEMORY (STORAGE).

A computer needs a memory to store the program of instructions and data it has to execute.
Before the computer can execute any instruction, the instruction must first be written in its
memory. It is from the memory that the computer will be able to read the instruction and carry
out the required task.
The memory is tied in to the Processor, Chipset, Motherboard and Cache. It is very important to
the operation of the computer.
The following are some important facts about the memory of a computer.
 Performance: The amount & type of memory used in a computer drastically affects the
performance of the entire system.
E.g., Old memory or improperly configured memory may cause the system to run much
slower than it already could.
 Reliability: Bad memory can lead to mysterious problems, often thought to be something
else.
 Software: Today’s newer applications require more memory that programs of the past, and
as programs are continually created, more memory will be needed.
 Upgradeability: Memory is upgradeable. You can buy more or move old chips into a newer
machine.
HOW INFORMATION IS STORED IN COMPUTERS.
Information is stored in a computer in the form of Bits (Binary numbers) consisting of only ‘0s’
& ‘1s’. These bits define the memory cells, which can hold either a ‘1’ or a ‘0’ at any given
time. The stored bits are usually retrieved (recovered) from computer memory for manipulation
by the microprocessor.
The computer system is made up of a logic that works with two states; “ON” and “OFF”. For a
computer to process information, the information itself must therefore be represented in the two
states.
The two states of “ON” and “OFF” are usually represented by a number system that uses only
two digits; ‘0’ & ‘1’ called the Binary Number system. Each 0 or 1 in the binary system is
called a Bit (which stands for binary digit).
In the binary system, “0” is used to represent the “OFF” state & “1” represents the “ON” state in
the computer.
A single bit alone cannot represent a number, a letter or a special character (such as ? or $). To
represent information, bits are usually combined into groups of 8. A group/ collection of 8 bits is
called a Byte.

STANDARD CODES.
Code – system, policy, regulations, rules, set of laws, convention.
There are two standard 8-bit codes widely used to represent information in computers:
(i). ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
For example, in ASCII code, letter A can be represented with 8 bits as:
11000001
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(ii). EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code).
EBCDIC is mainly used on IBM computers, while ASCII is widely used on most of the other
computers.

MEASURING THE MEMORY SIZE OF A COMPUTER.

The size of a computer’s memory is the no. of ‘units of storage’ it contains. The unit of storage
can be a Bit, a Byte, or a Word.
A Bit is the smallest unit of storage & can be used to store a 0 or a 1.
A Byte is the amount of storage needed/ required to store 1 character.
A Character is any letter, digit or symbol, which can be obtained by pressing a key on the
Keyboard.
Note. 1 Byte can be used to store 1 character.
A Word is a collection of bits. It can also be described as a group of bits or characters
considered as an entity and capable of being stored in one storage location.
The no. of bits in a word is called the Word Size. The most common Word sizes are 16, 32 &
64.
On a given computer, a Word is the amount of storage normally needed to store an instruction.
Memory sizes.
Characters
1 Byte A group of 8 bits 1
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 (a thousand) bytes 103 1,024
1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (a million) bytes 106 1,048,576
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (a billion) bytes 109 1,073, 741,824
1 Terabyte (Tera) 1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion) bytes 1012 1,099,511,627,776
A computer memory is made up of many storage cells called Bytes. Each cell (byte) is capable
of storing 8 bits (binary digits) and has a unique numeric address.
Generally, the memory size of a computer is usually measured in Bytes. The prefix K is taken to
be 1,024 bytes.
For example, when the size of a computer memory is quoted as being, say, 256 Kbytes, this
implies that, there are 262,144 memory cells or the computer has (256 x 1,024) = 262,144 bytes
of memory.
Exercise (a).
1. How is information stored in a computer?
2. (a). Differentiate between a ‘Bit’ and a ‘Byte’.
(b). How many bytes would be required to store the following statement?
COMPUTERS ARE FUN TO USE!
3. Define the term ‘Character’ as used in computing.
4. (a). What is a Megabyte?
(b). How many Kilobytes and how many characters make a Megabyte?
5. The size of a computer memory is quoted as being 256 Kbytes.
(a). How many bytes can that computer hold in its memory at a particular time, if K is
taken to be 1,024 bytes?
(b). Calculate the precise number of characters that could be stored in the computer.
Explain your answer.
Exercise (b).

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1. What is a Byte?
2. Name 2 standard 8-bit codes used internationally to represent information in computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER MEMORY.

Computer storage is divided into 2:
1. Main memory (Primary memory).
2. Secondary storage (Backing/ Auxiliary storage).
MAIN MEMORY.
It can also be described as the Primary storage, Internal Memory, Immediate Access storage,
Semi-conductor memories, Core memory, etc.
This is the storage (memory) found within the computer itself.
It is used to hold data, programs & instructions required immediately (or currently being used) by
the Processor.
A computer can only obey data and program instructions that are stored in the Main memory.
It is Online (very close) to the central Processor, and therefore, any data within the Main
memory is directly accessible to the Processor.
The Primary storage generally consists of the following functional areas:
(a). Program storage area.
Holds instructions from both System software & Application programs, which enter the
central processor from an Input device.
(b). Working storage area.
Is used to hold the data being processed as well as the intermediate results of such
processing.
(c). Input storage area.
It temporarily holds data that has been read from an Input device. Since Input devices
operate at slower speed than the Processor, part of the Input storage area serves as a
Buffer. A Buffer helps free the CPU to get on with other work while the slower I/O
operations are completing.
(d). Output storage area.
Holds the finished results of processing unit released to the user.
General features/ characteristics of the Main memory.
(i). Its operation is wholly electronic, and therefore, very fast, accurate and reliable.
(ii). Data must be transferred to the Main storage before it can be acted on by the Processor.
(iii). It provides direct data access, i.e., data is instantly accessible from the Main memory & the
Processor can act directly on the data.
(iv). It is of low/ limited storage capacity.
The Internal memory of the computer is designed in such a way that it reaches a capacity
beyond which it cannot extend.
(v). It is volatile.
For example, the RAM (the section of the Main memory that stores the user programs,
application data, instructions and intermediate results during processing) loses its contents
immediately when the power is switched off.
The Main memory is therefore, used to store temporary programs and data.

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(vi). The speed of the processor depends on the Main memory.
(vii). It is very expensive, due to the technology involved & the elements used in making them.
Question. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of Primary storage.

Functions of the Main memory.

1. It stores data awaiting processing.
2. It stores instructions waiting to be obeyed.
3. It holds the program instructions & the data currently being processed.
4. It stores intermediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output devices, i.e. it
stores data awaiting output.
5. The size of the Main memory affects the speed, power & capability of the computer.
6. All inputs & outputs are transmitted through the Main memory.
Ideally, the Main memory is used to store all data requiring processing in order to achieve
maximum processing speed.
Classification of Primary Memory.
The Main memory can be classified into 3 different sections:
(i). The fast Microprocessor Internal Registers.
(ii). Read-only memory (ROM).
(iii). Random Access memory (RAM).
READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM).
This is a memory that can only be read, but cannot be written to, i.e., the user can only read the
information in it.
ROM provides permanent storage of data, i.e., the contents in ROM cannot be changed at will.
This is because the program instructions and the associated data stored in the ROM are
developed & installed during the manufacture of the computer hardware by the computer
manufacturers & therefore, they cannot be changed during normal computer operations; thus the
term “Read only”.
ROM is a Non-volatile memory - its contents are retained (remain intact) when power is
switched off. Therefore, it cannot be affected by switching the computer on & off.
ROM forms a small proportion of main storage – it contributes to about 30% of Internal memory.
ROMs are used in situations where the data or instructions must be stored/ held permanently. It
is used to store vital data & programs, which need to be held in the Main memory all the time.
For example, they are used to store essential files especially those the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.
Common uses of ROMs.
The main functions of the ROM are:
(i). It stores Firmware (bootstrap programs) –i.e., the essential files the computer uses while
booting (starting) up.
(ii). It stores the system data & instructions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the
computer system hardware.
For example, it stores the Operating system program, which is necessary for the initial co-
ordination of the hardware & the other OS programs.
(iii). It stores Control programs, used for the operation of the computer & peripheral devices.
For example, the BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the information.

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(iv). It stores Translation programs (Code converters), used for converting a user’s program
into Machine language.
E.g., TURBO PASCAL, which translates Pascal programs written by users.
(v). It stores Special functions (facilities) peculiar to a given machine.
(vi). It stores Character generators for Printers and Video displays.
(vii). It stores ROM Lookup tables.

Types of ROM memories.

1. Masked ROM.
2. PROM (Programmable Read only memory).
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read only memory)
Masked ROM.
This is a ROM that can only be produced by the manufacturer.
The bit patterns corresponding to the desired contents of this memory must be supplied by the
user in a standard format. The 0s & 1s are implemented on the memory by either establishing or
not establishing connections between rows & columns.
Advantages of Masked ROMs.
(i). It has a high bit density, i.e. can store a lot of information in a very small space.
(ii). It is non-volatile.
(iii). It is cost effective, especially if used for large quantity storage. They are mostly intended
for large production volumes.
Disadvantages of Masked ROMs.
(i). It takes time to produce the ROM – i.e., there is delay in producing the ROM.
(ii). Very costly, especially if used for low production volumes.
(iii). Once manufactured, the ROM cannot be changed.
Programmable ROM (PROM).
This is a ROM that can be programmed or “customized” directly by the user using a special
PROM programmer to suit the needs of a particular task.
Customizing is the process by which a standard product is adapted for use in a particular
situation.
The IC’s of PROM are bought when they contain no data or instructions, and are then
programmed by the user. After the programming is done, the contents of this ROM remain
strictly read-only.
A PROM programmer is much like the CD-ROM Writer that burns data into a Compact disk.
Some companies use special machinery to write PROMs for special purposes. In the beginning,
all PROMs of a given type are the same. A particular PROM chip may consist of 0s or 1s only.
Again, each memory cell in a PROM is produced with a fuse. The chip can then be
‘programmed’ by changing the appropriate bits (or by blowing the fuses at appropriate locations
in the memory), causing the row-column junction to be open at these locations resulting in
logical 1s, thus enabling it to achieve the desired functions.
Advantage of PROMs.
(i). A blank ROM chip can be written to, but only once.
Disadvantage of PROMs.
(i). ‘Changing the bits’ is a hardware process, and once performed it cannot be reversed, i.e.,
once the PROM has been programmed, it cannot be changed.

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Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).
This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed a no. of times.
There are 2 main types of EPROMS:-
(a). The UV-Erasable Programmable ROM.
This EPROM chip has a seal on top, which is usually a “Quartz” window that allows UV
light through.
To change or erase the contents of this EPROM, a special high-frequency Ultra-violet light
is shone or directed into a sensor on top of the EPROM chip for a certain amount of time
(usually 5 – 10 minutes). This resets the contents of all the memory cells of the EPROM to
its original state (all 0s or all 1s). The data is wiped out, allowing EPROM to be rewritten.
(b). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).
It is also called Flash BIOS. This ROM can be rewritten through the use of a special
software program, that uses electrical pulses.
Note. This is the way Flash BIOS operate, allowing users to upgrade their BIOS.
Advantage of EPROMs.
(i). They are more flexible than PROMs, as they can be re-used even after the customizing
process is complete.
Disadvantages of EPROMs.
(i). They are expensive.
(ii). They are not pin-for-pin compatible with the final ROM or PROM that was installed
on the board.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).

It is a type of main memory, which is used by the computer to store data & programs temporarily
during the times when they are needed in the Main memory.
The term “Random Access” means that, data in any area of the RAM can be reached or accessed
in the same amount of time.
RAM provides “Read and write” facilities, i.e., it allow instructions to be written & read out,
and also to be changed at will. Therefore, the computer user/ programmer can control or
manipulate the data stored in RAM.
For example, it is this memory that is accessed during installation of programs; deleting, moving
& copying of files.
Read refers to the retrieving (recovering) of information from memory, while Write refers to the
storing of information in memory.
RAM is a Volatile memory, i.e. the contents of RAM are usually lost (rubbed off) when the
power supply or the computer is switched off.
RAM forms the major proportion of Main storage – it contributes about 70% of the Internal
memory. It is the memory used in large quantities in Main memory, and every computer must
specify its size.
Uses of RAM.
The functions of the RAM are:
(i). It stores data & instructions awaiting processing.
(ii). It also stores the instructions which are being obeyed or whose parts have been obeyed by
the computer.
(iii). Stores the intermediate results - the results of computer working/ calculations, before they
are communicated to the users through the Output units.

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Note. The RAM are usually stores Application programs (computer user developed instructions
for solving specific tasks), such as Word processing or Spreadsheets.
It also stores user data, to be manipulated by the computer using the user input Application
programs. Therefore, the RAM of the Internal memory serves the user.

Types of RAM.
(a). Static RAM (SRAM).
A Static RAM is able to maintain its data as long as power is provided to the memory chips.
It does not need to be re-written periodically. In fact, the only time the data on the memory
is refreshed or charged is when an actual “Write” command is executed.
SRAM is very fast & is currently being used in the Main Processor as a small amount of
high-speed memory called the Cache memory.
(b). Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
A Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store information. The information is stored in the
Capacitors as a charge. Like any charge, the electrical charges in individual memory
capacitors of a DRAM will drive away (leak) causing the data to either be lost or changed
within a few milliseconds.
This means that, unlike SRAM, a DRAM must undergo the Refreshing process, i.e., it must
be re-written continually in order for it to maintain its data. This is done by placing the
memory on a Refresh circuit that re-writes the data several hundred times per second.
Refreshing involves reading the information out of, and then writing it back into the
memory, thus restoring a full charge.
DRAM is used widely for most computer memories because it is cheap & small.
Advantages of Static RAM over Dynamic RAM
(i). SRAM is much faster than DRAM & it able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It doesn’t require refresh cycles like DRAM – can retain its data forever.
Disadvantages of Static RAMs.
(i). They are of low data density, i.e. it stores less data bits.
(ii). SRAM chips are physically large & much more expensive than DRAM chips.
Advantages of Dynamic RAM over Static RAM
(i). DRAM has a much higher packing density than SRAM, i.e., a DRAM chip is able to store
more information than a SRAM chip of the same size.
(ii). DRAM chips are small in size.
(iii). A DRAM can store a lot of information in a very small space, and therefore cheaper (less
expensive) that SRAM. This is the main reason why DRAM is the memory used mostly (or
in large quantities) as the Main memory in Microcomputers.
Disadvantages of a Dynamic RAM.
(i). It is much slower than SRAM & is not able to keep pace with the Main Processor.
(ii). It requires refreshing in order to retain the information in its memory cells.
The charge stored in the capacitor of a DRAM leaks & most of the charge cannot be retained
for long or may be lost within a few milliseconds. To preserve the information, the charge
must be refreshed every 1 or 2 milliseconds by use of a Refresh circuit, which can be
incorporated within the CPU.
Exercise (a).
1. Outline THREE characteristics of Main storage.
2. (a). What are the functions of the Main memory of the computer?
(b). Why do we say that the Main memory slows down the computer’s processing speed?
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3. Distinguish between the two types of Primary memory, stating clearly where each one is
used.
4. (a). What is a RAM? What is it used for?
(b). State 3 important facts about RAM.
(c). What is meant by “Random access?”
(d). Briefly describe the two types of RAM, and state where each one is used.
5. (a). What does ROM mean? What is it used for?
(b). Give 3 important facts/characteristics of ROM.
(c). What programs are stored in ROM?
6. Define the term “Volatile” in the context of computer memory.
7. Identify THREE reasons why Dynamic RAMs are the most widely used memories in
microcomputer systems compared to Static RAMs.
8. Define and explain the following terms:
(i). RAM.
(ii). ROM.
(iii). PROM.
(iv). Co-processor.
Exercise (b).
1. Identify the TWO types of Primary memories found in the Central Processing unit.
2. State how RAMs and ROMs are used in the computer system.
3. Carefully distinguish between ROM, PROM and EPROM.
4. What type of memory is used to store the boot up program (the first program to be executed
on switching on a computer)?
6. State the main differences between Main memory and Backing storage.

MICROCOMPUTER MEMORY MAP.

The computer’s memory is designed to accommodate the Operating system as well as
Application programs. In addition to this, each of the Peripheral devices must have memory
allocated for its software drivers.
Tip. The current PCs have an addressable space of up to 64 GB. The total addressable space is
divided into various sections.

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TYPES OF MEMORY.
CONVENTIONAL MEMORY.
This is the area of memory between 0 and 640KB on a computer. It is used to load MS-DOS
based programs and related components into memory.
These components include: -
 MS-DOS Kernel.
 MS-DOS device drivers.
 MS-DOS command processors – COMMAND.COM
 MS-DOS applications.
 Terminate-and-Stay-Resident programs (TSRs).
You don’t require an additional memory manager to use Conventional memory because MS-
DOS is able to manage Conventional memory.
UPPER-MEMORY AREA (UMA).
This portion of memory lies between 640KB & 1,024KB of Conventional memory.
The Upper Memory Area is used by hardware adapters, such as Display Adapters; hence it is
also referred to as the Adapter segment.
The UMA stores information used for: -
 Graphics & Network adapter cards.
 Page frames for expanded memory.
 ROM-BIOS and Shadow RAM.
Unused parts of the Upper memory are called Upper Memory Blocks (UMBs). On 80386 or
80486 computers, UMBs can be used for running device drivers and memory resident programs.
EXPANDED MEMORY.
This is a type of memory, up to 8MB that can be added to an 8086, 8088, 80286, 80386, or
80486 computer running MS-DOS in Real mode.
The use of expanded memory is defined by the Expanded Memory Specification (EMS).
Expanded memory is installed on an expanded memory board and requires the use of a device
driver called an Expanded Memory Manager (EMM), because it is a type of memory, which is
not normally accessible to applications running in MS-DOS.
The EMM uses part of the UMA called a Page Frame as a ‘window’ to the expanded memory
card. This allows a program to access a large amount of data, and still remain within the 1MB
address space.
MS-DOS based applications must be specifically written to take advantage of expanded memory,
but Window-based applications do not use expanded memory.
For an application to use expanded memory, it must conform to the Lotus-Intel-Microsoft
(LIM) 3.2 or 4.0 expanded memory specifications. These specifications are standardized
methods of accessing memory on the expanded memory card using a page frame in the UMA.
The LIM specification uses a 64KB section usually in the UMA to provide a ‘window’ into
which data can be written and accessed when needed. Once the data has been written to this
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64KB area, it is transferred out to expanded memory. Expanded memory can provide up to 32
KB of extra memory.
EXTENDED MEMORY (XMS).
Extended memory consists of all memory above 1MB on computers with 80286, 80386, 80486
or Pentium processors.
To use extended memory with Windows running in 386 Enhanced Mode, you need to have an
Extended Memory Manager (XMM). The XMM provided with DOS is HIMEM.SYS.
HIGH MEMORY AREA (HMA).
This is the first 64KB of Extended memory. On a computer with extended memory, MS-DOS
can be run in the HMA in order to leave more Conventional memory for Application programs.
BASE MEMORY.
This is the memory (up to 640K) required to start up your computer.
VIRTUAL MEMORY (VM).
The RAM serves the users interests; storing user data and instructions. Oftenly, user data or
instructions overcome the RAM section. In such a situation, the user finds a way his/her
programs and data can fit into the memory, for the computer can only work on data or instruction
that is in the Main memory.
Therefore, the programs and the associated data are designed, in such a way that they can be sub-
divided into small manageable units called Segments, modules or Pages, which can be
conveniently maintained in the memory.
The pages are then stored in a direct access device from where they can be swapped into the
Main memory automatically under an Operating system utility known as the Paging supervisor.
The whole program and the associated data does not necessarily need to be in the memory.
Individual segments are called from the direct access store into main memory when required,
executed by the computer and the next segment swapped with the completed segment in
memory. The process continues until all the modules in the direct access store are executed by
the computer.
Virtual Storage is therefore, a technique that simulates additional memory for an application to
use. Applications access the memory through virtual addresses, which are mapped onto physical
addresses on the hard disk.
Virtual memory can be accessed only while running Windows. Some of the program code and
data are kept in physical memory while the rest is swapped to the hard disk through the use of a
Swap file.
Virtual memory is therefore the space on the hard disk that Windows uses as if it were actually
memory.
Swap file - A hidden file on a hard disk that Windows uses for swapping information from
memory to the disk or drive.
Importance of Virtual Memory (VM).
- It enables programs to address much larger amounts of memory than is actually provided in
Primary storage. Big programs can run within the available internal memory without the
limitation of the memory size.
- It enables your computer to run more programs at one time than your systems physical
memory would otherwise allow.

TYPES OF MEMORIES USED BY: -

(a). MS-DOS based applications.

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Conventional memory is divided into 2 functional areas; The Lower 640K area which is
reserved for software such as the MS-DOS operating system and applications.
MS-DOS applications must be specifically written to take advantage of expanded memory.
The Intel chip architecture allows MS-DOS based applications to address the first 64K of
Extended memory on machines with an 80286 or higher processor. This special area is
called the High memory area.

(b). Windows based applications.

Windows applications do not need Expanded memory. Windows however, requires
Conventional memory to start. If Windows needs memory, it will grab from either
Conventional or Extended memory.

Memory Packaging.
This is simply the entire makeup of a unit of memory.
Earlier, the memory chips were either soldered onto the motherboard or placed in special sockets.
Unfortunately, this meant that when a memory chip was bad, the whole motherboard had to be
replaced.
With socketed chips, “Chip creep’’ became the problem. This is the term used to refer to chips
being lodged out of the socket due to thermal expansion. You had to periodically remove the
case cover and push the chips back in with a thumb.
The memory chips themselves are called DIPs (Dual Inline Packages). They are usually black.
Since the memory chips are too small, they must be combined and put on a medium that can be
worked with and added to a system. To achieve this, the designers place the memory chips on a
small fiberglass card to create the SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) or DIMM (Double
Inline Memory Module).
These cards are placed in a socket on the motherboard, and then fastened/ bolted in. This design
eliminated problems of the past, and made upgrading memory a simple task.
SIMMs.
The SIMM is the most popular memory module. They come in two sizes; 30-pin & 72-pin.
The 30 pin SIMMs usually have small amounts of memory (smaller than 8MB). They are not
much used nowadays. They are mainly used in earlier 486’s and older machines.
The 72 pin SIMMs are much more popular, and are used on many modern motherboards.
SIMMs comes in both Single-sided & Double-sided designs. This means that, the SIMM may
have DIP chips on one or both sides.
DIMMs.
The DIMM is a new designed memory module. It has 168 pins & provides a 64-bit memory
pathway.
They are mostly used in 5th & 6th generation machines. For example, the popular SDRAM comes
on DIMMs.
The difference between SIMMs & DIMMs is the pin designs. A SIMM has either 30 or 72 pins,
and these pins are for both sides of the module.
A DIMM has 83 pins on each side. The pins are like little pads or metal. This design allows
more performance while maintaining a small package size.
Memory Controller.
A PC must have memory to store data resulting from calculations and logical processes.

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Every PC has a Memory Controller, located between the CPU and the memory itself. The
memory controller performs the following functions: -
(i). It oversees the movement of data in and out of memory.
(ii). It determines which type of data integrity checking is supported.
Exercise
1. A PC may have several types of memory for storage of data. Write TWO of them.
2. Write short notes on the following:
(i). Registers.
(ii). Virtual storage.
SECONDARY STORAGE (also called Auxiliary or Backing memory).
Secondary memory is used by the computer to hold programs, data files & backup information
that is not needed immediately (not currently in use) by the Processor.
However, contents in a secondary storage media can be quickly transferred into the computer’s
Main memory for processing when required.
It is also used by the computer to supplement the computer’s main (internal) memory in case of
mass storage purposes.
This storage is provided by less expensive devices such as:
(i). Magnetic disks (Hard disks &Floppy diskettes).
(ii). Winchester disks.
(iii). Magnetic tapes.
(iv). Cassette tapes.
(v). Punched cards.
(vi). Zip disks.
(vii). Optical disks, which include CD-ROMs & WORM (Write once Read Many) disks, and
(viii). Digital Video Disks (DVDs), which can be connected to the computer.
Most of these storage media are magnetic based, i.e., they use the principles of magnetism to
store data and instructions in form of binary.
The data is stored permanently in Disk drives. The disk drives can either be fixed inside the
computer, as in the case of Hard disks, or inserted anytime you want to read or write in them.
What is a Disk drive?
 A Disk drive is a computer device for reading or writing data from or into a storage media.
 A Disk drive is a hardware on which files can be stored.
 A Disk drive is a unit that houses a disk.
Examples;
 Hard disk drive (HDD or drive C:).
 Floppy disk drive (FDD or drive A:).
 CD-ROM drive.
 DVD-ROM drive.
 Tape drive.
 Zip drive.
A Disk drive can be used as an Input device, Output device or Secondary storage device.
Characteristics of Secondary storage devices.
(i). They provide slow access of information – they process data very slowly compared to
primary storage.
Modern secondary storage devices normally operate in milliseconds. It can take between
25 – 50 milliseconds to locate information in a disk drive.
(ii). They have high data storage capacity.

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Disks & Tapes can store large amounts of data and instructions; however, the amount of
storage is limited by the no. of disk packs or tapes you buy.
(iii). The devices are cheap.
(iv). They are non-volatile. Secondary storage units store data permanently.
(v). Used for mass storage of data & program files not currently being operated on, but which
will be transferred to the main storage when required.
Question. Identify the advantages of secondary storage devices.

THE NEED FOR SECONDARY STORAGE IN COMPUTERS.

1. The amount of storage needed on a typical Microcomputer system might be greater than the
storage space available in the Main memory. This requires the use of backing storage
devices, which can be used to store large quantities of information.
2. Whatever is in memory is lost when the computer is switched off. Thus, there is a need to
store programs & data in secondary storage devices from which it can be retrieved when
needed.
3. Primary storage is expensive, thus the need for secondary storage devices which are cheaper.

FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES.

(i). Used to store backup data & instructions that is not needed immediately (or not currently in
use) by the CPU. This helps in creating space for another data to be stored in the memory.
(ii). Used for transportation & distribution of data & software, i.e., for transferring files from
one machine to another.
(iii). Used to back up files (keep copies of data & programs) for safe-keeping.
Whatever is in memory is lost (or can be corrupted) when the computer or the power
supply is switched off. Disks can therefore be used to store programs & data, which can be
retrieved when needed.
(iv). Used to install new software.
Exercise (a).
1. (a).What is meant by ‘Secondary Storage’?
(b). Explain 3 reasons why it is necessary for a computer system to have secondary storage
facilities.
(c). Outline 3 basic characteristics of Secondary storage devices.
2. (a). State THREE differences between Primary storage and Secondary storage.
(b). Give TWO reasons for using secondary storage devices instead of using Primary
storage.
3. (a). Give two examples of secondary storage devices.
(b). State 4 functions of secondary storage devices in computer systems.
Exercise (b).
1. Explain the salient features of computer secondary storage.
2. Why do we need secondary storage on a computer system?
3. (a). State any four advantages of secondary storage over main memory.
(b). State one primary storage device and one secondary device.

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MAGNETIC DISKS.
A Magnetic disk is a round platter made of a plastic or a metal & coated with a magnetic
material, which is used for storage of information.
Magnetic disks can be used:
(i). Store backup data that is not being used currently.
(ii). To install new software.
(iii). To transfer/ transport files from one machine to another.
(iv). To back up small amounts of files for safekeeping.
Magnetic Disk storage – A storage device or system consisting of magnetically coated disks, on
the surface of which information is stored in the form of magnetic spots arranged in a manner to
represent binary data. The data are arranged in circular tracks around the disks and are
accessible to reading and writing heads on an arm which can be moved mechanically to the
desired disk and then to the desired track on that disk.

Data recorded on a magnetic disk can be read/ retrieved in 2 ways: -

(a). Sequentially or Serially – whereby data from a given track are read or written sequentially
as the disk rotates.
(b). Directly.
Illustration.
Suppose there are 5 records stored on track 0, and 5 records on track 1.
In Sequential access/ retrieval, the records from track 0 are read, followed by the records from
track 1, and so on until all records have been retrieved.
In Direct data access/ Retrieval, the records are accessed directly, in any order, moving the
Read/write heads to the track that contains the data required.
For example, suppose you want to read record 99, followed by record 20, then followed by
record 43. If the records are located on tracks 19, 3 & 8 respectively, then the read/write head
will move to track 19, then back to track 3 & then to track 8.
In order to read record 99, there is no need to access records 1 to 98; the head can proceed
directly to where record 99 is located.
The storage capacities of disks are commonly expressed in terms of the no. of bytes of data they
can hold.
A Magnetic disk can be of 2 forms: -
(i). Floppy diskettes (Soft disks).
(ii). Hard disks.
FLOPPY DISKETTES.
A Floppy disk is a disk that can be inserted in & removed from a disk drive.
The 3.5-inch disk is inserted via a slot in front of the System unit/ cabinet.
Floppy disk units are single-drive units able to hold a single disk. The disk unit is incorporated
physically into the body of PCs. Such disk drives are called Internal disk drives.
A Floppy disk is made from a thin, flexible plastic circular material. The plastic material is
coated with a magnetic substance (usually Iron Oxide), which enables data to be recorded on the
disk.
The plastic disk is protected in a rigid smoothly lined plastic envelope; that safeguards the
recording surface against external influences, e.g., touch and dust accumulation onto the
recording surface.
Floppy diskettes can bend easily.

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The diskettes are relatively cheap and conveniently handled. However, they are only suitable as
storage media in Microcomputer systems because, they store relatively low volumes of data and
have a short life.
The storage capacity is influenced by the no. of sides of the plastic base coated with magnetic
material & the storage density, measured in bytes. The common storage capacities are 360, 720,
& 1,440 bytes.
In single-sided disks, data can only be recorded on one side, whereas in double-sided disks, data
can be stored on both sides.
The disks come in different densities. The Low density (single-sided) disks, which hold 720KB
of data & High-density (double-sided) disks, which usually hold 1.44MB of data.
Uses of Floppy diskettes.
Floppy diskettes are used: -
(i). To distribute software on microcomputers.
(ii). To collect or input data for subsequent transfer and input to another system.
(iii). As backup media for small hard disks.
Common types of Floppy drives.
The diskettes come in different sizes.
1). 3.5-inch drives, which accept the small 3.5” disks.
2). 5¼-inch drives, which accept the big 5¼” disks.
3). 8-inch drives.
The 3.5” & 5.25” diskettes are used in Microcomputers, while the 8” diskette is normally used in
Minicomputers & Mainframe computers not for storage but as a data collection/capture medium.
The diskettes can only be read by drives that are designed to read/write onto them, i.e., a low-
density 3.5-inch drive will only read and write the low-density diskettes.
However, most high-density drives are able to read and write both low-density & high-density
diskettes.

Physical Appearance of a 3.5-inch Floppy disk.

(i). Permanent label.
- It is incorporated on the diskette when it is bought.
- It has on it an arrow indicating the direction of inserting the diskette into its drive,
information about the diskette, such as the no. of tracks per inch, the version of the
diskette, e.g., Single-sided Single density (1S1D) & the trade name of the diskette.
(ii). Temporary label.
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This is the label, which is attached onto the diskette by its user to specify, e.g. the name of
the owner, name of programs maintained on the diskette, etc.
(iii). Security tags.
Are used to safeguard the contents of the diskette. When the hole is covered by the shutter
(a plastic band), the diskette cannot be written to or its contents altered.
(iv). Spindle hole.
It is the hole used by the disk drive to hold/ clump the diskette over its turntable for the
drive motor to spin the diskette past the Read/Write heads so that the reading or writing
operations can be performed on the recording surface(s) of the diskette.
(v). Read/Write region (Read/write head slot)
This is where the diskette’s recording surface is exposed. It is used to give the heads of the
disk drive access to the disk.

Comparison between 5¼-inch and 3½-inch diskettes.

5.25-inch Floppy B: 3.5-inch Floppy A:
Densities Low-density High-density Low-density High-density
Capacity (Bytes) 360KB 1.2MB 720KB 1.44MB
Tracks 40 80 80 80
Sectors 9 15 9 18
Heads 2 2 2 2
Type Flexible Flexible Rigid Rigid
DS – Double-Sided. HD - High-Density.
• Both types are either of low density or High density.
• The 5.25 inch diskettes are flexible, while the 3.5 inch are rigid.
• 5.25 inch diskettes have a max. of 15 sectors, while 3.5 inch diskettes have a max. of 18
sectors.
• The 3.5-inch disks store more data, and are better protected. They have now replaced the
5.25-inch diskettes, which are only used on existing 8088 PCs.

Internal workings of Floppy drives.

The inside of a standard floppy drive is almost similar to the inside of a hard drive.
Most floppy drives have 2 Read/write heads, meaning that they are double-sided. These heads
are used to read & write data to the diskette.
The heads are moved by a Head actuator. The actuator moves the heads in & out, enabling
them to position themselves over any track on the disk.
The heads are spring loaded & are physically in contact with the disk when reading & writing.
The drive spins the disk at about 300 revolutions per minute. This speed reduces the friction
created by the contact between the heads and the disk during the read & write operations.
Some disks are coated with Teflon, to further reduce the friction between the heads & the disk.
Underneath the drive is the Logic board, which controls the inner parts of the drive & serves as
an interface between these parts and the floppy drive controller.
The front of the drive is called the Faceplate, the part of the drive, which is visible from the front
of the case.
At the back of the drive there are 2 Connectors, the power connector & the Ribbon cat
connector. All floppy drives use pretty much the same type of connector.

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HOW DATA IS WRITTEN OR READ IN A FLOPPY DISK.
The protective covering of the floppy disk has an aperture that allows a Read/Write head to
access the disc with the envelope in place.
When the disk is inserted into the disk drive using the slot in the computer’s cabinet, the door is
shut and the turntable is activated, which rotates the disk & also brings the read/write head into
contact with the disk. When a command is issued, it activates the drive motor, which then
rotates the diskette past the Read/Write heads inside the disk drive. The read/write heads are
moved to & from across the disk in order to write data on the disk surface or read back data that
had previously been recorded.
Note. The diskettes should be handled carefully. Dust, smoke, hair, and even fingerprints can
disrupt the contact between the heads & the disk.
The disk surface is divided into concentric circles called Tracks. The Tracks are further sub-
divided into Sectors, which are used for data storage. Data or information is recorded on the
Tracks & sectors. Typically, each sector is 512 bytes.
The tracks are described as concentric, because they allow the moving around one track from a
given start point and end up at the starting position.

The write heads of a disk drive use a recording method known as Tunnel Erasure. This method
helps to keep each track of data separate from the others. As the head writes the data on a track,
the tunnel erase heads come along and erase the outer edges of the track, thereby creating a sharp
–edged track. This keeps the data on one track from being confused with data from another
track, thereby eliminating problems.
The Floppy diskette is a Direct Access Storage Medium (DAS/m). The Access Time (i.e. the
time taken by the disk drive to find a piece of information on the disk & retrieve the desired
contents until they are available in the computer memory from the media) is made up of 3 parts: -
1. Seek Time – The time taken by the Read/write head to locate the right track, which contains
the data required.
2. Rotational Delay/Latency.
After the head is positioned over the desired track, it has to wait for the right sector.
Time taken for the drive motor to rotate/spin the diskette past the Read/Write head until the
right contents align directly below the Read/write head is called Rotational delay.
3. Data Transfer Time (or Transmission Time) - Time taken by the Read/write head to read
the contents & send or transmit them to the computer memory.
 Data Transfer Rate (also called Throughput).
- The rate at which data is read from or written to the drive once the heads are positioned over
the right sector.
- The amount of information a device can transfer in a given amount of time.
- The no. of characters copied per unit of time.
Transfer rate is measured in Kilobytes per second (Kb/s) or Megabits per second (Mb/s).
HARD DISK.
Hard disk is made of metal & is usually rigid/ firm.
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Hard disk is not removable like the floppy disk, but it is fixed inside the computer. However, it
works on the same basic principles as the floppy disk.
A hard disk is made up of one or more platters (disk plates), arranged one on top of the other to
form a disk pack. The platters are made from a metallic material, usually an Aluminum alloy or
Glass in order to make them light.
The glass platters have enough Ceramic within it to resist cracking & also they can better resist
the heat produced during operation.
Each platter is coated on both sides with a magnetic material, usually Iron Oxide, which enables
data to be recorded on the platter. This is why many platters are brownish orange in colour.
The mixture (of the magnetically sensitive substance) is poured on the platter, then spinned to
evenly distribute the film over the entire platter.

The disk pack plates are held on a rotational Spindle, which is used by the drive motor to rotate
the plate surfaces past the Read/write heads in order for the read & write operations to be
performed on the recording surfaces.
Data is written on & read from the disk using Read/write heads in the disk drive, under the
influence of the computer’s command signals.
The heads are attached to a device or an access arm called the Head Actuator, which is used to
move the read/write heads across the platters to the destination track.
There is usually 1 Read/write head on each side of a platter & all the heads are attached to a
single actuator shaft so that the heads move in unison. Each head has springs to force it into the
platter it reads.
When off, the heads float between the surfaces of the platters, which are held in a vacuum that
enables it to spin/ rotate around very quickly.
When the drive is running, the platters rotate causing air pressure that lifts the heads slightly off
the platter surface. The disk rotates & the heads can move in & out over the surface to record or
read data on the various tracks.
Notes.
 The Read/Write heads do not touch the disk plate’s recording surface. They fly over to avoid
the R/W head’s ‘crash’, which may result in the wearing away of the magnetic coating over
the recording surfaces that may cause loss of the recording property of the magnetism.
 The distance between the head & the platter is very small such that the drive must be
assembled & repaired in a very clean room because one dust particle can throw the whole
drive off.

DATA STORAGE IN A HARD DISK.

Disk packs vary in size depending on the no. of platters & the diameter of the platters. However,
the disk plates making up a disk pack are all of the same size, shape & have got the same no. of
tracks in the recording surfaces.
Disk packs with single platters are called Disk cartridges. One cartridge is loaded into the unit
Read/write mechanism located inside the unit & positions itself over the first track of each
surface.
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The surface of each disk is divided into a no. of concentric circles called Tracks, each track
being divided into Sectors.
The storage capacity of a hard disk is much higher than that of a floppy disk, & is therefore able
to store much more data than a floppy disk of the same size because of technical differences.
The storage capacity of the hard disk is determined by the no. of recording surfaces, no. of tracks
per surface & the recording density.
The computer identifies the record sought for by using its track no., or cylinder no. & the sector
no. for its direct retrieval.
Note. The top most & bottom most surfaces of the platters, i.e., the top surface (of platter 1) &
the bottom surface (of platter 5), are not used for recording of data for protection purposes.
This is because they can be easily scratched. Therefore, in a disk pack of 5 disk plates, there are
8 recording surfaces & 2 unused surfaces.
 Hard disks are used as backing storage media for applications that require mass storage of
master files & direct access for the maintained records when necessary.
What is a Disk – A circular metal plate with magnetic material on both sides, continuously
rotated for reading or writing by means of 1 or more R/W heads mounted on movable or fixed
arms. Disks may be permanently mounted on a shaft or as a package, they may be removable
and others placed on the shaft.

HARD DISK ACCESS MECHANISMS.

In order for a drive to read or write to a disc, it must be spinning at a constant speed. Floppy disk
drives only begin rotating whey they are required to read or write data. However, Hard disks
spin continuously, often at 3,000 revolutions per second.
The Read/write heads are capable of crossing the disk surface from one track to another very
fast, making it possible to locate a data file or even a particular record/item within a file on the
disc very quickly.
Terms used to define Access Times in Hard disks.
The Hard disk is a Direct Access Storage Media (DAS/m). Its Access Time is obtained in same
manner as that for the diskette. However, the Access Time is influenced by:
 The arrangement of the Read/Write heads.
 The rotational speed, which is faster than that of the diskette.
If the disk pack is removable from the unit, the disk drive or unit is referred to as an
Exchangeable Disk Unit (EDS). If the disk pack is permanently held in a unit, the disk drive or
unit is referred to as a Fixed Disk Unit (FDU).
Disk unit - is the device in which the disk pack is placed.
Features of a Fixed Disk unit.
√ The unit houses a no. of non-removable disks.
√ It has a motor that rotates the drive at a high contact rate.
√ In a Fixed-Head drive, there is usually 1 read/write head for each track on a given surface.
For example, if there are 200 tracks per recording surface, then there will be 200 R/W heads
serving each surface, such that, when accessing data, there is no head movement in reading
data from one track followed by data from another track. This means that during the Read
and Write operations, the R/W heads doesn’t have to move in order to locate the right track
because, each track is already located, hence the seek time is zero. This implies that the
access time for the disk pack of a fixed head drive is reduced.
√ Fixed head drives are more expensive than moving head drives.

Moving Head Drive.

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♦ The recording surface of each disk plate is supplied by only 1 Read/Write, regardless of the no.
of tracks the surface contains. Therefore, during the read and write operations, the R/W head
servicing the surface must move in order to locate the right track containing the contents
requested.
Example:
Suppose the R/W head is positioned over track 20 & the data required is on track 20. Then
this data can be read as the disk rotates past the head.
Suppose the data required is on track 64. Then the access arm must first move the R/W head
from track 20 to track 64. Once the head is positioned over track 64, the data is then read.
 After the head is positioned over the desired track, it has to wait for the right sector. The
time taken for the disk to rotate from its present position to the position on the track at
which the data starts is called Rotational delay (latency) & is measured in Milliseconds.
The faster the hard drive spins, the shorter the rotational latency time.
 The time taken to read & transmit the data to the computer is called the Transmission
Time.
For a moving head drive, the time taken to access data (i.e., Access Time) usually ranges
between 25 – 100 Milliseconds for a hard disk system & 100 – 600 milliseconds for a floppy
disk system.

WINCHESTER DISKS.
Majority of the fixed hard disks in use today are “Winchester disks”. The Winchester disk was
developed by the IBM Co. by improving the hard disk technology in order to overcome some
problems associated with the established disk technology.
 Winchester disks have the same operational characteristics as hard disks, except that
Winchester disk has got enhanced mechanical, operational & storage abilities.
 The recording surfaces & the Read/write heads have been toughened.
 They can operate in adverse environments that are dusty or humid.
 They have greater storage capacities in the range of 20MB – 1 GB.
 They have greater reliability.
 Relatively small Winchester disks have been developed (with diameters of 3, 5 & 8 inches)
that can be used on Microcomputers.
Advantages of Magnetic Disks.
Magnetic disks (Floppy disks & Hard disks) are the most commonly used medium for online
secondary storage in microcomputer systems because of the following reasons: -
(i). They are cheap (Low cost).
Although disk drives are expensive, the use of removable disk packs enables storage
capacity to be increased very cheaply.
E.g., to improve the storage capability of a floppy disk system, you simply need to buy
additional disks at low cost.
The cost of Hard disks has decreased making them to be widely used on microcomputers.
(ii). Have relatively fast access times for data stored anywhere on the disk.
For hard-drives, the data Transfer rate between memory & disk is 300,000 – 2 million
characters per second, while that of floppy disks is between 30,000 – 150,000 cps.
(iii). Have high storage capacities.
Hard disks can store tens of millions to hundreds of millions of characters while floppy
disks can store between 100KB – 2 MB of data.
(iv). They are re-usable - the disk space can be re-used by simply recording new data over old
data. Also, the data stored in a magnetic disk can be easily corrected or updated.
(v). They are Non-volatile - information is stored permanently.
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Disadvantages of Magnetic Disks.
(i). Data stored on magnetic disk is not human-readable, i.e., to verify the accuracy of data
stored on the disk, a computer run has to be made, which reads the contents on the disk.
(ii). A disk is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort
(deform/disfigure) data on the disk causing disk-reading errors.
(iii). Require enough skills to manage the disks effectively.

Differences between Hard disks & Floppy diskettes.

Floppy diskette. Hard disk.
1). Can be inserted in & removed from a 1). It is not removable like the floppy disk,
disk drive. It can also be transferred but permanently housed in a disc unit
between computers. inside the computer.
2). Made of a flexible plastic material & 2). Made of a metal & is usually rigid/ firm.
can bend easily.
3). Consists of a single platter/ disk. 3). Made of more than 1 platter arranged one
on top of the other to form a disk pack.
4). Cheaper. 4). Relatively expensive than floppy disks.
5). Floppy disk drives only begin rotating 5). Hard disk drives spin continuously, i.e.,
when they are required to read or write they start rotating when a computer is
data. switched on.
6). Have a spindle hole. 6). Have a rotating spindle that holds the
disk plates together in a disk pack & is
used to rotate the disk pack when reading
or writing onto the disk.
7). Low storage capacities compared to 7). Hard disks have a much higher storage
hard disks, e.g. a Floppy disks store capacity than floppy disks, e.g. can store
between 100KB – 2MB of characters. between 10 - 80 million characters.
8). Slower access times, e.g. the data 8). Have faster access times for data stored
transfer rate between memory & the in it than a floppy disk, e.g. the data
disk is between 30,000 – 150,000 transfer rate between memory & the disk
characters per second. is between 300,000 – 2 million cps.

ZIP DISKS.
Zip drives act as either external or internal devices.
 The Zip disk is found in a hard plastic case, and like the diskette, it uses a magnetic material
for double-sided recording & reading.
 Zip drives are larger & their read/write heads can operate more efficiently than those on a
regular floppy disk drive.
 Zip disks are usually portable.
 Each disk can hold up to 100 MB.

MAGNETIC TAPES.
These are the storage media mostly used in Mini and Mainframe computers.
A Magnetic Tape reel is made of a plastic ribbon/ band coated on one side with a magnetic
material that enables data & instructions to be recorded/ stored on the tape.
Magnetic Tape – a tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective
polarization of portions of the surface.
The reels of the Tape are stored in a protective case, which safeguards the recording surface of
the reel from environmental destructions, e.g., touch, dust, direct sunlight radiations, etc.

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Usually, a plastic ring (the Permit ring) is affixed on the Permit Ring Groove, which is on the
case, before the tape is mounted in its deck. The Permit ring is used to protect/ safeguard the
contents of the tape.
If the permit ring is affixed, the tape surface can be written to & read from, hence it is possible to
alter the contents of the tape. If the permit ring is not affixed onto its groove, the tape surface
can be read but cannot be written to; hence the tape user cannot alter the tape contents.

The width of the tape is divided into Tracks, while the length is divided into vertical columns
called Frames. Each frame is made up of 7 storage unit areas (bit positions). These frames are
used to store individual characters across the tape width.
The recording surface of a tape has 7 or 9 tracks running along its length. Each recording
position on a track can be magnetized to represent a ‘1’, while that which is not magnetized
represents a 0. Thus for a 9-track tape, each frame contains 9 bits & is used to represent 1
character.
A tape is usually ½ (0.5) inch wide & 2,400-feet long. The characters are recorded across the
tracks on the tape.
PARITY CHECKING.
One track on the tape is not used for storing data, but is used for Parity check, i.e. it is used as a
control to make sure that the data recorded & transmitted is accurate.
Parity - is the state of oddness or evenness assigned to a given byte of data.
This method is used by the computer to check the ability of the memory cells to hold data
accurately.
The parity circuit (the combined process) puts a byte in memory, and then reads a byte from
memory. If what it reads matches with what is sent, the memory cell is OK.
Parity works by adding 1 bit to every byte (8 bits) of data, resulting in 9 bits. The extra bit
(called the Parity bit) is set to 1 or 0 & assigned to the byte depending on whether the byte is
made up of an odd or even numbers of 1’s or 0’s.
For example:
A 9-track tape uses 8 bits to store data; the binary representation of the various characters would
contain an even no. of 1’s in some cases & an odd no. of 1’s in others.
E.g., 10011100 contain an even no. of 1’s, while 10011101 contain an odd no. of 1’s.
There are 2 types of parity:
1). Odd parity - where a given byte has an even no. of 1’s.
2). Even parity – where a given byte has an odd no. of 1’s.
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If a given byte has an odd no. of 1’s (i.e. if the tape system is using an Even Parity check), the
parity bit on the parity track is set to 1. This ensures that each frame contains an even no. of 1’s.
If so, the data is considered valid and the circuit accepts the data.
If the byte has an even no. of 1’s (if it is using an Odd Parity check), the parity bit is set to 1.
This makes sure that each frame contains an odd no. of 1’s. If so, the data is considered valid
and the parity bit stripped from the data. The remaining 8 bits are passed through to the CPU.
Thus on a given tape system, the no. of 1’s in a frame is always even or always odd.
Parity bit – The check bit employed with EBCDIC or ASCII codes to ensure that data is
properly transferred between storage areas.
TAPE DRIVE (TAPE UNIT).
Data can be recorded/ written onto a magnetic tape & read from the tape using a Tape drive.
A computer Tape drive is analogous (similar) to a home tape recorder.
The tape unit holds the magnetic tape & also the recording reel for taking up the tape.
The tape drive/unit has Read/Write heads for reading the information stored on the tape and
writing information to the tape.
Data is recorded as a series of magnetic dots on the tape. The Read/Write head is an
electromagnet that reads the magnetized spots on the tape & translates them into electrical
signals.
Each channel has its own R/W head. The R/W heads move simultaneously across the tape width
in order to perform the read & write operations under the influence of the computer commands.
STORING DATA ON A TAPE.

The first 20ft of the tape is not for recording. It allows for the start and acceleration of the tape,
during the Read/write operations, when the tape is mounted on its drive/deck.
The unused surface is followed by a reflective marker known as Load-point marker that
indicates the beginning of the recording surface. After the load-point marker, is the Header
label, which is a record containing information such as, the name of the file, date written, etc.
These are used for control purposes before the start of processing.
The end of the recording surface is indicated by the End-of-Tape Marker.
Before the end-of-tape marker, there is a Trailer label, which contains the no. of records on the
file.
After the end-of-tape marker, at least 20ft is also not used for recording, but allows the tape to
decelerate and stop.
The data stored on a tape consists of records. E.g. Students record, customers record, etc.
Immediately after the header label, the records are laid out one after the other. Two successive
records are separated by blank spaces on the tape called Inter-Record Gaps (IRG).
Importance of the Inter-Record/Block Gaps.
(i). The IRG differentiate the contents of adjacent records during the Read/Write operations.
(ii). Are used on the tape for stopping purposes. The IRG are necessary since the tape cannot
be stopped abruptly/ suddenly when the destination record is reached. Therefore, some
space has to be left to ensure that no data is lost.
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(iii). The tape can be accelerated to a maximum speed or decelerated (slowed down) to halt.
Therefore, the IRG also allow for the acceleration & deceleration on the tape. This is the
space on the tape between records, or the distance the tape mechanism must move before it
again reaches its optimum recording speed.
Note. During the decelerations & accelerations, no reading or writing onto the tape surface
is possible. This makes it possible for the contents of the individual records to be read or
written separately.

Note. The IRG represent considerable waste of space and time. To help reduce the wastage,
several data records on tape are often grouped together into bigger units known as Blocks (or
Physical records); thus increasing the amount of data stored on a tape. In this case, an entire
block is read at one time, thus eliminating the need for an IRG between each logical record.

The no. of records comprising a block is called the Blocking factor.

Tip.
Inter-Block Gap – The distance on a Magnetic tape between the end of one block and the
beginning of the next.
Note. Within this distance, the tape can be stopped and brought up-to normal speed again. Since
the tape speed is not constant, when stopped or starting, no reading or writing is permitted in the
gap.
Magnetic tapes are Sequential access devices. This means that, each record is read from the tape
into main storage one after the other in the order they occur on the tape. Therefore, if the
information is at the end of the tape, the program will have to read almost the entire tape, which
may take several minutes.
The time required to copy a character from the tape surface to main storage is called Transfer
Time.
The no. of characters copied per unit of time is referred to as the Transfer Rate.
 Magnetic tapes are cheap methods for storing large volumes of data. They are very effective
when used to hold sequential files for batch applications & can also be used to hold backup
copies of files.
The magnetic tape file capacity is influenced by its length & the packing density.
Hence,
Tape storage capacity = tape length x the packing density of the tape.
The normal storage capacity is reduced by the Inter-Block Gaps.
 Some tapes can be used for input and output. For security purposes a special device called a
Write permit must be attached to a tape reel when writing on the tape.
Manner of recording.
As the tape moves past the write head at a constant rate, data is recorded in blocks. After a block
has been written, the tape slows down and stops. No writing takes place during the acceleration
and deceleration time, hence leaving a gap between the blocks of data on the tape.
Read/Write operations take place when the tape reel is moving at a high constant speed past the
Read head, then ceases when the Inter-block gap is sensed by the read head. The head
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decelerates to a stop on termination of a ‘read’ and accelerates to its reading speed as it begins
the next read.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes as secondary storage medium.
(i). Tapes have a high storage capacity (or high data recording density), i.e. they can store lot of
information in a small space.
Usually 1-inch of the tape can store between 1,600 – 6,400 characters. This also means
that, a tape can allow a complete hard disk to be backed-up without the need to change
media during the process.
(ii). Tapes are cheaper compared to other removable storage media.
(iii). Have high data transfer rates.
Reels of a magnetic tape have a transfer rate of approx. 10,000 – 1 million cps, whereas in
cassette tapes, the transfer rate is about 1,000 cps.
(iv). Tapes are re-usable. When information on a tape is no longer required, it can simply be
‘written over’ with new information.
(v). The domestic cassettes can also be used as storage media in small home computers where
the speed of retrieval is not a necessity and the volume of the capacity of the cassette is
enough. This is because domestic cassettes operate on the same principles as the magnetic
tapes.
Disadvantages of storing records on Magnetic Tapes.
(i). Data stored on a tape must be read/ accessed sequentially, one record after another.
E.g., if you need to update the 100th record, all the previous 99 records must be read, pass
under the Read/Write head (or at least skipped over) to reach the record the user is
searching. Hence, slow data, instruction and information retrieval.
This means that, if you need to process records in a different order, let say, record 100
followed by record 5, followed by record 50, the processing would be slowed down a lot
because the tape would have to move back & forth. However, if the records have to be
processed in sequence, i.e. from the first to the last, it would be fast.
(ii). Data stored on magnetic tape (& disk) is not human-readable.
E.g., if you wish to verify the accuracy of data stored on the tape, a computer run would
have to be made, in order to read the contents on the tape and print it.
(iii). Tapes have short life spans (average of about 2 yrs).
(iv). A tape is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort (deform)
data on the tape causing tape-reading errors.
(v). Tapes do not fully use their recording surface.
An inch of tape may hold 1,600 - 6,400 characters & the IRG may be 0.5-inch. This means
that, almost a ⅓ of the unused space on the tape is wasted.

MAGNETIC TAPE CARTRIDGE & CASSETTE TAPES.

They operate on the same principle as ½-inch reel-to-reel tape.
The domestic Cassette tapes are very similar to magnetic tapes. The only difference is that
Magnetic tapes are wider & longer than the domestic cassettes.
Many cartridges are designed to overcome the bother of loading and unloading tapes.
A tape cartridge gives greater protection against dust & dirt and then makes the tape trouble-free.
Tape cartridges provide an effective way to copy the contents of disks to guard against data loss.
On cassettes tapes, characters are stored serially down the length of the tape, one at a time. This
slows down the processing speed of the information stored on the tape.
Advantages of Cassette Tapes.
(i). They are very cheap & convenient, making them to be a widely used form of secondary
storage in many home computers.

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(ii). It can store hundreds of thousands of bytes of data.
(iii). Can be re-used.
(iv). An ordinary cassette player can be used to record & play back the data on the tapes.
Therefore, no expensive Input/Output device needs to be bought.

COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC DISKS & MAGNETIC TAPES.

Similarities.
(i). Both are coated with magnetic materials.
(ii). Have high data storage capacities, i.e. can store hundreds of thousands of bytes of data.
(iii). Have high data transfer rates.
(iv). Hold data permanently, i.e. are Non-volatile.
(v). Cheap and convenient; hence, the reason why they are mostly used for secondary storage in
PCs.
(vi). Require drives in order to read or write data from or into a disk or tape.
(vii). Data stored a magnetic tape & disk is not human readable, i.e., to verify the accuracy of
data stored on the tape or disk, a computer run would have to be performed.
(viii). Both are adversely affected by dust, stroke & magnetic fields, which can distort data
stored in them causing data reading errors.
(ix). Tapes or disks do not fully use their recording surfaces. The Inter-Block Gaps in tapes
occupy a large space; while in disks, a space has to be left for purposes such as copying &
moving of files, defragmentation of the disk, etc.
(x). Both tapes & disks are re-usable. When information on a tape or disk is no longer required,
it can simply be “written over” with new data.
(xi). Data in them can be read sequentially, e.g., when playing music or watching a movie on a
disk.
Differences.
Magnetic Tape Magnetic Disk
1). Consist of a strip of plastic, i.e., reels of 1). Consist of round platters made of plastic
tape. or metal.
2). Only 1 side of the tape is coated with a 2). Both sides of the platters can be coated
magnetic material for recording data. with a magnetic material for recording
3). 1 track of the tape is not used for data data.
storage, but for parity check, i.e., to 3). The whole disk surface can be used for
ensure that data recorded & transmitted recording data. However, in hard disks,
is accurate. the top most surface of the 1st plate &
bottom most surface of the last plate are
not used for recording data as they can
easily be scratched.
4). Requires tape drives to write 4). Require disk drives to read or write data
information to & read data from the in the disks.
tape. 5). Data is stored on the disks in files,
5). Data is stored on a tape in form of folders or directories.
records that are organized in blocks. 6). Have no blank spaces between the tracks
6). Have Inter-Block/Record Gaps (blank on the recording surfaces. However,
spaces) separating two successive they use a recording method known as
blocks or records. Tunnel Erasure; which is used to keep
each track of data separate from the

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others.
7). The records on a tape are read 7). Data recorded on a disk can be read
sequentially, i.e. one record after sequentially or directly.
another in the order they occur on the
tape. 8). Data is recorded on concentric circles on
8). Data is recorded across the tracks on the the disks called tracks.
tape or serially down the length of the
tape.

PUNCHED CARDS & PUNCHED PAPER TAPES.

These are paper media, which were used as storage media by the early computers.
They been replaced by the magnetic media, due to the following reasons:
(i). They are bulky.
(ii). Provide slow input.
(iii). They are non-reusable.
(iv). They can be destroyed due to dust.
(v). Costly to produce - the punching & verification are tedious and expensive.

OPTICAL DISKS.
Optical disks use Lasers to read or write data. When writing, a laser beam is used to align a
permanent data pattern on the disk surface. When reading, the data contents are sensed by the
pattern of light reflected from the beam by the data on the disk surface.
There are 2 types of Optical disks:
1. CD-ROMs (Compact disc Read-Only Memory)
2. WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.
CD-ROMs (Compact Disc Read Only Memory).
What is CD-ROM (Data CD)?
A CD-ROM (also known as a data CD) is a compact disc used to store computer data.
 CDs (Compact discs) were originally developed for the music industry. They use small disks
identical to the ones that hold music to hold computer information.
 They have higher storage capacities than traditional Magnetic disks.
The current CDs can hold about 650 MB of data compared to the 3.5” floppy diskette, which
can only hold 1.44 MB of data.
This storage capability enables programmers and other data distributors to write more
sophisticated programs for computer users, because they are no longer limited by data storage
space.

The CD-ROM Technology

A CD is made by having information burnt into the Polymer material using a laser. The
indentations appear as fine circular tracks in the CD.
Data is written on the CD in a continuous spiral running from the center of the CD to its outside
rim. All the bits in a file are written one after the other from beginning to end, then the next file
is written, and so on.
A logical format (or file system) structures the raw bits on the CD in a virtual tree of directories
and files, which makes it easier for both humans and computers to use the information.

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ISO 9660 is a worldwide standard specifying the logical format for files and directories on a CD-
ROM.

To use the CD-ROM discs, a CD-ROM drive is needed.

The devices in a CD-ROM drive are only able to read back pre-recorded sound or data by using a
laser and detecting the pattern of light reflected from its beam.
The current CD-ROM drives use Multi-session & Multi-speed technologies due to the intense
requirements of most multimedia applications. The Multi-session technology allows data to be
written to a CD again & again until it reaches its maximum capacity (650MB).
The Multi-speed technology increases the rotational speed of the disk, thus increasing the data
transfer rate of a CD-ROM drive.
Uses of CD-ROMS (CDs).
Typical uses for CD-ROMs include:
(i). Archiving data.
(ii). Backing up a hard drive or other media.
(iii). Creating a test copy of a CD before having it factory-duplicated.
(iv). Disseminating information to field offices.
(v). CDs are the primary methods of installing software.
Most software companies distribute application software in CD-ROMs.
(vi). CDs are used in Multimedia (the integration of text, motion video, graphics, & sound).
Programmers pack Multimedia in the CD-ROMs enabling consumers to enjoy the work of
multimedia inventions.
(vii). To provide reference works, catalogues, directories, encyclopedias, software front
descriptions, graphical images and sound.
Types of Compact Discs:
There are 2 types of Compact Discs (CD-ROMs): -
 CD-Recordable (CD-R) discs.
 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) discs.
CD-R (Recordable).
A CD-R holds data permanently, i.e., once written, it cannot be erased or overwritten.
CD-R can be used to store or backup a lot of data (about 650MB), thus making it suitable for
businesses that need to record/ store a lot of information.
Advantages of CD-R
(i). Good for permanent data storage.
(ii). Less expensive per disc than CD-RW disc (CD-R discs are cheaper compared to CD-RW).
(iii). Readable on virtually all CD-ROM and CD-R drives.
(iv). Use when you do not need to erase the data.
(v). CD-R drives can write faster than most CD-RW drives.
Disadvantages of CD-R.
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(i). The disc can only be written once, (i.e. once something has been recorded on a CD-R, it
can’t be erased or written over again).
(ii). The future of CD-R drives seems to be in doubt since CD-RW drives can accomplish the
same thing as CD-R drives.
Note. In a CD-R drive, there are 2 speeds listed.
The faster of the two speeds is the speed at which the drive reads information from a disc, while
the slower one is the speed at which the drive records information onto a CD-R.

CD-RW (ReWriteable).
It is possible to record data on a CD-RW more than once. With CD-RW drive you can also erase
the contents of a CD and re-write new information to it.
In addition, CD-RW drives can play audio CDs, use the regular CD-ROMs & read CD-R discs.
This makes CD-RW drives very desirable.
Most CD-RW drives can also record to CD-R discs, making it possible to use CD-R discs with a
CD-RW drive.
Advantages of CD-RW.
(i). Used when you need to erase the data and re-write new information (e.g., updating files).
Data written to a CD-RW is not permanent, i.e. it can be overwritten or erased.
(ii). Used to make a practice CD or to test the contents of a CD before making a permanent one.
(iii). More cost effective for near line data storage requirements than CD-R.
Disadvantages of CD-RW.
(i). CD-RW drives & media are expensive/more costly than CD-R drives.
(ii). CD-RW are slower than CD-R & CD-ROM drives.
It takes about 1hr to format CD-RW discs & about ½ an hour to copy 250 MB of data to
the disc, while CD-R discs take a few minutes to format and have the same write time.
(iii). Data can be read and written to CD-RW discs only by CD-RW drives.
(iv). CD-RW drives are currently facing stiff competition from the DVD-Recordable (DVD-R)
because the DVD-R can store more information than CD-RW.
Note. Both CD-RW & CD-R can be read by standard CD-ROM drives.

WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.

A WORM disc looks like a CD. Also, data is read from the disk in a similar way to that on a
CD.
The WORM disc surface has 40,000 Tracks, 25 Sectors and a total storage capacity of 1GB.
Data is written into the disc by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disc by means
of a high precision laser beam.
The WORM discs are exchangeable.
WORM discs are non-erasable & are less prone to data loss compared to Magnetic disks.
Access speed of a WORM disc is slower than that of Magnetic disks.
To use the WORM discs, a WORM disk unit/drive is needed. The drive is similar to magnetic
disk unit.
An example of a WORM drive is the CD-R, which uses the same size of disks as CDs and once
written using the CD-R drive, it can be read in a CD-ROM disk drive as well as in a CD-R drive.
Uses of WORM disks.
√ WORM drives store large amounts of data.
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√ They are used to put data online for reference purposes.
Advantages of Optical discs as secondary storage media.
(i). Have very high storage capacities. This enables them to be used for multimedia
applications.
(ii). Have relatively high access speeds.
(iii). Are Non-volatile, i.e. information kept in them is permanent. Therefore, they are more
secure against alteration.
(iv). Are cost effective (cheap) especially if used for large storage volumes.
(v). They are robust – they resist temperature, electromagnetic fields, and not affected by water
or dust.
(vi). Have very high data transfer rates.
Modern CD-ROM drives have data transfer rates of between 150 – 4,800 KB/second.
(vii). Some Optical discs allow data to be written to them a no. of times, e.g., CD-RW.

Reasons why Optical discs (CD-ROMs) are not mostly used in microcomputer
systems as secondary storage media.
1). CD-ROMs require special writers to write to the disk. The CD Writers are usually
expensive, thus limiting the utility/ usefulness of CD-ROMs as computer storage devices.
2). Are expensive (not economical) especially if used for low storage volumes.
3). Require CD-ROM drives to use the discs, which are not installed on most desktop
computers.
4). Most CD-ROMs are produced by the manufacturer or can only be written once. Therefore,
they are not reliable especially for businesses that may need to re-programme the CDs to suit
their needs.
5). Are slow to prepare, i.e., it takes time to format & also to copy data into the discs, e.g. CD-
RW disks take about 1hr to format & about ½ an hr to copy 250 MB of data to the disc.
6). The Access speed of an Optical disk is low.

DVD (Digital Video Discs).

A DVD looks like a CD-ROM. However, a DVD can store much more information.
For example:
A single-sided DVD can hold 4.7 GB of information (a 133 minutes of full-motion video), while
a double-sided DVD can hold 17GB of information (the equivalent of 8 hrs of studio quality
video); enabling most movies to be stored on a single disc.
This amount of storage gives software programmers flexibility when it comes to designing
programs. They are able to store all the high-quality graphic images, digital sound & tools they
want in a single DVD.
Currently, DVDs are used primarily for movies. The DVD videos offer superior pictures &
sound, the ability to play audio CDs in a DVD player, and pictures that are sharp & clear than
VHS videotapes.
To use a DVD, your computer should have a DVD-ROM. To read the DVD-ROM, a DVD-
ROM drive is required.
In order to enjoy all the functionality of a DVD, the computer must have a Motion Picture
Expert Graph (MPEG) decoder card or MPEG software. This enables the user to view full
screen video or video clips from a DVD video disc.
DVD drives are reasonably/ fairly priced.
DVD drives can read all other ROM formats - audio CDs, CD-ROMs, CD-R, CD-RW & DVD-
ROM discs.
The current DVDs are not recordable, i.e. they don’t have the ability to record information.

HANDLING PRECAUTIONS FOR MAGNETIC MEDIA.

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o o
(i). Should be stored in optimum temperature ranges, e.g. 10 C – 52 C for diskettes.
(ii). Should be protected in their cases when not in use in order to safeguard their recording
surfaces against environmental influences such as dust, touch, direct sunlight, radiations,
etc.
(iii). When loading/ mounting the media into its reading/writing unit, care should be taken to
avoid brushing the recording surfaces against the mechanical components of the drive.
(iv). Should never be brought near moving or magnetic bodies. Such bodies might cause the
demagnetization of the recording surfaces (i.e., remove the magnetic property from the
surfaces) making recording in terms of magnetism impossible.
(v). Put on the power before mounting the media and off after removing the media from the
drive. This is because the fluctuation in power might also cause de-magnetization.

Disk Access Times: Terms used to define access times in disks.

(a). Data Access Time.
The total amount of time it takes for a CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, or DVD drive to find a
piece of information on a disc & transfer that information to the CPU.
(b). Seek Time.
The time it takes to position the read/write head for a randomly requested track, which
contains the data to be accessed.
-Or-
The amount of time it takes for a CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, or DVD drive to locate a piece
of information on the disc. Seek time is measured in Milliseconds.
The fastest seek time occurs when moving from one track directly to the next. The slowest
seek time is the so called Full stroke between the outer & the inner tracks.
Seek time should be smaller if the disk is smaller.
(c). Rotational Delay (or rotational latency).
After the head is positioned over the desired track, it has to wait for the right sector. This
time is called rotational latency & is measured in Milliseconds (ms).
The faster the hard drive spins, the shorter the rotational latency time.
(d). Head switch time.
All heads of a disk are carried on one access arm. Thus, all heads are on the same cylinder.
Head switch time is the average time the drive takes to switch between two of the heads
when reading or writing data. It is also measured in Milliseconds.
(e). Data Transfer Rate (also called Throughput).
This specifies the rate at which data is read from or written to the drive once the heads are
positioned. It is therefore, the amount of information a device can transfer in a given
amount of time.
It is usually measured in Kilobytes per second (KB/s) or Megabits per second (MB/s).
(f). Spindle/ rotational speed.
Defines how fast the platters of a hard disk spin.
Spindle speed is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm).
Factors to consider when selecting Data storage devices/ facilities.
1. Storage capacity.
It is determined by the no. of characters stored, e.g. the backing storage capacity of small
computers is in terms of tens of hundreds or thousands of characters while that of a larger
computer is in terms of hundreds of millions of characters.
2. Relative cost.
Magnetic media storage is cheaper as compared to semi-conductor (main) storage.
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3. Robustness.
Computer data storage is less robust as compared to paper-based storage since it needs
careful handling and a carefully controlled environment.
4. Mode of access.
5. Speed of access.
6. Size - the saving space.
7. Environment.
Physical storage considerations.
Recording density – The no. of useful storage cells per unit of length or area.
For example,
- The no. of characters per inch on a magnetic tape or punched card.
- The no. of bits in a single linear track measured per unit of length of the recording medium.

Volume - A term used for any individual physical storage medium that can be written to or read
from. E.g., a fixed hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, a disk cartridge or tape cartridge.
Formatting - Before a diskette can be used, it must be formatted. This prepares the disk so that
the drive can use it.
Initialization - Before a disk is recorded, it has to be initialized, i.e., writing zeros to every byte
on every track. This eliminates all trace of any existing data.
Fragmentation - When data is written on a newly formatted disk, it is usually written to unused
contagious sectors. If data is erased, then the deleted sectors may leave spaces among used
sectors. Overtime, after many inserts and deletes, these free sectors may be scattered across the
disk. In such a phenomenon, the disk is said to be fragmented.

Exercise (a).
1. (a). What is a Disk?
(b). Explain in detail the uses of a disk in a computer system.
(c). State the two basic types of magnetic disks.
(d). Give THREE differences between the two types of magnetic disks identified in 1(c).
(e). Give 3 reasons why magnetic disks have become the most commonly used medium for
online secondary storage in microcomputer systems.
2. (a). What is a Disk drive?
(b). State FOUR drives of a computer.
3. (a). What is a hard disk and what is it meant for?
(b). What are the components of a hard disk.
4. The disk pack of a hard disk has 6 disk plates.
(a). Calculate the number of surfaces that can be used for recording data. Explain your
answer.
(b). Apart from the number of recording surfaces, identify TWO other features that can be
used to determine the storage capacity of the hard disk.

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5. (a).What is a Floppy disk?
(b). How many types of floppy disks are there in terms of size? Name them and state their
features.
(c). Draw a well-labeled diagram of a 3.5-inch floppy disk showing its parts.
(d). How does a Floppy disk differ from a Hard disk?
(e). State FOUR precautions that should be taken when handling diskettes.
6. Distinguish the following:
(a). Magnetic tape unit and Magnetic tape.
(b). Optical disk drive and Optical disk.
7. What is meant by:
(a). An even parity check?
(b). An odd parity check?
8. Explain why the use of blocks of records can enable data to be stored more efficiently on
magnetic tapes.
9. Define ‘Transfer time’ and ‘Transfer rate’ with regard to tapes.
10. Give 3 advantages of using magnetic tapes as secondary storage devices in microcomputer
systems.
11. Give 5 similarities & 5 differences between magnetic tapes and Magnetic disks.
12. Explain the meaning of Serial Access and Direct Access. Give examples of backing storage
devices that uses each of these methods of access.
13. List 3 advantages of each of the following types of secondary storage media.
(i). Magnetic Tape.
(ii). Magnetic Disk.
(iii). Optical Disk.
14. (a). Name the two types of Optical disks.
(b). Clearly differentiate between the TWO types of Compact Disks (CD-ROMs).
(c). List 3 reasons why Optical discs (CD-ROMs) are not mostly used in microcomputer
systems as storage devices.

Exercise (b).
1. (a). Explain the term “Backing store”. Give examples.
(b). State 3 reasons why do most computers require backing store?
(c). Name two different types of backing storage media and compare the accessibility of data
from each of these types.
(d). Draw a diagram to show the construction of ONE backing storage device.
2. A floppy disk drive is an auxiliary storage drive:
(a). With which type of computer would you normally associate this device?
(b). Why does this type of computer commonly have disk drives as well as Main memory?
(c). If one character is stored in an 8-bit byte, and a floppy disk is said to store 360 KB.
Calculate the precise number of characters that could be stored in the disk.
Explain your answer.
(d). Compare the two types of diskettes used in terms of size, capacity and whether they
are low or high density
3. Define the following terms as used in Magnetic disks:
(i). Access time.
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(ii). Seek time.
(iii). Rotational delay.
(iv). Data transfer time.
4. (a). List THREE examples of Optical storage devices.
(b). Give THREE reasons why Optical disks are better storage devices compared to floppy
disks.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i). Diskettes.
(ii). Hard disks.
(iii). Magnetic tapes.
(iv). Optical disks.
6. (a). Explain the term “Access time” and how it can be calculated.
(b). Draw a labeled diagram of Magnetic tape deck/unit.
7. Explain the following terms with regard to magnetic tape systems:
(i). Load-Point marker.
(ii). Inter-Block Gap.
(iii). Header label.
(iv). Block.
(v). Recording density.
8. What is the importance of Inter-Block Gaps in a magnetic tape?
9. Explain the precautions of handling magnetic media.
Exercise (c).
1. “In future computer diskettes will be obsolete as every computer will rely on Optical disks”.
State whether or not you agree with this claim and give TWO clear reasons to support your
answer.
2. Assuming that a computer DVD has a storage space of 4GB and a normal movie (video) file
takes 700MB of storage space. How many movies can be stored in a single DVD storage
device? (Give your answer to the nearest whole number).
3. How many optical disks of 720MB storage capacity are needed to store 20GB storage of
hard disk data? (Give your answer to the nearest whole number).

OUTPUT DEVICES
When the computer processes the data (or after the computer finds the solution to the problem), it
displays the results (or communicates the solution to whoever posed the question) by use of an
Output device.
The term Output is used to describe all that comes out, from the computer memory, or from the
processing stage of a data processing system to the external environment.
Output therefore, involves receiving information (processed data) from the computer through a
suitable device for external use.
An output device provides the user with the results from the computer.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT UNITS.

1. Transmit the intermediate results & final results to the users.
2. Convey messages, e.g. error messages, to the operators.
3. Provide immediate response to queries/ questions.
4. They are used when writing onto the secondary storage media.
5. Accept the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form & hence cannot be
easily understood) & convert these coded results to human readable form.
The output produced by computers can be put into 2 broad categories: -
(a). Human-readable output, which serves the informational needs of people. This is a form
of output that is readily understandable by human beings, e.g., printed or drawn output.
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(b). Machine-readable output, which is required/used for subsequent input to the computer.
In this case, the output may be temporarily stored on machine-readable media.
For example,
In the production of a payroll for a company, a payroll report is produced listing the amount each
employee must be paid. This report can then be used by the person responsible for issuing
cheques.
At the same time, an updated employee file is produced, say, on a tape. The tape will be used as
input to the computer for the next payroll run.
The quality, validity and usefulness of the output is influenced by the output facility used. The
following factors/ considerations determine the choice of output equipment and media.
(i). Suitability of the application.
(ii). The speed at which the output is required.
(iii). Whether a printed version is required.
(iv). The volume of the data.
(v). Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits to be derived.

DIVISIONS OF OUTPUT.
Output can further be classified as: -
1. Hardcopy output.
2. Softcopy output.
SOFTCOPY OUTPUT.
This is where the end results are displayed on a screen. The user can see the results, but cannot
touch them.
The output lasts for a short-time only, i.e., it is available only as long as it appears on the screen.
Examples of Softcopy Output devices.
 Visual Display Units (VDU) / Monitor.
 Audio Response Units.
 Speakers.
HARDCOPY OUTPUT.
Hardcopy implies that the output is permanent, i.e. it can be retained for an indefinite period.
The user can see & touch the results.
Hardcopy is desirable if the information or the results of the computer working is to be
maintained for future reference/ use.
Examples of Hardcopy Output devices.
 Printers.
 Graph Plotters.
 Microforms.
Exercise (a).
1. (i). What is the difference between “Hardcopy” and “Softcopy”?
(ii). Name TWO output devices which produce temporary output.
(iii). Name THREE output devices which produce permanent output.
2. What are the factors, which determine the choice of output media and device?
Exercise (b).
1. List FIVE different types of computer Output devices.

VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)/ MONITOR.

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Visual display unit (or a Monitor) is a television-like screen, which displays the data that is being
typed at a Keyboard. It also displays the information that has been processed by the computer in
a human-sensible form.
In many cases, an ordinary television set can serve as the display unit.
The display is meant to provide a means of visually checking whether the information that has
been entered is correct.
The output displayed on a monitor screen is called a Softcopy output.
Classes of Monitors.
(a). Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) – found in most desktop microcomputers.
(b). Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) – used by Laptops and Notebooks.
- The resolution of a CRT is adjustable, while that of an LCD is often set.
- The CRT can display an almost unlimited no. of colours, but the LCD can display a
limited no. of colours.
- LCD’s are backlit by a series of light bulbs. Notebooks use only 1 light bulb in order
to conserve power, but desktop LCD’s can use up to 4 bulbs.
These bulbs can be replaced by the user. They also have a life span. Therefore, after
sometime, you will notice that the screen starts becoming dimmer. Take the LCD to
the vendor for a bulb.
Advantages of LCD over CRT.
1. The screen of a LCD is much thinner & smaller than of CRT.
LCD screens come in 14 or 15-inch sizes. A 15” LCD has a 15” viewable screen; a size that
is only slightly smaller than a 17” CRT.
2. LCD’s have no flicker.
3. They consume low power than the CRT.
The performance of a computer Monitor depends on 3 factors: -
(a). Size of the screen.
(b). The number of colours it can display.
 Monochrome monitors - display only 1 type of colour (Black for Background & White
for Foreground).
 Colour monitors - display a variety of colours.
Examples; Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA), Super
Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The higher the no. of colours displayed, the more realistic the images.
(c). The Screen resolution (or sharpness of the image), which is determined by the no. of
pixels.
The Viewing angle - the picture appears clear when viewed straight on or a certain amount
of degrees off the center; but when you are too far over to the side, the picture grows too
dim to see.
A VDU can be used to display lines of text as well as graphics (images, pictures & drawings).
When used for output of text, a typical display unit is made of 24 lines; each line consisting of
between 40 – 80 characters.
When used for output of Graphics, the screen is considered to be composed of a no. of dots
arranged in rows & columns.


Each dot is called a Picture element (or Pixel).
A Pixel is a screen dot & is a direct mapping of the information (e.g. character) in the Video
RAM contained in the monitor’s Adapter card.

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To display an image on the screen, the selected pixels are brightened or darkened.
The term Resolution is used to describe the no. of pixels per unit area of the screen. E.g., the no.
of pixels per cm2.
If there are few pixels per unit area, the display is said to be of a Low-resolution. If there are
many pixels unit area, we talk of High-resolution display.
The higher the screen resolution, the finer & the higher the no. of different images that can be
displayed.
Note. Specific applications require certain resolutions to be able to run, e.g., Microsoft Windows.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS.
There is a wide variety of pictures, graphs, line drawings, animated cartoons produced on
computer output devices.
The 2 basic methods of producing graphical images are: -
(a). Block–based images – which are simple & effective. Mostly performed on monitors.
(b). Pixel-based images – are of higher quality than Block-based images and are used on
Workstations & PCs fitted with Graphic Video adapters. It is built up from an appropriate
combination of dots.
The more the pixels, the higher the resolution.
When the coded representation of the image in memory is translated into an image on the
monitor screen, it is said to be bit-mapped.
The area of the memory used to hold data is called Frame buffer.
The bit-mapped memory on the board is called Video RAM.
The kind of display available on a PC or Workstation depends upon the quality of the monitor
used & the type of Video adapter that has been fitted.
Graphics output is greatly used: -
• In computer Games & in the simulation of real-life problems, such as, the operation of traffic
lights.
• It is also used as an aid in Engineering or Architectural design.
Design drawings can be displayed on the screen. They can then be rotated to see how they
look from a different angle. Additions or deletions can be made and if necessary, the colours
of chosen parts changed.
Since the designer can quickly see the effects of changes, the design process can be speeded
up considerably.

MORE ABOUT MONITORS & DISPLAY ADAPTERS.

Monitors do not have a direct impact on the performance, but have a significant impact on the
use of a PC. A bad quality monitor can hinder the use of an otherwise high-tech PC.
Display – Presentation of information such as by projection on a screen, an Audio message, a
computer print-out, etc.
Display Adapter Card (also called Video Card or Graphics Card).
The real brain of a display operation is the Video Card. It is inserted into the slot on your
computer’s motherboard as an expansion card. It then speaks to the monitor about what the
computer is asking it to do.
The Video card determines how fast graphics display, how many colours can be used, etc.
For a Monitor to work to its best, it must be fitted with a Video card capable of bringing out the
best in it.

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The Video Card receives image data from the Processor in form of digital information & stores it
in video RAM. The digital information is then converted into analogue display signal, which is
fed to the monitor.

How a Monitor Works.

The inner surface of the screen is coated with a Phosphorus material that emits/ produces light
when struck by an electron beam. Whenever the electrons hit the phosphor, it glows, producing
images.
When the Monitor is plugged into the Video card, it gets a scan frequency (or a signal) giving
the timing of the screen redraws.
The electron beam must cross the screen in synchronization with the scan signal of the Video
card. The beam starts at the top left of the screen, crossing to the right. As it does this, it excites
the phosphor dots. On reaching the right side of the screen, it returns to the left side in order to
refresh the line of pixels underneath the first one. It continues this process down the screen,
returning to the top to do it over again when it has finished the entire screen.
During the process, the beam excites those phosphor dots, which the video card tells it to.
Therefore, the card gives instructions to the electron gun to excite some pixels; hence, forming
pictures.
On a Colour monitor, each pixel contains 3 separate dots, one for each of the primary colours of
light; Red, Yellow, & Blue. Combining these colours together produces the range of colours that
we all know.

Screen burnout.
This is a term used to describe the damage caused to the inner surface of the screen display.
Inside the Monitor, an electron beam is aimed at a Phosphor-coated screen. If a screen display is
static, the electron beam continually strikes the same place on the screen surface, and eventually
burns a hole in (or wears away) the Phosphorus coating. This might take several days or weeks
to occur.
Note. Damage to the screen cannot be repaired. The damage is visible by turning & inspecting
the screen surface closely. If an image can be seen, then the screen has suffered damage (i.e. it
has burned out).
Factors that determine how severe the screen burnout is.
(i). Type of Phosphorus coating used on the screen’s inner surface.
(ii). Length of time the screen image remains constant.
(iii). The brightness & contrast of the screen.
How to avoid screen burnout.
Screen burnout can be avoided by applying the following common sense principles: -
1. Switch the Monitor off, if you wish to be away over long periods.
2. Turn down the screen brightness, if leaving the machine unattended.
3. Using a “Screen Saver” program.
A Screen Saver program detects when the computer is idle, and changes the screen display
at periodic intervals. Most Screen saver programs provides a choice of screen images to
display, as well as adjusting the amount of idle time necessary before changing the screen
display.
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When a key is pressed or the Mouse is moved, the Screen saver program restores the original
screen display.
Screen saver programs also have a Password lock. This is because, it is designed for the
user to leave the computer unattended for a short period of time (during which another user
might try to gain access).
4. Using an Energy star compliant monitor with Power saving enabled.
An Energy star compliant monitor will switch itself off into low power states when the
input signal does not change for a determined time interval.
Some operating systems like Windows ‘95/98 and higher versions support these Power
Management systems.
There are 2 Power management modes supported: -
Low-power mode, where the monitor is still running but the image is not displayed.
Shut-down mode, where the monitor is turned off.
In either mode, the computer sends a special signal to the Monitor. The monitor then enters
the specified mode of operation.
To return to normal, the user moves the Mouse or presses a key on the Keyboard. The
computer then sends another signal to the monitor in order to reactivate it.

VIDEO MEMORY.
Display adapters include a block of memory known as Video RAM. It can be 256 KB or 24 MB
in size.
The amount of video RAM fitted to a display adapter determines the maximum no. of colours
that can be displayed & the display resolution of the screen. The more the Video RAM, the
higher the resolution & the more the no. of colours that can be supported.

Types of Monitors (Displays or video Adapters).

(1). Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA) display.
This was the original type of Monitor, but now it is obsolete.
It supported colour, but could only display a limited no. of colours. Usually, it supported 4
colours at a time.
It also ran at a low graphics resolution of 640 x 200 pixels.
(2). Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) display.
It is a low-grade adapter. It was developed to improve the capabilities of CGA.
An EGA display works with a 9-pin connector and an EGA video card.
They have a resolution of 640 x 350 pixels, which is better than that of CGA monitors.
They also offer two brightness levels for each primary colour dot, thus, displaying a wider
range of colours. EGA screens can show 16 different colours.
(3). Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) display.
It was introduced by IBM in 1987 for use on earlier IBM PS/2 systems. The VGA Video
card contains all the circuitry needed to produce VGA graphics, and like all expansion
cards, it plunges into a slot on the motherboard via an 8-bit interface.
VGA is able to display photographic quality images on a PC, i.e. it offers clean images at
higher resolutions. It is able to build an image that is 640 x 480 pixels in size.
With a VGA, a PC has to deal with 640 x 480 x 3 bits every time a picture changes.
The standard VGA can produce about 256 colours at a time from a palette of 262,144
colours.

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The VGA can also be used in Monochromes. It is able to translate colour graphics into
graphics using 64 different shades of grey. This, in effect, simulates colour on a
monochrome monitor.
VGA video card requires a VGA monitor, or a monitor capable of accepting the analog
output of a VGA card.
(4). Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) display.
SVGA is much more advanced than VGA.
In most cases, one SVGA card can produce millions of colours at a choice of resolutions. It
is able to show 256 colours at a resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels.
SVGA is able to support 1024 x 768 x 3 bits potentially changing 50 times per second.
Note. EGA, & VGA monitors are not interchangeable. A VGA monitor won’t even plug into a
CGA or EGA card. A SVGA monitor is not supposed to work with a standard VGA card.
Advantages of VDU/ Monitors.
(i). The speed of output is fast – a Monitor displays the output almost instantly/ immediately.
(ii). It displays the information enabling the operator to visually verify/confirm if the data is
correct.
(iii). Enables the operator to monitor his/her performance & improve productivity.
(iv). Used when saving the information to a secondary storage media.
(v). Minimizes paper work, hence reducing the cost incurred on stationery.
(vi). Hardware costs are minimal since no extra equipments are needed as long as the VDU is
available. The screen is cheap, if bought as individual device.
Disadvantages of VDU.
(i). Produces softcopy output, i.e., the output is temporary & can get lost when the power is
switched off.
(ii). It is impossible to produce multiple copies.
(iii). It causes fatigue to the user’s eyes, especially when stared at for a long duration.
(iv). Can lure computer operators into not keeping hardcopy records.
(v). Screen might not allow the viewing of the full area of data.
Factors to consider when selecting/ buying a Monitor: -
1. Compatibility with the adapter card: The monitor must be capable of displaying the
pictures that the display adapter card can generate. Otherwise, the display will be unstable.
The Video card must be compatible with your computer’s bus.
2. Memory: You should have at least 2 MB of Video memory, but if you have a larger
monitor, start with 4 MB of memory. Look for a video card that has room for expansion in
the future in case you have to buy a larger monitor.
3. Monitor size: This is the distance diagonally across the face of the monitor. The larger the
monitor size, the more the viewable picture area.
4. Resolution and Refresh Rate: Both features depend on each other. They work hand-in-
hand to produce a clean image.
Refresh Rate (sometimes referred to as Scan Rate) is the no. of times per minute that a
computer screen image is renewed (or the rate at which each pixel on a screen is re-drawn).
The Refresh Rate is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Make sure you know the refresh rate of your monitor. The recommended refresh rate is 60
Hz & above. The higher the refresh rates, the better.
A low refresh rate results in an image that flickers (shines unsteadily), resulting in eye-strain.
The standard for flicker-free images is 85 Hz. To detect flicker, look slightly above or to the
side of the monitor. Sometimes, it helps to be in a darker room.

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Your Video card plays an important role in all this. If your card cannot provide support for
the resolutions and refresh rates of the monitor, the picture will look degraded. When pairing
a video card with a monitor, at least make sure that it is capable of delivering a 72 Hz refresh
rate at any resolution supported by that monitor.
Note. In order to stop images fading on the screen, they must be refreshed (sent to the screen)
at least 50 times per second. Each pixel on the screen has 3 bits of information
(corresponding to Red, Green, & Blue) attached to it, and all of them have to be redrawn at
high speed.
The higher the resolution, therefore, the more strain is placed on the performance of the
monitor’s Adapter card.

VOICE OUTPUT DEVICES (Audio Response Units -ARU).

An ARU converts data/ information from the computer memory (which is in electronic form)
through various specialized additional circuitry into waveforms/ sound for the receiver to hear.
The sound can be spoken language, musical notes or beeps. This output is obviously Softcopy.
Voice output is useful where reading is not necessary or is impossible and where fast output is
required.
For example, Voice output is used:
 As a learning aid.
 In emergency situations for messages.
 In answering services, e.g. Post office talking clock.
When an ARU is used to produce speech, it is called a Speech Synthesizer.
A Speech synthesizer is a useful form of output especially when communication with a computer
is made using telephone lines. A user dials the computer & makes an inquiry. The computer
output is passed through the Speech synthesizer, which is located near the computer. The output
is converted to a spoken reply, which is sent to the user over the telephone line.

Speech synthesizers are being included in many consumer products. For example,
 A Bathroom scale with a synthesizer can tell a person his weight, and whether he has gained
or lost weight.
 In Cameras, they can tell you if your film or exposure is set wrongly.
 A washing machine with a synthesizer can tell you if and when to add more detergent, or the
fabric conditioner.
Advantages of Voice Output.
(i). It is very fast, making it useful in emergency situations to relay messages.
(ii). Can be used for distant communication, especially if done over Telephone lines.
(iii). Useful where reading is impossible - can be used by visually disabled people.
(iv). Errors are easily corrected. For example, when used in a washing machine, it can tell you
if and when to add more detergent, or the fabric conditioner.
Disadvantages/ Limitations of Voice Output.
(i). The output is not permanent.
(ii). It may be boring, especially for prolonged output.
(iii). Cannot be used by people with hearing problems.
(iv). If the message is conveyed through beeps, it may be hard to understand.

PRINTERS.
A Printer is an output device that facilitates the transfer of information from a computer to a
paper. It is used when a permanent record of the output may be needed on paper.

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Printed output is usually referred to as Hardcopy output, which means that the document can be
kept indefinitely for future reference or use. The printed output can be distributed conveniently
to reach the recipients of such information/results.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS.
Printers are basically classified in 3 ways: -
(1). In terms of Print speed.
- Low-speed.
- High-speed.
(2). According to the amount of text it can print per given period of time.
- Character Printers.
- Line Printers.
- Page Printers.
(3). The method used to produce the characters on the stationery/ paper.
- Impact Printers.
- Non-impact Printers.

CHARACTER (SERIAL) PRINTERS.

 Character printers are usually low-speed printers that print 1 character at a time.
 Are comparatively slow & less costly than Line or Page printers.
 Have printing speeds that vary from 10 to over 200 characters per second (cps).
 They usually use the Daisy wheel or Dot-matrix printing mechanism.
 Because of their slow speed of providing document prints, Character printers are mainly used
in slow communicating terminals or stand-alone systems, which serve single users at a time
where speed is not crucial.
 The better character printers are able to produce output of sufficient quality that can be used
for business letters. Other printers may produce Near Letter Quality (NLQ) output.
E.g. Dot-matrix printer.

LINE PRINTERS.
 They usually print one whole line at a time.
 Are more expensive than the Character printers, but less costly compared to the Page printers.
 Are relatively faster than the Character printers, but slower than the Page printers.
Line printers are fast with printing speeds of between 300 – 3,000 lines per minute (lpm).
 They normally use a moving chain or band of print characters. The print chain moves at high
speed past the print position, usually a row of hammers.
Note. There is only 1 hammer for every print position.

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When the appropriate character reaches its print position, an electrical signal activates the
hammer causing it to strike against the ribbon and paper, thus printing the character. The rate
of printing is so fast that it appears as if the entire line is printed at one time.
The Line printer can only print those letters that are on the chain.
 Line printers don’t offer printing options like Bold, Italics, different fonts or graphics.
 Line printers are used mainly for high volume data processing work, due to its price & print
limitations. They are mostly used on Minicomputers & Mainframe computers, and especially
in Network environments where several users share the printer & high printing speed is
required.

PAGE PRINTERS.
 Print 1 whole page at a time.
 Are faster & relatively more expensive than both Line printers & Character printers.
 Page printers are Non-impact printers, i.e. there printing operation is silent.
 They provide high quality outputs. They are useful where high-quality is important & where
digitized pictures as well as text are to be printed.
 Page printers are usually connected to Mainframe computers where several users are to be
served at the same time. They can also be used in Microcomputers & Minicomputers,
especially when the volume of expected printing is high.
E.g. Laser printer.

BASIC METHODS OF PRODUCING PRINT.

(a). Impact or Non-impact printing.
Impact printers.
An Impact printer works like a typewriter where a piece of metal or plastic with a raised
letter strikes an inked ribbon against a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the letter on the
paper.
Each character print is provided by an appropriate character symbol on the print head
element.
The inked ribbon lies between the printing head element & the paper, so that the ribbon
ink can be used to pass the character images on the print-head element onto the stationery
during the print head hit impact.
Note. Impact printers can further be classified as Character or Line printers.
Non-impact printers.
In Non-impact printers, the print-head element does not come into contact with the
stationery/ paper.
They use Thermal, Chemical, or Electrostatic principles to produce the characters on the
paper.
They need special papers.
Comparison between Impact & Non-impact printers.
Impact Printers Non-impact Printers
1. Use Inked ribbon. 1. Use thermal or electrostatic principles.
2. Slow. 2. Faster.
3. Able to produce multiple copies by use 3. Almost impossible to produce multiple
of carbon papers. copies.
4. Cheaper. 4. Costly due to the technology involved.
5. They are noisy because the character to 5. Printing operation is silent because there
be printed is pressed against an inked is no print-head element hitting against
ribbon onto to the paper by a print-head the stationery.
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element.

(b). Dot-matrix or shaped-character printing.

Dot-matrix printers produce each character by printing the appropriate dot combination.
Shaped character printers produce each character by use of the whole character symbol
just like as in an ordinary typewriter.

PRINT SPEEDS.
The speed of a printer is expressed in Characters per second (cps), Lines per minute (lpm), or
Pages per minute (ppm).
There are basically 2 types of printers: -
 Low-speed printers.
 High-speed printers.
Each type is then classified further based on the technology used for producing the output & the
amount of text it can print per given period of time.
1. LOW-SPEED PRINTERS.
They usually print between 10 cps to approx. 300 lpm.
Note. All Character printers can be classified as low-speed printers.
The different types of low-speed printers are: -
 Dot-matrix.  Daisy wheel.
 Golf ball.  Thermal printers.
 Inkjet printers.
DOT-MATRIX PRINTER.
It is usually a Low-speed, Impact, Character printer that produces characters in terms of dots.
It has a print-head element made up of a set of arranged needles/ pins/ matrix of 7x5, 7x7,
9x7, or 9x9, which are electromagnetically activated depending on the character to be formed
for printing.
The print head moves to & from across the page; stopping briefly in each character position
to strike a print ribbon against the stationery with an array of wires.
When the print head strikes against the stationery through an inked ribbon, only the activated
needles pass the image of the character onto the paper using the inked ribbon.
Better print quality can be obtained by use of more dots, which is influenced by the way the
needles/ matrices are arranged on the print-head element.
Features of a Dot-matrix printer.
 Like all Character printers, they mimic the action of a typewriter by printing single
characters at a time.
 A Dot-matrix printer is slow; hence it can only print about 200 cps.
 It can produce multiple print copies using interleaved carbon papers onto the stationery.
 Higher versions of Dot-matrix printers have enhanced capabilities, e.g., on print quality,
graphs, pictures, colour and even an alternative character sets.
Note. It is common to meet descriptions of print quality such as NLQ (Near Letter Quality)
and LQ (Letter Quality) on the printers.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER.

This is an Impact, Character printer that provides solid/shaped character prints. It works like
a typewriter where a piece of metal or plastic with a raised letter strikes an inked ribbon
against a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the letter on the paper.

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The printing head is incorporated onto a protruding structure known as a Spoke mounted
over a wheel-like structure called a Daisy wheel. To print each character, the wheel is
rotated & the appropriate character spoke strikes against an inked ribbon, passing the
character image on the print-head element onto the paper.
Features of a Daisy wheel printer.
 Daisy wheel printers provide better print qualities compared to Dot-matrix printers.
 They are slower than Dot-matrix printers with a speed of about 50 cps.
 It has the same capabilities as the Dot-matrix in terms of page size & multiple copies
production.

GOLF-BALL PRINTER.
This is an Impact, Character printer that provides shaped character prints.
The character images are incorporated on the surface of a golf ball-like print head, which is
either rotating or pivoted.

THERMAL PRINTER.
 It is a Non-impact, Character printer that provides character prints using the principles of
heat.
 It uses special print papers (which are usually heat-sensitive).
The characters are printed by applying heat to selected rods in the print head. When the
heated rods touch the paper, the paper is able to sense the heated head character image,
printing the character.
 It produces a burning smell when in operation.
 It is usually slow with a speed of about 160 cps.
 It is very quiet.

INKJET AND BUBBLEJET PRINTERS.

These are Non-impact, Page printers with an in-built set of scalable fonts.
Features of Inkjet and Bubblejet printers.
 They have a print head that consists of ink jets arranged in a matrix. A character is
printed by spraying ink droplets from selected jets (tiny holes) on the ink cartridges onto
the paper using an electrostatic field.
 They have a much better print quality than a Dot-matrix printer, however, not as good as
Laser printers.
For example, they can produce a medium quality bit-mapped image at a resolution of
about 300 - 600 dpi. Those using oil-based inks can produce higher quality print than
those using water-based ink.
 Are very quiet but of low speed, usually printing 4 – 6 pages per minute. Normally,
Inkjet printers can act as Character printers or Line printers producing high print quality.
 They can produce lines of text as well as black & white or colour images.
 Inkjet & bubblejet printers can also be used for colour printing, if the colour option is
installed.
To print in colour, you need a colour cartridge, which usually contains 4 colours (Red,
Blue, Yellow & Black). These colours are combined to get the desired shades.
A colour printer prints by means of multiple print heads each firing droplets of a
different colour. This enables colour images to be produced easily.
 Some can print on plain paper, glossy paper and transparencies.
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2. HIGH-SPEED PRINTERS.
Are able to print between 300 to approx. 3,000 lines per minute.
High-speed printers are broadly classified into: -
(i). Line printers.
(ii). Page printers.
LINE PRINTERS.
Note. Line printers have a high speed as compared to the Character printers. For example, if a
line of 80 characters is to be printed, the character printer need to strike against the stationery
through the inked ribbon 80 times before all the character images forming the line are passed
on the stationery. A Line printer only strikes once for the whole line of 80 characters to be
printed onto the stationery through the inked ribbon.
There are 3 types of Line printers: -
 Drum printers.
 Chain printers.
 Electrostatic printers.
DRUM PRINTER.
 It is an Impact, Line printer that provides 1 whole line at a time.
The characters are incorporated on circular bands that move round the surface of the
drum. Each band contains all the possible character sets.
To provide a Line print, the bands align to form the line. A drum then presses the paper
between the inked ribbon & the hammer set (which acts as a pressing base). The inked
ribbon is used to pass the image of the aligned line on the drum surface onto the paper.
 The Drum printer has a printing speed of between 200 - 300 lines per minute.

CHAIN PRINTER.
 This is an Impact, Line printer that has engraved character-printing slugs on a moving
chain or belt. The chain moves the slugs at high constant speed past the printing
positions. A hammer (which is controlled by the principles of magnetism) presses the
stationery against an appropriate print slug, passing the character image of the slug onto
the stationery through the inked ribbon.
 Chain printers do not require alignment as in Drum printers during line printing.
 They are faster than Drum printers. They have a typical speed of about 20 - 50 lines per
second (lps).
 They produce higher print quality than Drum printers; hence are more expensive.
ELECTROSTATIC PRINTER.
 This is a Non-impact, Line or Page printer that uses electrostatic principles to form
characters in a line.
 They use special papers.
 Provides high quality dot prints.
 It operates at a speed of 3,000 lines per minute & above.

PAGE PRINTERS.
There are 3 types of Page printers: -
 Laser printers.
 Electrostatic printers.
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 Xerographic printers.
LASER PRINTER.
 It is a Non-impact, Page printer that prints a whole page at a time.
 A Laser printer uses the same technology as a photocopying machine, i.e. it uses a laser
beam & photocopying principles.
It converts data into a laser beam of light that encodes an organic photoconductor with the
data, forming the images to be printed. The photoconductor then attracts particles to the
toner (ink). When the toner is brought into contact with the paper, an image is produced
on the paper. The toner is fused onto the paper by principles of heat & pressure.
 It is a high-quality printer that can produce drawings as well as lines of text.
 It operates at a high speed. It is capable of printing up to 20,000 lines per minute (or
approx. 150 pages per minute).
Note. Laser Printers are the most advanced printers.
XEROGRAPHIC PRINTER.
 It is a Page printer similar to a photocopier machine, but it has got in-built processing
power.
 It is able to produce multiple print copies.
 It is slower than the Laser printer.
Advantages of using Printers.
(i). Produces a permanent output that can be maintained for future reference.
(ii). The information can be conveniently distributed to reach the recipients of such information
or results.
(iii). The advanced models of printers with colour capabilities can produce styled prints.
Disadvantages of using Printers.
(i). Very expensive, if bought as an individual device.
(ii). Some Printers are Noisy.
(iii). Not possible to produce multiple copies, especially the Impact printers.
(iv). Their speed of output (i.e., the printing) is slow.

Factors to consider when selecting a Printer.

The following factors are to be taken into consideration while selecting a printer.
1. The Cost involved.
This will include the printer’s initial price, the costs of maintenance & the cost of consumable
items, e.g. printing papers, ribbons/cartridges, etc.
2. Volume of printing expected.
This will help in selecting a printer in terms of print speeds.
3. The nature of the reports to be generated & their recipients.
The printing quality, such as the capability to print graphics & colour printing should be
considered with respect to the needs of the recipients.
4. The capability for the selected printer.
These include multiple copy production, print styles, page width, etc.
5. Compatibility with other computers.
This will involve the interface with the computer system being used and/or make of particular
computer.
6. Environment in which the Printer will operate.
7. Reliability of the Printer.
8. Application it is required for & also the available application software packages.

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9. Stationery (type of paper) used by the printer.
10. Documentation.
Printer driver - A program that controls how your computer and printer interact.
Tip. You might get bad work when you send graphics to a non-graphic printer or when you use a
wrong driver.
Question. Explain how the factors identified in this chapter could influence the choice of
printer to be used on a computer system.
Comparison between a Screen and a Printer.
Screen Printer
1. Produces a softcopy (displayed) output. 1. Produces a hardcopy (printed) output.
2. Output is temporary, i.e. the display 2. Output is permanent, i.e. can be
gets lost when the power is switched maintained for future references.
off. 3. More costly.
3. Cheaper, if bought as individual device. 4. Output is noisy. Impact printers have
4. Output is silent, since there are no printing head elements that hits against
mechanically moving parts for the the paper in order to transfer the character
display to appear on the screen. images onto the stationery. Non-impact
printers are considerably silent.
5. Using Impact printers, it is possible to
5. Impossible to produce multiple copies. produce multiple copies.
6. Speed of output (printing) is
6. Output is fast. comparatively slow.
7. Some printer’s quality is low while others
7. Print quality is high. produce better quality prints.
8. The printed information is more
8. May cause fatigue to the user’s eyes convincing to the recipients (humans).
especially when stared at for a long
duration. 9. Styled prints are only possible with
9. Have different print styles, e.g., Italics advanced models with the colour
and colour displays are possible. capabilities.

GRAPH PLOTTERS.
These are output devices that produce graphics, such as diagrams, maps, images, statistical charts
etc, on paper.
Plotters use pens of different types, varying thickness & different colours, in order to plot. The
pens are usually under the direct or indirect influence of electronic pulses output by the
computer.
Plotters are described/ named depending on the type of the base onto which the stationery is
placed for the graphical output to be produced onto the paper.
The 2 commonly available Graph plotters are: -
(i). The Drum plotter.
It has a drum onto which the stationery is placed for the drawing to be possible.
The paper is wound (curved/ twisted) round a cylindrical drum. A carriage, holding one or
more pens, can move across the paper, parallel to the axis of the drum.
The drum rolls the paper forward or backwards as the pen moves over it to produce
graphical output.
(ii). The Flatbed plotter.

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It has a flat surface (or bed) onto which the stationery is placed for the pen to be moving
over it in all directions to produce graphical output.
In a Flatbed plotter, the paper is fixed (in a horizontal plane) but the carriage can move
across the paper or up & down the page.
Note. The movement of the carriage is not continuous (the way a person draws with a pen) but
rather discrete, i.e. the carriage moves in small steps or jumps called Increments.
The size of the increment determines the resolution of the plotter. The smaller the size of
the increment, the greater the resolution & the more accurate the drawing will be.
Characteristics of Graph Plotters.
- They are large in size.
- They use Ammonia papers.
- They use special ink.
- Have a wide carrying capacity.
Uses/ applications of Graph Plotters.
Graph Plotters are used: -
 In Computer Aided Design (CAD) – are mainly used for printing large architectural or
engineering drawings. In this case, the computer is used to form the graphical design & the
Plotter produces the output.
 In Weather forecasting for drawing Isobars on weather maps.
 In Statistical work for producing graphs or complicated mathematical formulas.
 In Cartography to produce contour maps.
 In Craft & Textile industry for drawing designs.
Advantages of Graph Plotters.
(i). Can produce information in an easily understandable form.
(ii). Their presentation is quick & reliable.
(iii). They produce large graphical designs of high quality, which are easy to read & use.
(iv). A Plotter can be used to print even on A1 sized papers, while the largest paper size that can
be used with a normal printer is A3.
Disadvantages of Graph Plotters.
(i). They require Graphic software, which is usually very expensive.
(ii). Graph plotters operate at low speeds, hence are normally connected in an Off-line mode to
avoid wasting the computer time.

COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM).

This is the process of transforming digital data produced by the computer into human-readable
form & recording it in reduced physical size into a photographic film.
This method of output provides photographed type of computer output stored as microscopic
filmed images into the microform.
Microforms are photographically reduced documents on films (magnetic media).
There are 2 forms/ classes of the Microform: -
(i). The Microfilm, which is a film reel of 16mm.
(ii). The Microfiche - a rectangular shaped sheet of film, measuring about 10 x 15 mm.
A typical microfiche can hold the equivalent of 300 pages of printed paper.
Both the Microfilm & Microfiche are small.
Differences between Microfilms and Microfiche.
Microfilm Microfiche
1. Microfilm is a photograph film. 1. Microfiche is a normal paper.

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2. Can store about 3,000 pages of A4 sized 2. Can store about 98 pages of A4 sized
paper. paper.
3. Displays real images in reduced form. 3. Displays sketches.
4. Cheap. 4. Expensive.
5. Has a long life span. 5. Has a short life span.
6. Requires special devices for viewing. 6. Can be viewed by naked eyes.
Advantages of Microfilms over Microfiches.
(i). Microfilms last longer than Microfiches.
(ii). Microfilms display real images, making it easy to read & understand.
(iii). Microfilms are cheaper compared to fiches.
(iv). Microfilms require special devices for viewing while Microfiches do not.
Illustration of the COM process.

1. The computer displays the results onto the screen.

2. The contents are then photographed onto the microform (an online operation).
Alternatively, the computer can write the output into a storage medium, e.g. Magnetic tape.
3. The data on the tape is then read by transcriber machine called the Microform recorder &
displays them on a screen connected to the machine.
4. The contents being displayed on the screen are then photographed by a high-speed camera
using microfilm onto the microform.
Since the transcriber machine is not under direct influence of the computer, the operation is
Off-line.
5. The film is then developed.
6. If necessary, duplicates are made using the Film duplicator.
In some systems, a separate device is needed for each of these stages. In others, the tape drive is
not needed, instead the computer sends the output directly to the Microfilm recorder.
Also, some recorders are capable of processing the film, so a separate film developer is not
needed.
In order to view a film, a Microfilm viewing station is used. This magnifies the images on the
film so they can be easily read.
The station usually has a Printer connected to it to produce hardcopy, if required.

Applications of COM.
Microfilm output is conveniently suited to applications/ areas where: -
 There is bulky storage of information.
 The volume of output is high, say, 100,000 pages per month.
 The data must be stored for long periods and use or update is not frequently necessary; as in
case of old copies of customer’s files in banks, or back copies of newspapers. Such data is
usually referred to as Archival data.
 In Postal services, where the cost of mailing a microfiche is considerably less than mailing
the equivalent bulky report.
Examples of areas where the COM is used in:
 Libraries for books, catalogues, references, etc.
 Government authorities - to retain/ keep Town plans, maps, statistics, etc.
 Banks, Insurance companies, etc to store personnel or customers records.
 National Registration Board for security purposes.
 Registration of Motor vehicles, i.e., for Logbook and details of the vehicle.
 Immigration department – issuing of passports (originals and passports).
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 National Archives.
 Thomas de la Rue – concerned with printing of money (both original & copies).
Advantages of using the COM.
(i). Saves on stationery and space.
(ii). Capable of producing many copies.
(iii). A very fast form of output -usually faster than printing.
Using the COM, the equivalent of 30,000 – 40,000 lines of output can be produced per
minute (which is 20 times faster than the fastest Impact Line printer).
(iv). Not bulky, hence conveniently transportable.
(v). The microform contents are not easily read using naked eyes, hence guaranteeing the
security of the reports.
(vi). It lasts longer as compared to paper medium output.
(vii). Compared to paper, the film costs are low. However, the initial cost is high, because the
necessary equipment is expensive.
Disadvantages of Microforms.
(i). They are expensive.
(ii). Cause eye-strain if an attempt is made to read microform contents.
(iii). Requires special equipment for viewing the contents of the microform & for producing
full-sized copies.
(iv). The contents in a microform are not easy to update.
(v). They are less convenient.

MAGNETIC MEDIA.
The computer output/information from the computer memory can also be directed into the
magnetic storage media, e.g. the tape or disk, instead of being printed or displayed.
Directing the computer output into magnetic media is usually necessary where such results
(output of processing) is to be stored for future retrieval or further processing.

Ancillary Devices.
Ancillary devices are the facilities that are used to support the Printers and/or in handling printed
documents.
Advanced models of Printers have some of these devices built-in them to assist in the production
of the desirable documents.
The ancillary equipments include –
(a). Decollators – for removing the inter-leaved carbon & separating the multiple copy
stationery.
(b). Recollators - for recombining the continuous stationery after inter-leaved carbon is
removed.
(c). Bursfers – for pulling apart continuous stationery into single sheets at the perforations.
(d). Guillotine – for cutting and trimming continuous stationery.
(e). Trimmers – for trimming, vertical cut to remove the sproken holes.
(f). Others – for folding the stationery to fit an envelope.
- Inserting of the folded document into an envelope.
- Reproduction of multiple copies of the printed documents containing the output.
Exercise (a).
1. (i). Name FOUR types of Monitor cards or Adapters.
(ii). What is meant by the term “Resolution” as applied to a graphics display?
(iii). Why would one wish to use a high resolution rather than a low-resolution display?
2. Computer output is normally made through Screen or Printer. Compare Screen and Printer as
output devices.
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3. With reasons, briefly describe the most appropriate type of printer or output device for the
output of:
(i). Customer invoices on multiparty stationary.
(ii). Letters to customers.
(iii). Detailed engineering designs.
4. (a). Name some everyday appliances/ devices in which an Audio response unit would be
useful.
(b). Identify 4 Limitations of the Speech Recognition devices found today.
5. Give THREE Factors used to classify Printers. Describe the various types of Printers in each
class.
6. (a). Name THREE different principles which are used for producing printed output.
(b). Clearly differentiate between Impact and Non-impact printers.
(c). Give two examples of the commonly used Non-impact printers.
7. Give one device, which can perform both input and output functions in a computer.
8. Write short notes on the following:
(i). Dot-matrix printer.
(ii). Daisy wheel printer.
(iii). Golf-ball printer.
(iv). Drum printer.
(v). Chain Printer.
(vi). Laser printer.
9. (a). A printer, which is connected to your computer prints garbage when required to print.
What could be THREE probable reasons for not printing properly?
(b). Why is it not possible to print a Graphic on a Daisy Wheel printer?
10. (a). What is a Plotter?
(b). What advantages does a Plotter have over normal Printer machines?
11. (a). Describe the process of producing Computer Output on Microform (COM).
(b). Give the advantages of Computer Output on Microform offer printed output.
12. State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of using each of the following devices for
output.
(i). VDU (monitor/ screen).
(ii). COM.
(iii). Voice Output.
(iv). Printer.

Exercise (b).
1. Explain briefly how the following devices work.
(a). Voice (Speech) synthesizer.
(b). Computer Output on Microfilm (COM).
2. (a). Define a Printer.
(b). With the aid of a diagram, show how Printers are classified.
3. Compare and contrast:
(i). Impact and Non-Impact printers.
(ii). Inkjet and Thermal or Electrostatic Printers.
4. (a). Why do you think a Desktop Laser printer is a popular choice of printer to use with a
Workstation?
√ High volume of output – a high-speed Laser printer will print 146 pages per minute.
√ Output quality is very high (400 – 1200 dpi) – it can produce both text & diagrams or
pictures of high quality and therefore can be used to produce manuals and small
publications.
(b). What printers are suitable for producing business letters?
(c). What factors should you consider when selecting or purchasing a Printer?
5. Describe in brief the difference between:
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(a). A Flatbed plotter and a Drum plotter.
(b). Microfilm and Microfiche.
Exercise (c).
1. (a). What are the essential differences among Character, Line and Page printers?
(b). Give a typical example of each.
2. Describe the factors to be considered while selecting a printer.
3. Write short notes on the following: -
(i). VDU.
(ii). Graph Plotters.
(iii). Voice Output.
4. (a). What is a Computer Output on Microform (COM)?
(b). Explain the working of COM system.
(c). Give the advantages and disadvantages of COM.
5. Explain the Printer under the following headings: -
(i). Character prints per given time.
(ii). Print provision, i.e. the way they provide the prints onto the stationery.
(iii). Print speed.
Give an account of the operational characteristics.

SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION
THE MOTHERBOARD (also called System Board or Circuit board).
Computers, like all electronic circuit devices are made of printed Circuit boards (electronic
boards on which copper wires have been printed to form circuit paths).
The Motherboard is the main part (large circuit board) of your computer that every thing else
plugs into.
It is usually a sheet of olive green or brown fiberglass with several thin gold lines on it and chips
sticking off it.
By itself, the Motherboard is just an empty plate. It’s the hardware that sits on it that does the
work. On it, we have the CPU, SIMM sockets, BIOS and slots.
The Motherboard provides a convenient method of inter-board connection. It is where all
electronic components such as the Microprocessor, Memory chips, Interface chips, and Bus
connections are assembled.
The motherboard also contains a no. of expansion slots in which Interface cards are slotted
(plugged in).

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The little gold lines are called Buses and act as roadways of information between all these
features. The buses enable the parts to communicate and perform the functions of your
computer.

INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) PORTS.

A Port is a connection or socket used to connect a device, such as a Printer, Monitor, Mouse,
Scanner, etc to your computer.
I/O Ports are the sockets found at the back of your computer where you can connect external
computer devices to the interface cards inside the computer. They allow access in & out of the
computer for cables.
There are several types of external ports: -
1. Parallel (LPT) ports.
2. Serial (Com) ports.
3. USB ports.
4. SCSI ports.
PARALLEL PORTS.
The standard PC parallel port was originally designed for sending information to Printers or
Scanners. That is the reason why they are sometimes referred to as Line Printer Terminal
(LPT) ports.
They are D-shaped with holes for 25 pins.
It is used mainly to connect Printers, Scanners, and sometimes external Hard drives, CD-ROM
drives, Tape devices & Network adapters to your computer.
Parallel ports transmit data using an 8–bit parallel interface & are therefore, used for devices that
accept information 8 bits at a time. They transmit data byte-by-byte. They are usually faster
than Serial ports.
Note. The SCSI Port is an example of a parallel port.
SERIAL PORTS.
They are sometimes referred to as Communication (COM) ports.
Are also D-shaped with 9 or 25 pins.
They are used primarily to connect devices such as serial Mice, external Modems, and sometimes
Printers to the System unit. They can also be used for computer-to-computer connection.
The Serial port has 2 data lines, one for data in & the other for data out.
Transmission rates of Serial ports are slower than those of Parallel ports. This is because, Serial
ports transmit data bit-by-bit. Therefore, they are used for devices that accept information 1 bit
at a time (or for devices that are a bit slow).
Notes: Serial & Parallel ports.
 A computer should have at least 2 COM ports & 1 LPT port available.
 Before you print, you have to know whether you are using a Serial or a Parallel transmission.
 Most ports are bi-directional, i.e. can send & receive data. Some Printer ports can only send
data, and therefore, cannot be used with a terminal connection.
The sending & receiving of signals at a port is usually governed by a set of rules known as
Protocols. For example, the “ON” & “OFF” protocol involves sending the ASCII code 17,
that means ‘start transmission’ & the ASCII code 19 which means ‘stop transmission’.
Nowadays, Serial & Parallel I/O devices do not meet the user’s needs in the following areas: -
(i). Throughput - Serial ports have a maximum data transfer rate of 115.2 Kb/s, while Parallel
ports at around 500KBps. Devices such as digital Cameras require higher bandwidth than
can be provided by these 2 ports.

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(ii). Hardware resources. Each port requires its own Interrupt Request Line (IRQ). A PC has
a total of 16 IRQs. Some PCs have as few as 5 free IRQs before peripherals are installed.
COM ports can share IRQs, but some Operating systems will not allow this.
(iii). Limited no. of ports. Most PCs have 2 COM ports & 1 LPT port. You can add more
COM & LPT ports, but at the cost of precious IRQs.
Two new I/O ports; Universal Serial Bus (USB) & IEEE 1394, have been introduced to address
the limitations of Serial & Parallel ports.
USB deals with slower devices and IEEE 1394 with high-speed devices. Both support Plug-and-
Play and Hot-swapping.
Some PCs can support at least 2 USB ports, while others include the IEEE port.

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB) PORTS.

Many new PCs come with USB ports. USB ports support a wide range of desktop peripherals,
e.g., Keyboards, digital Cameras, etc.
USB combines the best features of SCSI architecture with an advanced Plug-and-play standard.
It replaces the traditional Serial & Parallel ports with a single port that is extensible through the
use of hubs and devices daisy-chained in a tree arrangement.
USB was designed to deliver a data transfer rate of up-to 12Mbits/sec to & from the PC. It also
supports low-speed mode of 1.5Mbit/sec for devices like Keyboards, Mice and Joysticks.
USB is “user-friendly”. It eliminates the need to install expansion cards inside the PC and then
configure the system. Instead, peripherals will be automatically configured when they are
attached to the system without the need to run a Setup or reboot.
Advantages of USB ports over Serial & Parallel ports.
(i). Devices are powered by the bus – there is no need for external power adapters. USB allows
unpowered devices to draw up to 500 mA over the connector cable.
(ii). Can support a max. of 127 daisy-chained devices, because of its high bit addressing system.
What if my computer doesn’t have a USB port?
This means that you have an older computer that was shipped before USB became standard for
new PCs. What you need is to buy a USB Expansion card from your computer hardware dealer,
which should come with the necessary drivers & software updates you will need to make it work
on your system.
Then open up your computer, find the PCI slot, insert the card in the slot, close the computer and
then fire up your system. Install the software and start plugging in those peripherals you require.
IEEE (The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) 1394 BUS.
It was originally designed by Apple in the late 1980s. The IEEE 1394 bus was designed to be a
high speed Serial bus that could provide higher data transfer rates and still remain affordable
enough.
It is cheap, and provides a high-speed method of interconnecting high-speed digital devices, such
as Hard drives, digital audio and video hardware.
The current 1394 specification offers data transfer rates of up-to 400Mbps. You can mix 100,
200 & 400Mb/sec devices on a single bus.
Advantages of IEEE 1394.
(i). It is a digital interface. This means that, there is no need to convert digital data into analog
form as is the case of Serial & Parallel ports.
The digital-to-analog conversion & vice versa leads to loss of data integrity, which
primarily affects digital photography and video.
(ii). 1394 devices can be connected by means of branching or daisy-chaining. In addition, up-to
Sixty-three 1394 devices can be connected together to a single 1394 port.

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SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) PORTS.

Pronounced as Scuzzy.
SCSI is a device interface used by PCs, Apple Macintosh computers and many UNIX systems.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) card is used for attaching to peripheral devices that
require high speed data transfers between the device and memory.
The SCSI cards provide parallel high-speed data transfer in the range of 10 MB/s to the memory.
It connects peripherals to your computer via standard hardware interface, which uses standard
SCSI commands.
The SCSI is an adapter card that allows up-to 8 or 15 internal & external devices to be added to
your computer using one expansion card. The most popular SCSI devices are memory-related
devices such as Hard disk drives, Tape drives, removable storage devices such as Zip drives, and
some CD-ROM drives.
The no. of devices you can add up depends on the SCSI host adapter you buy.
Some PC models have a hard disk drive with a SCSI adapter card installed in one of the PC
expansion slots. The SCSI adapter has an external & an internal connector, and therefore can
connect both internal and external devices.

When you connect SCSI devices to the host adapter card, you create a SCSI bus, which acts as
the electronic pathway between the host adapter and the SCSI devices. Data from your SCSI
devices travels through this pathway to the host adapter card, and then to your computer’s
processor.
How do you connect 7 or even 15 external devices to one SCSI host adapter card?
Answer: When you set up SCSI devices to your computer, you don’t connect them all directly to
the host adapter. External devices are daisy-chained together.
A Daisy-chain is a set of hardware components connected to each other in a series. The devices
are connected using special SCSI cables that should come with your external SCSI devices.
How do you connect internal SCSI devices to the SCSI host adapter?
Answer: When you buy a SCSI host adapter, it should include a ribbon cable. The ribbon cable
should have enough connectors for all the internal devices in your computer. If that is not the
case, you’ll need to buy a ribbon cable that has a connector for each device. The internal devices
are connected to the ribbon cable, which is then connected to the host adapter.
Note. For a SCSI device to be used, it is necessary to have a driver that interfaces it to the host.
Hard disk drives normally do not require this because they are normally enabled directly by the
BIOS on the Host Adapter ROM chip.
To standardize drivers, the manufacturers of SCSI host adapters developed the Advanced SCSI
Programming Interface (ASPI).
Most Operating systems use the ASPI standard. For MS-DOS, the driver has to be loaded via the
CONFIG.SYS file; while Windows 9X has ASPI support built-in.
The SCSI standard can be divided into:
(a). SCSI (SCSI-1), Sometimes referred to as the original SCSI.
It is a 8-bit bus with a data transfer rate of 5MB/s.
(b). SCSI-2 (SCSI wide & fast).
SCSI-2 is the most popular version of the SCSI command specification and allows for
Scanners, Hard disk drives, CD-ROM players, Tapes and many other devices.
SCSI-2 is backward compatible with SCSI-1.
(c). SCSI-3

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SCSI-3 resolves around many long time ‘gray areas” and adds much new functionality and
performance improvements.
SCSI-3 is made up of at least 14 separate standard documents.
It also adds new types of SCSI buses like Fibre Channel, which uses a 4-pin copper
connection or a pair of glass fibre optic cables instead of the familiar ribbon cable
connection.

ACCELERATED GRAPHICS PORT (AGP).

Today’s software & games are becoming more graphical. Modern business software uses icons,
charts, animations, etc.
The AGP was designed by Intel. It is a “high-performance, component level interconnect
targeted at all graphical display applications and is based on a set of performance extensions or
enhancements to PCI.”
AGP uses the PC’s Main memory to hold 3D images. This gives the AGP video card an
unlimited amount of video memory. To speed up the data transfer, Intel designed the port as a
direct path to the PCs main memory.
AGP is the most widely used today for graphical speed because of the following reasons: -
 It is faster than PCI, in that while PCI runs at 33 MHz, the AGP bus runs much faster. A 4X
AGP bus runs at 133 MHz.
 Also, AGP makes use of sideband transfers & pipelining, so it can constantly transfer data
without depending on other components in the PC.
Since AGP bus pipelines operations, it can process more quickly & efficiently than a PCI bus
can.
AGP uses a special organization process for all pending and processing requests. In effect, the
bus can process one instruction while still receiving the next instructions. This allows much
more to be accomplished in a shorter amount of time.

INTERFACING & INTERFACE CARDS.

All peripheral devices such as Printers, Keyboards, Monitors, Floppy & Hard disk drives are
independent of the microprocessor. Therefore, some form of interface is required to enable the
microprocessor communicate with these devices.
Also, data in its original form cannot be fed directly from an Input device into the CPU. It has to
be presented in digital form. Similarly, the Output device cannot accept digital signals from the
CPU.
Therefore, in order to provide the timing signals and data transfers between the Processor & the
peripheral devices, electronic controller circuits called Interface cards are connected between
the microprocessor & the devices.
An Interface card - a special piece of circuitry fitted inside the computer and sits between the
computer and the port. Its purpose is to provide a compatible connection between the computer
& the port.
Expansion board – A circuit board that installs into an expansion slot in the computer. It allows
the computer to perform specialized tasks such as access a telephone via a modem. Otherwise,
the computer would not be able to perform such tasks.

COMPONENTS ASSEMBLY.

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The basic Microcomputer system consists of the Motherboard, the Power Supply unit, Hard disk
& Floppy disk drives, I/O interface cards, Disk controller card, Video card, optional CD-ROM
drive, Sound and Network interface cards.
All these components are housed in a cabinet (or Chassis). The cabinet has rear connectors for
peripheral devices through the motherboard or interface cards.
The Interface cards are usually plugged into the microcomputer’s card slots with power-supply
voltages and bus signals distributed to the card slots.
Cables then go from connectors on the interface cards to the peripheral devices.

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