UNIT –I

CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE ACROSS

THE CURRICULUM

Conceptualization and principles of language across the curriculum-

Introduction- meaning-Concept-Goals of LAC-Aims of LAC-Needs and
Importance of LAC-Benefits-Difficulties in Implementing LAC-Needs and
Importance of plurilingualism-Meaning-Needs and importance of
Plurilingualism- modes of human activities involving language-language
objectives-relationship between language and thinking-Basic Tenets of LAC-
principles of LAC-Integration across the curriculum
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Languages across the Curriculum (LAC) are a curricular enrichment
program that provides students with the opportunity to use their skills in
languages other than non-language courses. Language across Curriculum as
a methodology and strategy is applied in schools.
• Which experiment newer ways of teaching and learning with the
vision of attainment of educational goals
• Reducing wastage of times
• Experiment the energy of both learners and teachers.
Meaning
Language across the Curriculum means, to develop language ability
not only through language classes by the language teacher but in the
context of other subjects by other teachers also.
CONCEPT:
Language across the curriculum (LAC) is a modern approach to
learning languages. According to LAC approach, language learning should
occur throughout the school hours in

1|Page
 • Language class room
• Other subject class room
Language
The system of sounds and writing that human beings use to express
their thoughts, ideas and feelings.
Curriculum
Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences
where students practice and achieve proficiency in content and applied
learning skills. It helps learners to get understanding of different technical
terms related to subject specific concepts. It helps learners to improve
their linguistic skills by linking them with content knowledge.
Language across Curriculum:
According to Fillian Language stresses concern for how people learn
to use language, how they use language to achieve understanding and
experiences and how language use influences cognitive development.
Goals:
Language across Curriculum approach could practice in the class room
because
• It focuses the application of language and language skills
• It equip the learners to meet multilingual demands
• It develop thinking process
• It improve and enhance conceptual literacy
• It must be used to understand new ideas ,theories and concepts
• It support self-directed lifelong learning
• It promotes the development of higher order thinking skills
Aims
• To support language development and improve the communication
skills in each child

2|Page
 • It aims to motivate the students learning through multilingual
approach to content learning
Needs:
• Language is important for cognitive development
• Language and content are closely interlinked with each other.
• Language is needed for higher order thinking skills and make
conclusions.
• Languages skills must need to become teachings are more
meaningful.
Importance:
• Language strengthens thinking process and knowledge in various
fields
• Language is motivating the teachers to develop both content and
linguistic comprehension
• LAC improves skills of presentation among students.
• The LSRW skills of the students are developed in an interested and
integrated manner
• Language Integration cuts down precious time by combining subjects
• It preserve the students from pressure of learning content and
language subjects
1.2 PLURILINGUALISM:
Plurilingualism is the ability to use skills in a number of different
languages for effective communication.
The definition of a plurilingual person is someone who can
easily and quickly switch from one language to another when
communicating or preserving.
Characteristics:

3|Page
 According to CEFR (2018). As plurilingual and pluricultural
competences foster the development of awareness of language and
communications. It has the following characteristics
• Switch between two or many languages easily
• Speak in one language at the same time understanding someone else
who speaks in another language
• Recognize the multipurpose of a word from common international
language bank
• Able to derive meaning of a text from various languages.
• Mediate between people from different language background.
• Experiment the various forms of expression by use of all known
linguistic equipment.
• Utilize paralinguistic factors such as mime, gesture. Facial expression
etc.
Uses
According to the Council of Europe, plurilingualism can also be used
• To mediate conflict between those with no common language.
• to understand different dialects and/or regional versions of one
language opens the door for someone to be plurilingual
• People who are plurilingual tend to have better communicative
sensitivity, creativity, and metalinguistic awareness.
• The knowledge of multiple languages as well as the understanding of
different cultures allows for the improved communicative skills.
Plurilingual education
Plurilingual education has been an increasing form of education in
Europe. It was first introduced to the education system in
1996.According to the Council of Europe, it is imperative that students

4|Page
learn to be plurilinguists from a young age so that they can be not only be
more competitive in an increasingly globalized world.
Plurilingualism in class room:
• Plurilingual approach in classrooms enhance the learning
environments
• Students are encouraging to think by using repertoire (stock of
language)
• Plurilingualism helps to increase creativity and critical thinking in the
classrooms.
• Plurilinguists develop the ability to communicate between language
and different culture.
• Plurilingualism provides better view of the world through experiences
of the mind and body constituting a kind of map.

Task
• Comparison of the same text in two different languages.
• Discuss about any one particular product.
• Mediator between two friends speaking on different language
• Using similar grammatical elements of different language to analyse
the difference.
• Conduct activity by using paralinguistic elements like intercultural
mime, role play etc.
Importance of plurilingualism:
There are many advantages of plurilingualism in education.
5|Page
 • Plurilingualism is important to develop their metacognitive skills.
• Plurilinguistic person can communicate with people of different
nationalities in their daily lives.
• Their motivation, self-confidence and skills rise in order to learn
languages and other cultures.
• Plurilinguistic person can value and develop their positive attitude
towards cultural and language diversity.
• The society needs plurilingual programs in schools, high schools and
university in order to compete with most advance societies because
we have a global economy.
• Plurilingualism is an educational objective because, it promotes
understanding among people and improves relationship among
different cultures.
Drawbacks of plurilingualism:
• It is time consuming.
• Teachers may not be well equipped.
• They may not have proper training.
• The students may struggle to achieve their goals
• It force high achievement target.
• They have fear to face a plurilinguistic class room
1.3 MODES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES INVOLVING LANGUAGE:
Human activities can be classified as Economic and Non-
Economic Activities.
An economic activity involves the production, distribution
and consumption of all goods and services.
A non-economic activity in done with no intention of earning
a profit or any money.
Modes:

6|Page
 There are eight modes of human activities involving language
learning. They are

• Listening
• Speaking
• Reading
• Writing
• Viewing
• Shaping
• Watching
• Moving
Listening:
• Listening is a skill that allows a person to receive oral information from
others. It is therefore sometimes referred to as a receptive skill and as an
oral language skill.
• The language art of listening begins from the birth.
• Listening can be defined as the interpretation of sounds that are heard.
When a baby is first born, he immediately begins to receive sensory
impressions, including hearing sound.
• Young children learn much language by listening to people those around
them.
• The children listen not only to spoken words but also to the rhythms and
intonation (different sound) pattern of the language that they hear.
• They take the language they hear and make generalizations based on it.

Speaking:

• Speaking is making use of vocal sounds to communicate with others.

7|Page
• The new born baby comes into the world making a variety of sounds.
These sounds however, are not produced in an effort on the part of the
child to convey meaning in his early days.
• Meaningful speech develops as children learn the effects of particular
sounds other people around them.
• Speaking is often referred to as an expressive skill and an oral language
skill.
• The speaker encodes a thought into an oral message and transmits this
message to a listener, who must decode the oral symbols in order to
understand the message.

Reading:
• Reading is the interpretation of written symbols.
• It translates visual symbols into auditory ones
• Initial stages of learning to read generally follow those of learning to
listen and learning to speak
• Reading is a way of taking information that has been recorded in
print by another person. Thus, it is classified as a receptive skill.
• Reading serves many functions for the reader such as entertainment.
It offers challenges or relaxation. Each reading activity may be for a
slightly different purpose.
Writing:
• Writing involves communicating with others through the printed
word or recording ideas of oneself.
• It is classified as an productive or expressive skill
• The writer encodes a message, which is decoded and interpreted by
the reader.

8|Page
 Writing allows a person to record and preserve information or facts
which can be read by the successive generations.
Viewing:
• Viewing refers to attending or paying attention to visual signs or
information
• Visual signs may include photographs/images, graphs, diagrams,
maps etc. found in books.
• Signal lights, some symbols, and some messages are in the form of
viewing.
• The messages received from these media helps to improve thinking
skills.
Shaping:
• People who speak different languages focus on different things, based on
the structure of the word.
• Presenting the text along with visual signs and symbols helps the reader to
understand the text better.
Watching:
• Watching refers to attending physical movements of a speaker
• It is a non- verbal communication.
• Physical movements which incorporate someone use hand movements,
facial expression or spatial movements of somebody, certain spoken
words or written messages.
• Here one who watches the bodily movements is a decoder or the
audience before the speaker
Moving
• When someone uses the whole body for self-expression, then the cat is
known as moving
• Here one who uses the body or self-expression is the encoder

9|Page
• The viewer of the action is decoder
1.4 LANGUAGE OBJECTIVES:
Objectives:
An objective is something you plan to achieve
Language objectives
The language objective tells how the students will learn and/or
demonstrate their mastery of the lesson by reading, speaking, writing, or
listening. The aims of language objectives are knowledge, skills and abilities
to learn and essential competence.
Example: You will be able to explain the connection between the French
and Indian War and the American Revolution.
The objectives of language learning as per LAC is listed below
• To develop the competence of learners to understand what they
hear
• To develop the ability to read with comprehension
• To develop effortless expression
• To develop children’s creativity
• To develop sensitivity
Constructing language objectives:
The following steps need to construct language objectives
• Vocabulary
This includes concept words or other general words
Ex: parts of a plant, concept of velocity, condensation etc.
• Language function
This refers what the language helps to do
Example: define, explain, describe etc.
• Grammar
This refers to the language structure

10 | P a g e
 Example:
Tense, verb, sentence structure etc.
• Discourse
This refers to the ways students use language
Example:
Auto biography, persuasive writing, plays, speeches, newspaper
articles etc.
• Language learning strategies
This refers to systematic plan to learn language
Example
Determining patterns, previewing text, taking notes etc
Influence of language and thinking each other:
Language is a tool to represent our thoughts and is symbolic of our
cognitive processes. For example, on looking round shaped object, a small
child could call ball, thinking only within the boundaries of the language
that he knows it could also due to the fact that the child is seeing a round
object other than a ball for the first time.
Language as an infrastructure of thought:
Language could be termed as infrastructure or a sub structure that
helps in the aim of human beings to communicate. A good infrastructure is
usually organized, consisting of building blocks that form the base for a
medium known as language.
1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND THINKING:
Language provides the structure to express our
thoughts. Language is the mirror of thinking, and it is one of the ways in
which we communicate our rich cognitive world.

11 | P a g e
Language is almost the first thing we learn. Infant less than 6months old,
could receive sense impressions and form imaginaries in the brain but
memory, perception and interpretation which are the components of the
cognitive process do not begin. After few months of birth, cognitive
process is limited to register in the brain sensory and motor inputs
impression.
Thinking without language
• Humans use language for both communication and symbolic
reasoning.
• Thinking is strengthens language and facilitates concept formation.
• It is known that animals to communicate thoroughly, give warning
cues in case of danger, imitate sounds, and communicate with hand
gestures as observed with primates.
For example, hearing-impaired children born to hearing parents,
sometimes learn sign language with a delay. Such children can
communicate with people inside the home using signs that they develop.
However, it is only with a delay that they learn words to describe abstract
cognitive and emotional notions such as understanding, thinking, and
feeling.
Thinking before language
Many research found that, thinking is already exist before
using languages.

12 | P a g e
 The best example children can categorize the objects and
actions, understand the cause and effect relationship between events, and
see the goals in a movement.
Thinking with language
According to thinking point of view, individuals see and perceive the
world within the boundaries of their cultures.
For example the role of anthropology is to investigate how
people are conditioned by their culture and how they interact with the
world in different ways. To understand such mechanisms, it suggests,
implications in culture and language should be studied.
Chomsky’s Universalist perspective:
According to Chomsky’s grammar theory, all humans are born with
natural ability to acquire, develop, and understandable language. In order
for this to occur the three main principles of languages are
• All languages are similar
• Humans can understand the similarities in language even if they are
not exposed to the language (convergence)
• Poverty of stimulus (language cannot be learned purely through
exposure)
Sapir Whorf’s linguistic relativity:
The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, also known as the linguistic
relativity hypothesis, refers to the proposal that the particular language one
speaks influences the way one thinks about reality.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the grammatical and more
verbal structure of a person's language influences how they perceive the
world. It emphasizes that language either determines or influences one's
thoughts.
Cognitive –behavioral theory (CBT):

13 | P a g e
 CBT theory suggests that our thoughts, emotions, body sensations
and behavior are all connected and that what we think and do affects the
way we feel. CBT is a treatment approach that provides us with a way of
understanding our experience of the world enabling us to make changes if
we need to. It does this by dividing our experience into four central
components
• Thoughts
• Feelings
• Behaviors
• Physiology

CBT is a cyclic process, a mutually influencing factor where language

influence thoughts and thought influence language. It can be said that
language is a useful tool for bringing accuracy in thinking and writing.

14 | P a g e
1.6 CONCEPTUAL LITERACY:
Conceptual Literacy is a process to recognize the specific
meaning of the concepts. It needs to recognize and how it drawn from
often suppressed, counter –concepts.
Definition of concept
Concepts are defined as abstract ideas or principles, thoughts
and beliefs from particular instances. They play an important role in all
aspects of cognition.
Developing Conceptual literacy:
Some of the important methods helps to develop conceptual
literacy such as conceptual Knowledge, concept- based curriculum, using
conceptual metaphors, and conceptual mapping.
Role of conceptual Knowledge in developing conceptual literacy:
Conceptual knowledge involves understanding the
interrelationship among the essential elements that constitute a given thing
with the use of language. Conceptual knowledge includes knowledge of
categories, principles, models and structures
Example:
If the students already knew the principle of Archimedes they learn
and understand about rules of floatation easily.
Concept based curriculum to promote conceptual Literacy:
Concept-Based unit builds conceptual schema in the brain to assist
students in relating new knowledge to prior knowledge, and to transfer
understanding from one context to another. Concept-Based Inquiry
educators are intentional and teach with clarity around the knowledge,
skills and understandings of their unit.
Use of conceptual metaphors or cognitive metaphors:

15 | P a g e
 Conceptual metaphors are useful for understanding complex ideas in
simple terms and therefore are frequently used to give insight to abstract
theories and models.
For example, the conceptual metaphor of viewing communication
helps to understand a large theory of communication network.
Conceptual literacy and schema Theory
Based on schema theory conceptualization is a construct here the
concept is divided into number of units and organize the content in
sequential order. The Schema theory thinks that comprehending a text is
an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the
text. Comprehension of the text requires the ability to relate the textual
material to one’s own knowledge. The knowledge about the contents are
transferred to new contexts
Example:
To explain about trees first we have to think and explain about branches,
leaves and roots. Then define the Correlation between the contents.
1.7 BASIC TENETS OF LCA:
The language has the following basic tenets
• Language creates a purposeful use among the students through
enhancing all the language environment
• Language learning is a process that make the students involve in
various events such as speaking, reading, writing and movement.
• Those who have proficiency in their language they can develop their
skills because language is prerequisites for the learning.
1.8 PRINCIPLES OF LAC:
LAC is a new idea that says a foreign or second language should be
taught outside of the traditional classroom by using methods that are based
on context and content during school hours. A lot of new research and

16 | P a g e
studies have shown that some of the ideas behind the curriculum in CBI
(content-based instruction) and CILL are still valid today (content
Integrated Language Learning). The most important rules are
• Natural language acquisition occurs in context.
• Content-based language instruction helps to increase acquisition of
second language faster.
• The only way to learn a language is to use it.
• Language can be acquired through continuous practice.
• As learning a language is a process that never ends until you become
an expert at it.
• These rules say that every subject should be taught not only to teach
the material, but also to help students learn the target language.
• The immersion of language with content facilitate more effective
language acquisition.
1.9 INTEGRATION ACROSS THE CURICULUM
Introduction
The integrated curriculum is a great gift to experienced teachers. It’s
like getting a new pair of lenses that make teaching a lot more exciting and
helping students take control of their own learning.
Meaning:
The word integration means “an act of combining or adding parts”
to make a unified whole. An integrated curriculum is an approach which
connects different areas of study “cutting across subject-matters and
emphasizing unifying concepts. It helps students to make connection
between the subjects, and allow them to involve in meaningful activities
that are in the part of real life.
Definition:

17 | P a g e
 „An Integrated study is one in which children broadly explore
knowledge in different subjects related to certain aspects of the
environment,” says Humphreys.
Curriculum designers and instructional designers often work together
to make integrated curriculum. There are two main ways to look at these
curricula.
• The multidisciplinary approach
• The interdisciplinary approach
Components:
Core skills:
It includes basic skills such as reading, writing, calculating, social, art, and
problem solving skills.
Curriculum strands and Themes:
The rules that were used to make a curriculum are
known as themes. The word "strands" is used to show the subjects that
make up a learning area, like history, geography, and economics in social
studies. Domains are groups of related and specific learning outcomes or
achievements. (For example, math, which covers things like number sense
and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, and more)
Major themes:
The most successful themes are those that emerge out of
the children’s interest (often called emergent curriculum”). Common
themes include
• My family
• Friendship and caring
• Community Helpers Animals Activities
• Transportation
• Locations etc.

18 | P a g e
 Questions, tests, and activities that build on previous
lessons should also be a part of an integrated curriculum. These unified
lessons help with both formal and informal testing.
Types of Integrated curriculum:
There are different types of integrated curriculum
Personal Integration:
• Personal integration can be considered as a major part of student-
centered curriculum integration
• Personal integration is aims at developing in students a sense of
belonging
• This goal can be reached by encouraging more participation in
different learning activities that is positive and helpful.
• Personal Integration is used to help students feel good about
themselves and their identity.
• Personal integration is highly effective during early stages of school
learning.
• Peer monitoring, role models, teachers and family members could
play an active role during personal Integration.
Pedagogical Integration:
• Pedagogical Integration is identified as discipline centered
curriculum. Pedagogic integration of curriculum involves the
following basic elements
Theoretical knowledge:
• It is otherwise known as declarative Knowledge which include all
theories and principles related to the topic. Such knowledge can be
taught in direct manner
Practical Knowledge:

19 | P a g e
 • This kind of knowledge is also called procedural knowledge or
experimental knowledge.
• This can't be taught out loud or through a direct lecture method.
• Most of the time, students learn the material by watching,
practicing, and taking part in class discussions.
Self-regulative knowledge:
This type of integration uses what you learn by thinking about
yourself. Metacognitive and reflective skills are part of it.
Socio-cultural knowledge:
• Getting information by interacting with people and their culture
• When students took part in activities in their communities, their
sociocultural knowledge grew.
Tools for integration:
Some tools are used for curriculum Integration .these tools are
• Discussion with mentors
• Communication with peers
• Tutoring and mentoring
• Written assignment
• Analytic tasks
• Portfolios
• Self-assessment
• Reflective journals
Merits of Integration across the curriculum
• It makes it easier for teachers to deal with issues like Gardner's
multiple intelligences.
• Additionally, it helps teachers figure out how ready their students
are to learn.

20 | P a g e
 • It focuses on development in all areas, such as social and emotional
growth.
• It gives students a chance to try new things and connect with
themselves and the world around them. It also supports democracy.
• Using this method helps make teaching and learning more
interesting, relevant, and meaningful.
• It helps them learn by doing and make choices on their own.
• The content is more useful and relevant when it is used across the
curriculum.
• They are taught together, not separately, but in light of each other
• Learning has a purpose. It is organised, and has meaning.
Conclusion:
In an integrative curriculum, subjects and languages are taught at the
same time to help students understand them better. This is called
"language across the curriculum."
Important Questions: 5 mark questions:
• State the needs and importance of LAC
• What do you mean by conceptual literacy discuss the methods of
developing it?
• State the basic tenets and principles of LAC
Seven-mark questions
• Explain in detail about plurilingualism
• Explain different types of curriculum Integration
• Explain different modes of human activities involving language
UNIT: 2
ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL LANGUAGE
Academic and social language- meaning – definition-
concept-aims and objectives-functions of language- Importance of

21 | P a g e
language-Proficiency of home language- strategies for enhancing language –
Nature of text structure-Reading comprehension and developing skills of
reading comprehension- Language skills- literacy skills- linguistic education:
Academic language and social language- BICS and CALP skills
2.1 Introduction
Language is basically a way for people in a society to
talk to each other. Language is an important part of how culture is
expressed. It's what shares the traditions and values that make up a group's
identity. Language is one of the most powerful ways to show how people
act in groups.
Definition of Language
According to Block and trager,” Language is a system of arbitrary sound
symbols by means of which a social group interacts”.
According to Hall, “Language is the institution used by human beings to
communicate and interact with each other by means of conventional and
voluntary oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.
2.1.1 Meaning of Language
People have always found ways to say what they want to say, even in
the strictest and most oppressive societies. Language is alive and changing
all the time. Language is actually always coming up with new words to
describe new ideas. As Noam Chomsky put it, "language is a set of
sentences, each of which is a finite length and is made up of a finite set of
elements, which are called words."
Concept of Language
Language is a window into the mind of a person. It is something that
human intelligence made. It's always being renewed by everyone at his
level. Language is now an important part of everyday life. Language is the
only thing that has made civilization possible. Language is the only thing

22 | P a g e
that has kept people from living in the Stone Age and helped them make
big steps forward in science, art, and technology. Language is a way to
communicate. It is also random and made up of other systems. We know
that talking is more important than writing. Language comes from people,
so it's different in many ways from animal communication.
There are many things that make up language, but the most
important ones are that it is unpredictable, useful, creative, organized,
vocal, social, not instinctive, and common. Because of these things, human
language is different from animal communication. Animals may use some
of these things to talk to each other, but they are not all that animals do.
Language is Arbitrary:
There is no natural or inherent relation between the words and the
meanings they convey.
Example:
There is no reason to explain why stone, tree, animal, woman were
named with those names
Language is Social:
Language is a set of standard signs that people use to talk to each
other in groups. Language is an important part of society because it helps
keep culture alive and builds relationships between people.
Language is Symbolic:
Language is made up of different sound symbols that stand for
things, events, or ideas. These symbols were picked at random and are
commonly used and accepted. In a language, words are not just signs or
numbers; they hold meaning. How well a language can be understood
depends on how these symbols are understood.
Language is Systematic:

23 | P a g e
 Language is made up of symbols, but those symbols are put together
in a certain way. Every language has its own way of putting things
together. Each language is made up of different systems. There are
phonological and grammatical systems in every language, and there are
sub-systems within each system.
Language is Vocal:
Language is mostly made up of vocal sounds that can only be made
by a special part of the human body called an articulator. At first, all that
could be heard were vocal sounds. Writing came much later, as a smart
way to represent sounds that people made with their voices. Writing is just
making pictures of the sounds that language makes. Linguists say that
speech is the most important thing.
Language is Productive and Creative:
Language can be creative and useful. The building blocks of language
can be put together to make new words.
Language can be broken down into a lot of different groups based on what
it's used for.
Types:
Universal language
A universal language is one that all or most of the people in the
world speak and understand.
Standard language
A standard language is a type of language that a group of people use
when they talk to each other in public. When a variety goes through a
process called standardization, it is organized so that it can be described in
grammars and dictionaries and stored in these kinds of reference works.
Official language

24 | P a g e
 A language that has special legal status in a certain country,
state, or other area is called an official language.
Sister languages
In the field of historical linguistics, sister languages, which
are also called sibling languages or brother languages, are family languages.
This means that they come from the same ancestor language.
Vernacular language
Vernacular is the everyday language that people use, like
slang words. Literary language, also called official language, is not the same
as everyday language. This is the real way people talk to each other, like
when families talk at home.
International auxiliary language
An international auxiliary language, also called an inter
language, is a language that people from different countries who don't
speak the same first language can use to talk to each other.
Aims and objectives of Language
Aims of language learning as a discipline
• to get students to use a range of texts, media, and forms from
different cultures, time periods, and styles
• Improve the reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills.
• Learn how to interpret, analyses, and judge things. Encourage people
to be aware of the formal and aesthetic aspects of texts and
understand how they can elicit different responses and provide a
range of meanings.
• Learn about the connections between texts, different points of view,
cultural settings, and local and global issues, and how they can lead
to different responses and different meanings.

25 | P a g e
 • Learn about the connections between studying language and
literature and other subjects.
• Build your confidence and creativity in how you talk to others and
work together, and develop a lifelong love of language and literature.
Aims of language as a subject
• To get better at speaking a language
• To help people respect and understand other cultures and traditions.
• To help students enjoy a range of genres
• To help students turn a language into a "vehicle of thought"
• To encourage people to learn and be interested in new languages
• To enjoy learning a new language and keep interested in it for life
Objectives of Language
Objectives of language based on development
In language development, the objectives are organised into four
communicative processes:
• Oral communication
• Visual interpretation
• Reading comprehension
• writing

Oral communication
Talking and listening are both parts of oral language, which is also
called spoken language? The main goal of speaking is to build a strong base
for reading and understanding words. It's also important for students to
improve their listening skills. Oral skills can also tell you how much a
student has listened to something so that they can respond orally to it.
Visual Interpretation

26 | P a g e
 Visual interpretation of a text means being able to understand what
it means and communicate with pictures instead of words. It is based on
the idea of symbolism. One of the most important goals of visual
interpretation is to think critically about, analyse, interpret, and rate how
well information is conveyed through diagrams. Visual texts often have
pictures, charts, surveys, and timelines as well. One recent trend in visual
interpretation is the use of emoji’s and GIFs.
Reading Comprehension
The main goal of reading comprehension is to help readers process
what they read and figure out how it fits in with what they already know.
This can be done by improving reading comprehension skills such as
phonological awareness (being aware of speech sounds or phonemes),
alphabetic knowledge (being able to decode new words), fluency,
vocabulary instruction (getting enough background information),
understanding (being able to make sense of what you read), and
motivation.
Writing
Writing is a way to communicate that uses symbols in a planned
way, like a script. Organizing and accurately expressing thoughts, feelings,
ideas, opinions, and information may have been the most important goal
of writing as language has grown.
Objectives of language based on teaching and learning
As per the National Curriculum Framework of
2005, the following are the goals of teaching and learning languages:
To develop the skill of coherent writing
It is important to help students gain the confidence they need to
say what they want to say in a clear and organised way. Using language for
different purposes in different situations must be one of the goals for

27 | P a g e
English language learning at the elementary level. Everyone needs to be
able to write beautifully in both formal and informal situations. For this to
work, students' writing needs to be seen as a process, not a finished
product.
To develop control over different registers
The idea behind this goal is that students should be able to
understand and use language in a variety of circumstances and areas of
work and study.
To develop children's creativity
One of the goals of learning a language should be to use your
creativity and imagination freely in text conversations and other activities.
The language we use should help us think of new ideas and also expose
students to different kinds of texts and stories that will help them be more
creative.
To develop sensitivity
When you learn a language, you should become aware of how it
uses or abuses important emotions and values, like gender and
discrimination, as well as different environmental factors, like your
neighbourhood, surroundings, community, and the country as a whole.
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
Functions of language refers to the purpose for which the language is
used. Informal and non-formal communication, the role of language is
important
Some of the functions or activities of language are
• Language is a basic communication tool
• Language reflects personality of the individual
• Language is required for the development of culture
• Language is essential for the continued existence of society

28 | P a g e
Three basic functions of language are
Informative language Function
These functions are used to exchanging information. It's used to explain or
describe the world. There is a truth value for these sentences, which means
they are either true or false.
Example
The earth is round
Expressive language function
This helps in expressing the feelings or attitudes of the
speaker about the subject or makes the reader or listener feel something.

Example
Poor people are insensitive to healthcare
Directive function
It is language that is used to cause or stop over activity.
Generally in this functions language is used in the form of commands and
requests.
For example,
Don’t burn plastic, plant trees, or walk while following the rules of the
road.
Six functions of language as defined by Roman Jacobson
Roman Jacobson has identified six functions of language in communication
they are
• Referential function
• Poetic function
• Emotive function
• Conative function
• Phatic function/courtesy Function

29 | P a g e
 • Metalinguistic Function/reflexive function
Referential function
Referential function of language refers to describe an object, a
situation or mental state
Ex:
Rainfall in TamilNadu this year almost high
Poetic function:
The information will be presented with the help of attractive phrases
with rhymes and alliterations
Example
Arise, awake and stop not till you reach the goal
Emotive Function:
It is also called Expressive function. This refers to providing
information mixed with feelings

Language as a means of communication

Language is, of course, the main way that people talk to each
other. It's how we send messages from one person to another. This can be
done in writing or in person. For instance, students use a language to talk
to each other in the classroom.
Transmission of culture
Language is the main way that culture is passed down from one
generation to the next. Language is how we learn the rules and values of
our society. In a society, language is how all the parts of culture are passed
down to younger people.
Therapeutic function

30 | P a g e
 A mother's or teacher's words mean a lot to a child. Language is
used to ease pain, stress, worry, fear, and anxiety. A comforting word can
help someone feel better no matter how bad things are.
It unites people
Language, especially linguistic ties, bring people together. As a
result, students from different cultures often connect with each other
through communication.
Used to express our ideas
Language helps us say what we think, feel, and want in a way that
others can easily understand. This is possible because of the way human
language works. It can be used to communicate any feelings, wants, or
ideas from one person to another.
Roman & Jacobson defines five functions of language:
I) The poetic function
It focuses on "the message for its own purpose" and is
what makes poetry and slogans work. The functions below describe
something.
ii)The emotive function
Report how the writer or speaker feels or what they think
about the subject, or make the reader or listener feel something.
iii) Cognitive function
We learn about new ideas by using simple words that mean
something. These functions are mostly used for teaching.
iv) Phatic function or courtesy function
The phatic function is used to establish a social connection without
sender or receiver.
Example: the courteous words like ‘Good morning’, how are
you, good bye etc.

31 | P a g e
v) The Meta lingual function
Meta lingual refers to talking about the language itself, its
features, word definitions, clarifying ambiguity and describing deliberate
word play are Meta lingual functions.
Importance of Language
1. Language is a means of communication
Language is, a primary means of communications for human
beings. We pass on messages to others through both speech and writing.
2. Transmission of Culture
Language is the main way that culture is passed down from one
generation to the next. Language is how we learn the rules and values of
our society. Young people in a society learn about all the different parts of
culture through language.
3. Language is a vehicle of thought
Proficiency in a language helps in undisturbed thought flow. It is
the thoughts that shape and get expressed as words, ideas, and gestures
later on. Without language, one will not able to find a medium of
expressing oneself.
4. Medium of transmission of knowledge
Language is the medium through which the teaching and learning
process continues both in formal and informal situation.it is used both
homes and schools to spread knowledge. At home grand parents may
diffuse knowledge through story telling whereas in schools teachers use
language to impart classroom instruction.
5. Represents a fundamental expressions of social identity
Language is not only a vehicle for the expression of
thoughts, perceptions, sentiments and values , characteristic of a

32 | P a g e
community is also a fact that language develops social solidarity among
those who speak the language
6. Language soft-wares
In recent times language helps in software development like
Microsoft windows.
7. It is a means of cultural identity
Language brings people together based on their shared language.
People from different cultures may naturally connect with others who
speak the same language.
8. Economic and social benefits of Language:
Language is a vital tool it forges friendship, cultural ties, and
economic relationships
9. Therapeutic in function
People use language to ease pain, stress, worry, fear, and anxiety.
Even when things are very bad, a soothing word can help someone feel
better.
10. Means of socialization
A gathering is incomplete without talking. Communication and
socialisation happen through language. Families that live in different places
may not live together physically.

11. Used to express our ideas

Language lets us say what we think, feel, and want in a way that
other people can easily understand. The way human language works makes
it possible for it to be used in this way, no matter what feelings, wants, or
ideas need to be communicated.
12. Develop social contacts

33 | P a g e
 Man can't live by himself. People can only live a healthy life when
they interact with each other, especially in groups. Language is the only
thing that can make interaction work. People use it as a way to talk to each
other. Society only does well when people can talk to each other a lot.
13. Flourishing of commerce
Talking is necessary for business to happen. Doing business could
involve one or more languages. Working in business also exposes people to
different cultures and ways of acting. Multilingualism helps businesses that
deal with customers, suppliers, and employees from around the world
bond with each other across cultures and build stronger personal
relationships that are essential for doing business.
14. Language opens career opportunities
The importance of language is that a person who is proficient in the use of
a language that is common and is widely considered ass important and
desirable, has several career options open for him.
PROFICIENCY OF HOME LANGUAGE AND SCHOOL LANGUAGE
Home Language
Home language is the language that everyone in the family speaks
when they talk to each other every day at home. This language is also
called the "family language," "home language," "first language," "mother
tongue," or "native language." It's the language a child learns first at home
or in the neighbourhood where they live, and it's the main way they talk
to each other. It makes the child feel like they are part of the group or
community where the language is spoken.
Importance of home language
It is the very first language the child learns in its whole life. So, the
best way to talk about emotions, needs, wants, fears, and happiness is in
the native language. When the child talks to someone who understands its

34 | P a g e
home language, it feels at ease. Children learn and gain knowledge in their
early years. These are the first few and most important stages.
Home language.
Many people have found that learning their first language helps
they learn any other language better later on. In this case, a student might
rely on his or her vernacular to help them understand hard or new words
in the language they are learning.
Characteristics of first language acquisition:
• It is instinctive
The child has natural flair to learn its mother tongue.
But it also needs the help of the appropriate linguistic environment
• It is very rapid
It requires only a short period of time to learn one’s mother
tongue.
• It is very complete:
Learning the first language is complete.it will be more complete
than learning second language.
• Not requires instruction:
Special instruction or tuition is not required to learn speaking in the
mother tongue.
Significance of first language acquisition
• The first language serves as personal identity as well as social and
cultural identity.
• It presents models in social patterns of acting and speaking.
• Mother tongue is the first language the child learns to speak and
hence emotions, feelings, needs, fears, joy etc.
• Stages of childhood-learning and acquiring knowledge takes place in
the child’s mother tongue.

35 | P a g e
 • Home language seems to facilitate better learning of any other
language later in life.

Issues in mastery of home language

➢ Passive or nil acquisition of home language may due to

speech/hearing impairment.
➢ A physical issue, like stuttering or stammering, could be stopping
speech development.
➢ As a result of speech or hearing problems, a physiological problem
may also mean passive or no acquisition of the home language.
➢ Language-learning parents who speak and use more than one
language at home. Parents who speak different home languages mean
that one parent can't understand what the other parent is saying to
the child.
Improving home language
At home
• Encourage the kids to always use their home language or Ll.
• Choosing to speak one Ll when people live in homes that are bilingual
or multilingual.
• Parents should remain involved by constantly interacting with their kids
through jokes and other activities that encourage more LI use at home.
• Monitoring a child's speech development is also a very important job for
parents or other close family members. For example, neglect could
cause speech or hearing therapy to start later than planned. This could
directly impact the child's ability to make friends, especially at school.
At school

36 | P a g e
 A good mix of home and school language is suggested by many
linguists. They say that doing so will help people understand the languages
they learn at school better. Comparisons between home language and
school language can help improve home language.
Eg. Catamaran comes from the Tamil word kattumaram,
which means "wooden logs tied together."
School Language
School language, also called "language of schooling," is the language
that is mostly used to talk to each other and teach in schools. This term
can also be used for the main national, regional, or any other language
used to teach in a school. The language spoken at school might be the
same as the language spoken at home, or it might be a different language,
as in many Indian states.
Importance of school language
➢ A school language plays the most important role in a learner's life.
➢ It is language in which the learner learns the most important
concepts and values at school.
➢ Most complex ideas and theories are taught in the language of school
➢ It helps in achieving the level of 'academic language, required by the
student. Academic language is a type of school language which is
more specialised and formal, needed for thinking, forming and
comparing ideas.
➢ It acts as a vehicle of communication between a student and the
teacher (in formal situations) and amongst the peers at most times.
Issues in mastering school language
➢ When the school language and home language of a learner is
different, mastery takes a long time. The student has to think in a
different language in order to complete the academic task.

37 | P a g e
 ➢ Exposure to school language is limited by time, space and
boundaries. The number of hours that a learner might involve
himself in active language acquisition is always relatively lesser than
that of the home language especially in case of the home and second
language being different. Therefore the chance of learning the school
language is not a quick and easy process.
➢ Motivation plays a major role in acquiring the language. Not all
students have a tendency towards learning languages. While some are
motivated by themselves, some learners need extrinsic motivation. In
such cases the level of learning the language differs.
➢ Change in medium of instruction may play a major role in mastering
of the school language. Students who shift from one medium of
instruction to another, for E.g. From their vernacular to English, may
find it hard to execute their work due to low exposure levels to the
new language.
Improving school language
➢ More dedicated and systematic exposure to the school language can
help the child learn the school language faster.
➢ Adoption of newer education technologies like language learning aids
with high accuracy may be of great help. Use of such aids (like "Eye
speak) may at times be a great relief to the teacher, especially if the
teacher is not a native speaker of the school language.
➢ Use of school language at school in the same way that Ll or home
language way taught helps in the acquisition of spoken skills.
➢ Continuous assessment of school language acquisition must be
undertaken by all teachers based on the subject handled as
acquisition of subject -specific vocabulary is the key to smart
learning.

38 | P a g e
 ➢ Exposing students to various category of literature in the language of
schooling is a sure way to strengthen the same.
➢ Encouraging the use of School language as a language
communication amongst peers is proved to have excellent language
learning especially at the spoken level.

Difference between Home and School Language

S:NO HOME LANGUAGE SCHOOL LANGUAGE

1 Speech organs are still in Speech organs are completely

the developing stage developed when a child begins to
attend school.

2 Exposure to home language Access to school and second

is constant and higher language is fixed and lesser than
when compared to school that of home language
language.

3 It is a subconscious School language is learnt in an

process. It is naturally artificial set up.
acquired.

4 The learners are young. Acquisition of school language

Home language is learnt Takes more time.
during the childhood.

5 It is an easy and informal Learning a school language,

39 | P a g e
 process. especially if different from home
language is more formal, laborious
and time consuming. It may even
take years before a student masters
the school language.

6 The purpose of home The main purpose of school

language is communication. language is to act as a medium of
instruction.

7 Multilingualism may be The language of school at the

possible at homes with content level is more monolingual,
people from different i.e., textbooks do not mix
backgrounds. languages, while teaching a
particular content. Other languages
may be taught in isolation for the
purpose of acquiring the language.

8 It is integrative in nature. School language may or may not be

The student can easily integrative in nature. Students with
identify with the target a different school language need to
culture and people in get accustomed to a whole set of
which the language is new culture.
spoken.

9 Motivation to learn the It is used only for practical

language is intrinsic. It is purposes. Motivation moves from

40 | P a g e
 also one of the major being extrinsic to intrinsic.
Survival instincts of man.

10 Home language is used School language is used to

amongst the family communicate amongst students,
members in most cases. teachers and peers.

STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

Language Proficiency
In its broadest sense, language proficiency means being able to use
language correctly when making sense of it and understanding what it
means. Language skills start to develop early on, even before a child says
their first word. When learning a language, there are different levels of skill
that a person needs to work their way up step by step.
Determining Language Proficiency
Proficiency is usually measured by how well someone can
understand and use language, as well as their ability to communicate.
These areas include semantics, vocabulary, sentence structure (syntax),
and many others. A person's level of proficiency is based on how well they
speak a single language: If someone knows three languages, for example,
they should each be tested on their own, not next to each other.
1. Drama as a strategy to enhance language proficiency
Introduction
A drama or play is a way to tell a storey through dialogue and a
performance or presentation. It's a type of writing, and it's usually written
in prose or poetry. It can be written for movies, TV shows, radio shows,

41 | P a g e
podcasts, and short films on the internet, or theatre. You can have
dialogue in a drama or a pantomime during it (mime using actions). Scripts
are written by playwrights, characters are played by actors and actresses,
and people watch. As well as tragedies and comedies, farces, melodramas,
and musicals are all types of dramas.
Functions of a drama
A drama is one of the best types of writing because it makes you
feel things, whether you're reading it or seeing it on stage. Since actors on
stage or in a play emote in front of the audience, their feelings and
emotions are shown as if they were real. This is different from prose,
where words are needed to describe how a character feels. People can see
a character move and breathe on stage, bringing him to life in front of
them. The audience usually goes through an emotional journey with the
characters in a drama. If you put it another way, people cry when the
character is sad and laugh when they are happy. People leave the drama
with memories in their heads.
Role of drama in enhancing the Language proficiency
Drama is a creative form that uses dialogue to show how characters
think and feel. In the following ways, it changes how you learn a language:
• Drama is made up of dialogues, which are just sentences and word
structures in a certain language. People who watch drama are
exposed to sentence structures and other language forms without
realising it.
• A play often uses words that are repeated or have something to do
with the main idea, which helps people learn the target language.
• A lot of real-life situations are used in plays, which helps students
learn new words.

42 | P a g e
 • It is possible to introduce new words by changing the setting,
weather, and characters, as well as the drama's main theme.
• Putting on plays can help language learners feel more confident,
which is an important part of learning a language.
• It is up to the students to choose how to present their ideas through
plays. Putting on plays helps language learners stay motivated and
really want to keep learning.
• During the whole process of preparation and presentation, the actors
(the learners) talk to each other in the target language, which makes
language improvement more likely.
• Drama requires people to work together. It helps them learn how to
take on different roles and responsibilities. If language learners talk to
each other in the target language, they can improve their language
skills.
2. Essay
Introduction
Essays are short pieces of formal writing that are meant to present
or defend a single topic for discussion. To present a case is what the Latin
word exagium means, which is where the word essay comes from.
Britannica says that an essay is "an analytical, interpretative, or critical
literary composition usually much shorter and less formal and structured
than a research dissertation (presentation) or thesis and usually dealing
with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view." There are
different kinds of essays. They are analytical, exploratory, argumentative,
and narrative, to name a few.
Parts of an essay
There are three parts to an essay: the introduction, the body, and
the conclusion. In the introduction, you tell the reader more about the

43 | P a g e
essay's main idea. The body, which is also called the "meat" of the essay,
goes into more depth about the theme. In the last part of an essay, called
the conclusion, the ideas that were talked about are summed up.
Role of essay in enhancing the Language proficiency
Sir Francis Bacon, known as the "Father of English Essays," said,
"Reading makes a man whole; conversing makes a man ready; and writing
makes a man exact." Writing essays helps language learners get better at
the following:
➢ It helps students learn important skills and functions, like writing.
➢ If they learn how to write one type of writing well, it helps them
write another type of writing even better.
➢ As a result, skills are transferred, which helps people get better at
what they already know.
➢ Students have to organise their essays around a main idea and turn
them in on time. What this does is help the students get better at
organising their thoughts and communicating them clearly.
➢ With it, information can be passed on in a formal and organised way.
➢ It makes it easy to finish tests at the end of the term, homework,
and research papers.
➢ When students get good at writing, they feel more confident in other
areas as well.
➢ In order to write even a short essay, a student has to gather a lot of
information. This makes the learner more interested in things, better
able to understand them, and therefore smarter.
➢ Critical thinking skills are learned through analytical essays, which
also help you come to a conclusion. Students also learn how to make
a good case for their point of view.

44 | P a g e
 ➢ When students regularly write and read essays, they learn how to put
together and develop grammatically sound pieces of writing.
Storytelling as a strategy for enhancing language proficiency
Introduction
Folk tales and songs have been used to tell stories for a very long
time. A story is a collection of events that are linked together and are told
with words, either orally or in writing. A person can use imagery, body
language, performance, music, or any other way to talk to someone.
Everyone can learn how to tell a storey. Stories can take place now or in
the past. There are many types of stories, such as adventure stories, fairy
tales, myths, historical fiction, science fiction, epics, and bedtime stories.
Steps in story narration
A good story is told at the right volume and keeps the audience's
attention. Talking and tone. Here are some important things to keep in
mind when telling a storey:
• Figuring out who will be listening and what they want to hear.
• Putting feelings into the storey
• Using real people and stories that people can relate to
• Being clear and brief, and telling the listener what the benefits are
• Few words and easy to understand
Storytelling for enhancing language proficiency
One of the most common ways that teachers improve students'
language skills is by having them tell stories. It was said by the NCTE in
1992 that "the comfort of the oral tale can be a path by which students
reach the written one." Storytelling can be used as a way to learn a
language in the classroom for the following reasons:
➢ It is one of the language-learning tools that is easy to get. Because of
this, its ease of use makes it a preferred tool.

45 | P a g e
 ➢ Stories are fun ways to tell a story. So, activities that involve telling
stories can get even the most reluctant learner to do well.
➢ No matter if it's about history, science, language, or something else,
every storey is told. So, all knowledge comes from stories, and it is
also known that language knowledge comes from stories.
➢ It helps you use all four skills—listening, speaking, reading, and
writing—together because telling a storey requires both spoken and
written skills.
➢ Teaching students how to talk to each other through stories is a fun
way to do this.
➢ Storytelling uses a lot of words and makes you think about them,
which improves your higher-order thinking skills.
➢ Using active engagement in storytelling as a way to teach improves
reading comprehension by giving students a sense of the storey.
4. Group discussion as a strategy for enhancing language proficiency
Introduction
The word "group" refers to a collection of people who regularly
talk to each other and work together to reach a common objective.
Discussion is when two or more people share information or ideas with
each other in person in order to reach a goal.
Group discussion as a methodology
"Group Discussion," or GD, is a common way for many places
(company, institute, business school, etc.) to find out if a candidate has
certain personality traits, like the ability to get along with others, be
confident when speaking in public, have team spirit, be a leader, be social,
and be able to solve problems. GDs are a big part of the short-listing
process for jobs or school admissions in a company or institution.

46 | P a g e
 Anyone in the group is given a subject or situation to think
about and write down information about. The subject or situation could be
factual, abstract, or case-based. After that, the candidates are told to talk
about the subject with each other for a set amount of time, usually 30 to
40 minutes (which may vary from one organisation to another).
Enhancing literacy through Group discussion
Good communication skills include being able to actively listen,
express yourself clearly, use the right words, and pick up on the right
nonverbal cues. To pick up the thread of the conversation and keep going,
it is very important to listen very carefully. To be a good leader, someone
must actively take part in a group as a listener. There is a leader chosen by
the panel. Thought and speech that are clear: Being clear means making
yourself known to others. You can only satisfy the team and the panel if
your point of view is clear. The way someone speaks is more important
than the words themselves. Do not speak too loudly or too softly. A voice
that is lively, happy, and modulated in the right way will draw people in. It
is very important for slang that words are pronounced correctly, which can
be done through phonetic accuracy. Fake accents should be avoided.
5. Peer Tutoring
Introduction
Peer tutoring, which is also known as peer mentoring, proctoring,
or extra help, is a way for students to help each other learn and grow.
Peer-tutoring is nothing but where a student teaches his peer/classmates or
to the lower classes students.
Types of Peer Tutoring
Peer tutoring may be of many types. Some of the major
types are discussed below:
1. Unidirectional peer tutoring:

47 | P a g e
 In unidirectional peer tutoring, one child is taught by the trained
peer tutor the whole time, while the other child stays in the pair as the
student. This choice is good because both the tutor and the student always
know what their job is, and the peer tutor is in charge of the whole
programme.
Bi-directional, or reciprocal, peer tutoring:
There are two students in a dyad (pair). Each child takes turns
being the student and the tutor. Often higher performing students are
paired with lower performing students
Class-wide peer tutoring:
Class-wide peer tutoring involves breaking the entire class into
dyads. Each child participates in reciprocal peer tutoring by providing
prompts, error correction, and help to their partner. Class-wide peer
tutoring is unique because all children are given task cards to keep them
focused on the objectives of the lesson, the tutor takes the task cards and
fills in the skills that are mastered by the student. The main benefit of this
approach is that the entire class is involved in the tutoring activity, so no
children are singled out because of disability.
Cross-age peer tutoring:
Cross-age peer tutoring occurs when an older child is chosen to
tutor a younger child. This method works best when the peer tutor is
interested in working with children with disabilities. A cross-aged peer
tutor is more effective than a same-aged peer tutor when the student is
very young. The cross-aged peer tutor can be chosen according to
willingness, physical skills, and availability. The main benefit of this
approach is that the tutor gains valuable teaching experience while the
student experiences effective individualized instruction and feedback.
Same –age peer tutoring

48 | P a g e
 Students may have similar ability levels or a more advanced student
can be paired with less advanced student. When pairing students with
different levels, the roles of the tutor and the tutee may be alternated,
allowing the lower performing student to quiz higher performing student.
Six essential components of Peer tutoring
According to the Whitepaper, the six essential
components of teacher peer coaching, summarized, are:
Establishing and Maintaining Trust:
Trust is at the heart of any successful peer coaching program
and school leaders can promote a trusting school culture.
2. Designing Differentiated Professional Learning for All:
Think that all teachers, new and experienced, can grow and
improve the way they do their jobs.
3. Establishing Coaching Configurations to Maximize Learning:
Teachers must be involved in creating the teams, which need not
be constrained by grade level or content area.
4. Calibrating Individuals' Skills and Needs:
Aim for the team’s zone of proximal development to keep your
learning attainable.
5. Using Reflection as an Integral Part of Coaching:
Reflection can aid communication, critical thinking, and
commitment to the goal and the process.
6. Providing Descriptive Feedback:
Adults often hesitate to provide descriptive feedback, but it's one
of the most important gifts one educator can give another.
Characteristics of Peer Tutoring
All peer tutoring approaches have the following characteristics:
• In peer tutoring a peer can act as tutor or tutee

49 | P a g e
 • Children are paired according to specific considerations same age or
cross-age Reciprocal or unidirectional.
• one-way Whole class or targeted group Similar ability or cross
ability
• Specific procedures for interaction between tutor and tutee
• Training for pairs in the technique
• Both pupils experience cognitive challenge
• Usually a time-limited intervention
Advantage of peer tutoring
• Peer tutoring provides skill practice
• It provides immediate feedback about performance
• In peer tutoring errors are corrected promptly
• Effective learning behaviour is modelled by the tutor
• It provides for individual attention
• It is socially inclusive all can participate and benefit
• Active, interactive, individualised learning.
• Highly Cost- effective
• Cooperation not competition-reflecting school ethos.
• Helps develop communication skills.
Nature of text structure
Text vary according to their structure, purposes,
characteristics and applications.
Expository text vs. Narrative text
Expository text:
Expository text is a text that informs, explains, describes, or defines
the author’s subject to the reader. The style of expository essays is concise
and simple. All in all, an author should aim to make the essay as clear as
possible.

50 | P a g e
 The main characteristics of expository text are as follows;
• Often about topics not known
• New information makes forecast harder
• Key vocabulary often new
• Cause and effect not known
• Abstract concepts
• Thing or subject oriented
• Facts make text more concept dense
• Explanations have impersonal meaning
• May have no relation to own life and interest
• Purpose is to explain
The most common examples of expository essays are:
➢ Directions, scientific articles and other texts that follow the cause –
effect structure
➢ Recipes, biographies, history texts that follow some definite
chronology
➢ Some newspaper articles that provide detailed descriptions of events
➢ Medical and scientific texts that follow the problem-solution
structure.
In general, expository essays can be characterized by lack of
descriptive elements and simple structure. They must be based on facts
and require extensive research of the subject.
Narrative Text:
The narrative text is a story that is created in a constructive format
that describes a sequence of fictional or non-fictional events. The basic
purpose of narrative is to entertain, gain and hold readers interest.
Presenting a vivid oral picture of an object, event, One’s past experience

51 | P a g e
or an accident that took place, by describing it in a well ordered sequence
is called narration.
Characteristics
• Many narrative text based on common events from life
• Familiarity makes prediction easier
• Simple vocabulary
• Concrete, real concepts
• People oriented
• May give insight for own life/interest
• Purpose is to entertain or share experience
• Familiar story types
The core difference between narrative and expository
essays is their style. While narrative paper allows the author to be creative
and tell a story in a way he or she likes, expository essays follow some
strict rules that one must accept. Narrative texts are versatile in structure
and style, but they also require some through research of the subject.
Transactional text Vs. Reflexive text
Transactional Text:
This kind of text will be either in the form of giving a response
to an idea expressed by a person or initiating others to respond i.e. it will
be a continuous exchange of ideas between any two persons. This kind of
text may be either in the form of exchange of letters, e-mail sharing or
conversation that took place between two persons put in the written form.
Reflective text:
Reflective text contain the reflection or recollection of incidents and
sceneries one came across or the experience gained that are described in
an interesting manner.
For example

52 | P a g e
 What I admired in the U.S.A?
How I felt life in U.S.A?
What impact they made on me?
READING COMPREHENSION SKILLS, LITERACY SKILLS AND
LANGUAGE SKILLS
1. Reading Comprehension Skills
Reading is an activity that begins at a very early age. Reading
involves the acquisition of basic decoding skills i.e. the ability to decode
the letters in words in print form as sound (pronouncing). A child who
enters school is taught to read using the symbols of a language and
pronunciation follows suit. It is a joyful activity that most children love.
Factors:
• The reason for poor reading comprehension as follows

• Deficiency in the skill of decoding letters as sounds

• Lack of previous knowledge of word meaning

• Minimum level of proficiency in language.

• Poor reading skills

• The nature of reading material being difficult

• No involvement in knowing through reading

• Lack of patience and effort

• Books not written with simple words

Strategies to help students read fluently:

The following are the strategies to help students read fluently

Previewing:

This refers to reviewing titles, section headings and photo captions

53 | P a g e
Predicting

This refers to using previous knowledge of the subject matter to

make predictions about the content and check comprehension

Skimming:

This refers to using quick survey of the text.

Scanning

This refers to glancing through text to locate specific details lik

names dates etc.

Guessing from text:

This refers to using prior knowledge of the subject content and

ideas in the text as clues.

Summarizing and paraphrasing

This refers to reducing larger texts to focus on important elements

What is Comprehension?
Comprehension is the ability to make meaning out of a text.
Comprehension is a cognition based activity. It requires combination of
vocabulary, background knowledge and verbal reasoning ability. It is
known to be the ultimate or supreme goal of reading.
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension can be understood as the process through
which recognized words are transformed into a meaningful idea. It is a
complex process that requires the activation of numerous cognitive skills.
There are also different depths of understanding. At the most basic level,

54 | P a g e
reading comprehension may involve the picture that comes to mind when
reading any word; say for example the word tree.
Developing skills of reading comprehension
• Flash cards containing one word each and spelling cards forming
words
• Teacher demonstrate in the class, reading textual portion with
proper pronunciation
• Teacher giving explanation for new words
• Teacher use fill in the blank exercise
• Training in loud reading should be given
• Use school bulletin board to display important headlines
• Students may be divided into groups and each group assigned a
portion in the lesson to read
• While should be paid to giving pauses at proper places.
• When the meaning of a word is not known the practice of referring
dictionary should be encouraged
• Students should be trained in using encyclopaedia
Four basic steps to good reading comprehension
➢ Figuring out the purpose for reading. Activate background
knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content and
identify appropriate reading strategies.
➢ Attending to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified
purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus
on specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information
they have to hold in short-term memory.
➢ Selecting strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use
them flexibly and interactively. Student’s comprehension improves

55 | P a g e
 and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-
up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.
➢ Checking comprehension while reading and when the reading task is
completed. Monitoring comprehension helps students detect
inconsistencies and comprehension failures, helping them learn to
use alternate strategies.
Reasons for comprehension failure Baker and Brown (1980) have
identified three main reasons for comprehension failures:
❖ the learner does not have enough information about the topic to
interpret the message (written or oral1)
❖ the learner has the appropriate schemata, or prior knowledge, but
there aren't enough clues in the message to suggest them to the
learner
❖ the learner interprets the message consistently, but the interpretation
is different from the one intended by the author or speaker

Language Skills
What is a skill?
According to the Cambridge English Dictionary, "a skill is an ability
to do an activity well, especially because one has practised it. There are
many types of skills which include technical skills, hard skills, life skills,
people skills, social skills and soft skills amongst many others.
Language Skill
Language is considered to one of the most essential skills for a
person. Language is more a skill than knowledge. Since acquisition of
language involves attainment of skills about which a person has exemplary
understanding. It is both an intellectual exercise and a skill. Hence language

56 | P a g e
skills may be considered to be part of both the cognitive domain and the
psychomotor domain.
Macro skills or fundamental skills of language
Acquisition of four skills namely Listening, speaking, reading and
writing are considered to be the basic skills for any language with a written
script. These can be broadly categorised into two: productive skills and
receptive skills. Receptive skills are passive skills, meaning that the learner
acquires these skills without any active reproduction. Listening and reading
known to be receptive skills. Productive skills are learnt by the active
practice or production of skills like speaking and writing. On the other
hand listening and speaking are oral skills and reading and writing are
written skills.
Importance of Language Skills
Language is an important skill. One cannot make sense of a written
text or speech content without mastering the language skills. The
importance of language can be generalised as follows:
❖ in order to understand and make the most effective use of the
content or study materials
❖ to develop the specialised language and vocabulary relevant to any
subject
❖ interpret assignment questions and select relevant and appropriate
material for a response
❖ to write well-structured and coherently presented assignments,
without plagiarism
❖ to communicate your needs to your tutors
❖ to work productively with other students
Receptive Skills
• Listening

57 | P a g e
 • Reading
Listening is a basic skill or activity that involves a person who
receives sounds of speech and processes them into words and sentences.
Listening is of two types: active listening and passive listening. While active
listening requires focus and attention, passive listening may have reduced
or no active levels of focus and attention. Listening activities could be live
or recorded sessions. Listening skills help mastering reading and speaking
skills both directly and indirectly.
Importance of Listening skill
➢ It acts as an aural input
➢ Listening improves the language overall language ability, especially
the communicative skills
➢ Listening with focus and attention helps in bringing out the literary
beauty of the language
➢ It helps to improve the other three skills and develop self confidence
Strategies for effective teaching of Listening
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute
directly to the recall of listening input. In the recent days, a number of
listening strategies have been formulated to match with every different
listening situation. Listening strategies can be broadly classified as
1. Top-down strategies
2. Bottom-up strategies.
Top-down strategies are listener based; they include
o listening for the main idea
o predicting
o drawing inference
o summarizing

58 | P a g e
 On the other hand, Bottom-up strategies are text based where the
listeners use linguistic knowledge to understand information. Here the
listener relies on the language in the message, that is, the combination of
sounds, words, and grammar to arrive at the final message. Bottom-up
strategies are
o to concentrate on specific details while listening
o Recognize word-order patterns.
But listening comprehension is not constrained either to top-down or
bottom-up processing, but it should be an interactive, interpretive process
where listeners apply both their prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge
in understanding messages.
Reading as a receptive skill
Reading is a receptive exercise. It is a skill that involves print
recognition, comprehension, fluency and motivation. Learners in the
process of acquisition try to integrate the above techniques to make
meaning.
Steps involved in the process of reading
Identify the words-this is also known as word recognition. This process is
called phonemic awareness. Here, the sound units in a word are put
together to make a meaningful word. For example: the word look is make
of three distinctive sounds: 1-oo-k (/1/, /u/, /k/).
Build meaning from the recognised words- also known as comprehension.
Once the words are identified using the knowledge of the letters of the
target language, the meaning of the same is identified.
For example: /look/- to see something
3. Integrate and coordinate the words comprehended to make meaningful
sentences fluently. This involves increasing the vocabulary bank of the
learners.

59 | P a g e
4. Develop a background knowledge about the topics or content presented
5. Use a variety of strategies for constructing meaning Understanding the
print medium, the format and the colour codes if any of the content.
Improve the speed of reading
Make reading a pleasure
Introduce learners to a variety of genres available in literature
Productive skills
• Speaking
• Writing
Speaking as a productive skill
Speaking is a complex activity involving both cognitive and
linguistic skills. It is a verbal skill which is a combination of words and
sounds. Some secondary aspects of speaking may involve meaning making,
social relationships and cultural understanding. These secondary skills are
important to use the right registers based on the situations.
Functions of speaking
The three main functions of speaking are
a. Interaction
b. transaction
C. performance
Interaction
Speaking is a social activity. It reflects the roles, responsibilities
and relationships between two or more speakers involves in
communication with each other.
Transaction
A transaction involves giving, taking or both. In a speech
transaction, the speaker tries to present the message to the listener and the
listener tries to receive it. Such speaking activities are usually informative in

60 | P a g e
nature. For example: giving directions to reach a place, a telephonic
conversation.
Performance
As the name suggests, speaking to transmit information in front of
a group of people or a large audience is called speaking for performance.
Public speaking is one important form of performance. Example: orations,
debates and lectures
Writing as a productive skill
The skills-based approach views writing as a collection of separate
skills, including letter formation, spelling. Punctuation, grammar,
organization, and the like. This approach also views writing as a product-
oriented task.
The importance of writing
The ability to write acceptable scientific English is essential for post-
graduate students who must write their dissertations in English. Moreover,
writing allows for communication to large numbers of people all over the
world. It also provides students with physical evidence of their
achievement. This in turn helps them to determine what they know and
what they don't know.
Writing can also enhance students' thinking skills. Learners observes
that, Writing stimulates thinking it forces us to concentrate and organize.
Talking does, too, but writing allows more time for introspection and
deliberation. Additionally, writing can enhance students' vocabulary,
spelling, and grammar. Finally, writing skills often needed for formal and
informal testing.
The teaching and learning of writing
The skills-oriented teachers teach writing in fragmented pieces with
the assumption that students cannot compose until they master the sub

61 | P a g e
skills that stem from writing. These sub skills are taught explicitly through
the use of techniques such as the following:
o Copying model compositions
o Organizing a set of disorganized notes into topic areas with topic
sentences and secondary points;
o Rearranging scrambled sentences to make up a paragraph;
o Predicting the method (s) of developing a topic sentence;
Steps for teaching a productive skill
A productive skill procedure involves the following steps:
1. Providing a model text
Comprehension and model analysis (e.g. studying the genre's
distinctive features).
2. Practice
Working on the language continuously and practising the skills
needed to perform the task.
3. Task setting
Understanding the topic/situation and framing the task and its
requirements. (Thinking about the desired outcome).
4. Planning
Planning involves structuring the output that is to be expected at
the end of writing something. Good planning makes better writing.
5. Production
Production is nothing but preparing for the spoken task which
involves going through the process of drafting, revising. and editing
6. Feedback
Self or peer-regulated feedback using a checklist or teacher-
regulated.
Literacy Skills

62 | P a g e
 Literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen in a way that
helps a person communicate effectively and make sense of the world. They
include such activities as awareness of sounds of language, awareness of
print, and the relationship between letters and sounds. Other literacy skills
may include spelling. Vocabulary and comprehension.
1. Skills based on reading literacy
Among the many literacy skills that contribute to the child's ability
of reading, listed here are a few important ones:
➢ Decoding- recognising and identifying the meaning and
pronunciation
➢ Phonemic awareness- ability to focus on specific individual sounds in
spoken words
➢ Reading fluency- reading without faltering
➢ Reading comprehension- understanding and processing what is read
2. Skills based on writing literary
Writing involves transcription (spelling and handwriting) and
composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in speech, before
writing). Similarly to reading literacy skills, there are a lot of different
writing literacy skills that come together to form written literacy.
3. Early literacy skills
➢ Phonological awareness -awareness of sound units and its alphabetic
association
➢ Awareness of print- introduction to the alphabet of the language
and touch and feel of print medium
➢ Vocabulary- promote the learner's knowledge of the active and
passive (dormant) vocabulary.
Strategies to develop literacy skill
Expand the vocabulary

63 | P a g e
 A large vocabulary is required at a very early age. Early reading
demands the knowledge of decoding. Stakeholders like teachers, parents
and peers are responsible for the learners increase in vocabulary through
the introduction of books and the like.
Introducing multi-sensory learning and technology
As older children learn to read and write, it can be helpful to
introduce a multi-sensory learning course that combines audio, visual and
touchable learning, fosters literacy skills development and introduces
keyboarding skills at the same time.
Making connections and visualising
Learners make a lot of comparison of new concepts with the
already existing ones. During the process of reading, they recall previously
stored knowledge or schema. This concept could be used deliberately in
reading materials to which the learners are exposed.
Questioning and inferring
Learners, especially children are naturally have curiosity. They love
to ask questions. By asking questions, learners could be engaged in a
deeper fashion which allows them to comprehend the text in a powerful
manner. Learners can be motivated to think of higher order questions, for
which teachers Could help them find answers from the reading content.
Synthesizing
Synthesizing is the process of merging ideas over the course of a
text in order to further understanding.
Importance of Literacy skills
➢ Gaining of literacy skills improves a person's personal and
professional development at every stage of their life. People with low
literacy levels may not be able to read newspapers, important
personal documents, names of medicines, route maps etc.,

64 | P a g e
 ➢ The communication level of a person is directly proportionate to the
literacy skills of a person.
➢ Information, digital and media literacy skills are all essential for
children to learn. In today's world, we receive information through
various channels all the time. It's important for children to learn how
to digest this information, evaluate it, and use it to form and share
their own thoughts and opinions.
➢ Learning these types of literacy skills also prepare children for life
outside of school and beyond their education. We need these skills
to communicate with others and understand the world around us.
➢ Without literacy skills, children can be left behind when they grow
up. For example, many job advertisements are now posted online.
One needs to be digitally literate to understand how to use the
Internet and find these job adverts. But even before that, it is to be
information literate essential to know how to read.
CALP SKILLS, BICS SKILLS AND CONCEPTUAL LITERACY
Cummins makes the distinction between two differing kinds of
language proficiency. BICS are Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills;
these are the "surface" skills of listening and speaking which are typically
acquired quickly by many students; particularly by those from language
backgrounds similar to English who spend a lot of their school time
interacting with native speakers.
1. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
CALP is Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, and, as the
name suggests, is the basis for a child's ability to cope with the academic
demands placed upon her in the various subjects. Cummins states that
while many children develop native speaker fluency (i.e. BICS) within two
years of immersion in the target language, it takes between 5-7 years for a

65 | P a g e
child to be working on a level with native speakers as far as academic
language is concerned.
According to Baker (2006) "BICS is said to occur when there are
contextual supports and props for language delivery. Face-to-face context
embedded [boldface in original] situations provide, for example, non-
verbal support to secure understanding. Actions with eyes and hands,
instant feedback, cues and clues support verbal language. CALP, on the
other hand, is said to occur in context reduced' academic situations.
Context-reduced language refers to communication where there are few
clues about the meaning of the communication apart from the words
themselves. The language is likely to be abstract and academic. Where
higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis, evaluation) are required
in the curriculum, language is 'disembodied from a meaningful, supportive
context. Where language is 'disembodied' the situation is often referred to
as 'context reduced."
Characteristics of CALP: Academic Proficiency
• Includes formal and academic registers of the language.
• Acquired mostly after the age of five, and acquisition
continues throughout life.
• Includes high levels of literacy.
• Includes tens of thousands of specialized words relating to
academic and formal register.
• Proficiency strongly correlated with academic success.

Cummins believes that in the course of learning one language a

child acquires a set of skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that can
be drawn upon when working in another language.

66 | P a g e
2. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) Definition
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) is often referred
to as playground English" or "survival English. It is the basic language
ability required for face-to-face communication where linguistic
interactions are embedded in a situational context called context-
embedded language. "Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills" refer to the kind of language that is used in communication among
friends, or with strangers, or in real communication about any and all
aspects of life. "Good morning!" is BICS."
BICS is part of a theory of language proficiency developed by Jim
Cummins, which distinguishes this conversational form of language from
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency).
Characteristics of BICS: Conversational Proficiency
➢ The basic language system used in face- to- face communication in
informal contexts.
➢ Largely acquired in the native language by children in all societies by
the age of five
➢ Does not include literacy
➢ Includes the vocabulary of conversations
➢ Proficiency only weakly correlated with academic success
BICS, which is highly contextualized and often accompanied by
gestures, is cognitively undemanding and relies on context to aid
understanding. BICS is much more easily quickly acquired than CALP, but
is not sufficient to meet cognitive and linguistic demands of an academic
classroom.

Conclusion:

67 | P a g e
 In this unit meaning, concept, and definitions of language, aims
and objectives of language teaching, Functions and importance of
language, proficiency of home language, enhancing language proficiency,
nature of text, academic and social language, BICS skills and CALP skills
were discussed in detail.
Important Questions:
5 mark questions:
1. Explain meaning and functions of Language
2. Discuss the aims and objectives of Language
3. What is home language? list the characteristics of home language
4. What do you mean by school language and how does it differ from
first language
5. Explain the nature of Narrative texts and expository text differentiate
them
6. What are BICS and CALP skills
Seven mark Questions:
1) Explain the strategy for enhancing Language proficiency
2. Explain different types of peer tutoring
3. Explain any three language skills in detail
4. Explain in detail about conceptual literacy
5. Give the comparison of i) home language and school language
ii) Social language and academic language
UNIT: III
Integrated curriculum and language Education- Introduction-Types
of Integrated Curriculum-Key Features of Integrated Curriculum-
Objectives-Levels of curriculum Integration- models of Curriculum
Integration-Multi disciplinary curriculum Integration- Inter Disciplinary
curriculum Integration-Trans disciplinary curriculum Integration-Spiral

68 | P a g e
Curriculum –Do Coyle’s 4C’s of Curriculum-content and content and
language integrated learning approach in the classroom-National
Curriculum Framework(2005)- recognition of mother tongue-Recognition
of Mother tongue in NCF 2005.
INTEGRATED CURRICULUM AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Meaning
An integrated curriculum implies learning that is synthesized
across traditional subject areas and learning experiences that are designed
to be mutually reinforcing. This approach develops the child's ability to
transfer their learning to other settings.
Definition
“An integrated study is one in which children broadly explore knowledge
in various subjects related to certain aspects of the environment”.
An integrated curriculum implies learning that is synthesized across
traditional subject areas and learning experiences that are designed to be
mutually reinforcing. This approach develops the child's ability to transfer
their learning to other settings.
Example
Integrating reading, writing, and oral communication in language arts is a
common example. Teachers often integrate history, geography,
economics, and government in an interdisciplinary social studies program.
Integrated curriculums allow students to have a deeper understanding of
the course subject matter and how to apply the material that they have
learned in the classroom in a real-world situation. This ultimately helps
prepare them for their future studies, career and life in general.

69 | P a g e
Key features of integrated curriculum:
• The curriculum must be aligned to both state and national standards
• A clear focus for the curriculum must be present and the teacher
must aware about the area of the study and particular topics
• Educators must have an interest to develop the basic skills such as
reading writing, computational and other art and humanities based
subjects
• A team effort is needed to implement the integrated curriculum
• The units in the curriculum must be included both formal and
informal assessments
• Differentiation of instruction within a unit is essential.
LEVELS OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
The five levels of curriculum integration identified in this study
are identified as departmentalized, parallel, complementary or shared
units, webbed, and integrated themes.
Departmentalized-
This is when topics surrounding disciplines are connected which allows
students to review and re-conceptualize ideas within a discipline. However,
it has its shortcomings because the content focus still remains in one

70 | P a g e
discipline.
Parallel –
This is when similar ideas are taught together although in different subjects
which facilitates learning across content areas, but requires a lot of
communication among teachers of different disciplines.
Shared –
This is when teachers use their planning to create a integrated unit among
two disciplines. However, this method of integration requires a lot of
communication and collaboration between the two teachers.
For example, a social studies teacher and a science teacher can
decide to plan a unit in which the students will be completing a research
paper on the Civil War. The social studies teacher can use this as an
opportunity to teach about the Civil War and it’s causes and effects as
well as how we gather information using first and second hand sources,
while the English teacher can use this as an opportunity to teach proper
MLA format when citing a paper, how to format a research paper, as well
as grammar, spelling, and other writing techniques.

Webbed –
This is when a teacher decides to base all subjects’ areas around a
central theme which motivates students to see the connection to the theme
within the different subjects.
Objectives of integrated Curriculum
An integrated curriculum allows children to pursue learning
in a holistic way, without the restrictions often imposed by subject
boundaries. In early childhood programs it focuses upon the inter-
relatedness of all curricular areas in helping children acquire basic learning
tools.

71 | P a g e
MODELS OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
The Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM) is an approach to
teaching gifted students in a way that is sensitive to their needs. This model
places an emphasis on advance content knowledge, relies on higher order
thinking skills, and focuses learning on major issues that cross several
disciplines. The ICM features three components: Overarching Concepts,
Advance Content, and Process-Product.

An example of the Integrated Curriculum Model in action:

72 | P a g e
Types:
The three categories include Multidisciplinary Integration,
Interdisciplinary Integration and Trans-disciplinary Integration

D MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
Multidisciplinary approach is a method of curriculum integration that
highlights the diverse perspectives that different disciplines can bring to
illustrate a theme, subject or issue. In a multidisciplinary curriculum,
multiple disciplines are used to study the same topic.
A multidisciplinary curriculum means studying the same topic from the
viewpoint of more than one discipline. It is also called cross-disciplinary
which indicates the aim to cross boundaries between disciplines.
Multidisciplinary approach is a method of curriculum integration that
highlights the diverse perspectives that different disciplines can bring to
illustrate a theme, subject or issue. In a multidisciplinary curriculum,
multiple disciplines are used to study the same topic.

73 | P a g e
 A multidisciplinary approach in education is a way of learning which
gives a major focus on diverse perspectives and different disciplines of
learning to illustrate a theme, concept, or any issue. It is the one in which
the same concept is learned through multiple viewpoints of more than one
discipline. It helps the students to gain perspectives and knowledge in
different ways.
Advantages of Multidisciplinary Approach In Education
• 1: The Privilege To Choose
With multidisciplinary education in colleges, students get a right
to choose their favourite subject, the subject that they want to learn
• Reach Within To Discover Passion
Even when your students are clueless about their passion
initially, they can discover it during the teaching-learning journey.
• Pragmatism & Flexibility
Multi-disciplinary education helps the students to develop their
pragmatic attitude by allowing them to decide what subjects they will opt
for and what could be their possible benefits. They get time to make a
decision by calculating the risks & advantages. Thus, a multi-disciplinary
program brings pragmatism and flexibility to the table.
Disadvantages of Multidisciplinary Approach in Education
74 | P a g e
Distractions
Sometimes, the students may feel a little bit distractions or lost as they hop
on to a variety of subjects & courses.
Need experts:
. The students need to have expertise in one domain that they like. With
multi-disciplinary college education, faculties have to be extra careful when
they evaluate the students’ performance. They need to ensure that their
students achieve mastery in one domain at least.
May create confusions:
The students may feel confused about the choosing subject and
courses
TRANSDISCIPLINARITY APPROACH
Jean Piaget introduced this usage of the term in 1970, and in
1987, the International Center for Transdisciplinarity Research (CIRET)
adopted the Charter of Transdisciplinarity at the 1st World Congress of
Transdisciplinarity, in November 1994.
In this approach which dissolves the boundaries between the
conventional disciplines and organizes teaching and learning around the
construction of meaning in the context of real-world problems or themes.
Example:
Marxism, structuralism, and feminist theory are sometimes cited as
examples of a Transdisciplinarity approach.
Features
Going beyond bringing together multiple disciplines,
Transdisciplinarity research:
(1) is driven by urging matters from the society,
(2) Transcends and integrates different disciplines into common
conceptual framework,

75 | P a g e
(3) Engages relevant stakeholders in the research process, and
(4) Produces applicable solutions
Transdisciplinarity skills
There are five Transdisciplinarity skills students develop as they involve
themselves in the learning environment.
• Thinking Skills.
• Research Skills.
• Self-management Skills.
• Communication Skills.
• Social Skills.
INTER DISCIPLINARY APPROACH
An interdisciplinary approach involves drawing appropriately from several
disciplines (or separate branches of learning or fields of expertise) to
redefine problems outside of normal boundaries and reach solutions based
on a new understanding of complex situations.
Steps:
The following steps prescribed to implement interdisciplinary
integration approach
• Pre- instructional planning:
Plan and establish the topic. Develop an action plan, set of notes and
open ended questions
• Introduce the methodology to students
The teacher introduce the interdisciplinary methods o solve
problems for our students.
• Take it to the classroom :
Analyze the capabilities of the students by asking questions.
• Practice interdisciplinary thinking:

76 | P a g e
 • In these steps students may consider an issue using one discipline
then ask them to use knowledge from different discipline to inform
their analysis and find a solution.
• Provide feedback
Evaluate the students and understand the structure and analytical
framework of relevant discipline through feedback
• Assessment
Teach students to self evaluate regularly through project assignment
or analysis.
Students can
rate themselves
on their ability.

Example-
if a student is learning about tourism in the United States in an
interdisciplinary way, they may learn about the revenue generated from
tourism in an economics class, the most popular tourist sites in a
geography class, historical tourism trends in a history course and effective
advertising strategies. Another Example includes quantum information
processing, an combination of quantum physics and computer science, and
bioinformatics, combining molecular biology with computer science.

77 | P a g e
The spiral curriculum model
Spiral curriculum, a concept widely attributed to Jerome Bruner [1],
refers to A spiral curriculum is one in which there is an iterative revisiting
of topics, subjects or themes throughout the course. A spiral curriculum is
not simply the repetition of a topic taught. It requires also the deepening
of it, with each successive encounter building on the previous one.
The spiral model has four phases:
• Planning,
• Design,
• Construct
• Evaluation.
A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in
iterations (called Spirals in this model).
Example
After students are taught to read, they are then asked to read to
learn new things. This is an example of spiral curriculum in
reading: learning to read evolving into reading to learn. For example,
students learn to identify a sequence of events when they are learning how
to read.
Key Principles of the Spiral Curriculum
The spiral approach to curriculum has three key principles that sum up the
approach nicely. The three principles are:
1. Cyclical: Students should return to the same topic several times
throughout their school career;
2. Increasing Depth: Each time a student returns to the topic it should
be learned at a deeper level and explore more complexity;

78 | P a g e
 3. Prior Knowledge: A student’s prior knowledge should be utilized
when a topic is returned to so that they build from their foundations
rather than starting anew.

Values:
Reinforcement:
This is a positive feature of spiral curriculum as students tend
to forget the initial concept to proceeds
From simple to complex:
Levels of learning are introduced step by step( that means simple to
complex) . It has been gain better understanding by exploring the same
topics at different depth.
Integration:
In this approach compartmental approach also included that means
curriculum is viewed as series of courses. Each has own programme and
assessment.
Logical Sequence:
In spiral curriculum, a topic is approached in two aspects scope and
sequence of content. It gradually increases the complexity of a subject or
content.
Higher level objectives:

79 | P a g e
 In a spiral curriculum the students recall an application of
knowledge and skills to find facts beyond the concepts.
Flexibility:
Spiral curriculum allows teachers to move from one phase of
the subject to other with ease.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bruner's Spiral Curriculum

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Developmentally Appropriate Learning 1. Time-Consuming for Designers

2. Prior Knowledge is Central to Learning 2. The Curriculum Gets Crowded

3. Spaced Repetition Occurs 3. Irrelevant for Short Courses

DECOYLE’S 4C’s OF CURRICULUM

Introduction:
Coyle's 4C's model Exposure the principles of CLIL (content
and language Integrated learning) approach. CLIL helps to integration of
subjects or specific contents from many disciplines where students learn
second language at the same time .CLIL methodology is flexible and
adjustable to the learner ‘needs, level of competence and level of academic
achievement.
CLIL as a methodology:
CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or part of subjects are taught
through a foreign language with dual focused aims such as learning of
content and simultaneous learning of foreign language
The CLIL focuses on helping learners
• To note the elements of language

80 | P a g e
 • Encourage them to identify language during content reading
• To achieve specific outcomes
• Creating opportunities for language acquisition
4C’s curriculum (Coyle 1999):
It has four elements these are
• Content
• Communication
• Cognition
• Culture

Communication

Culture

Content Cognition

Frame work of 4C’s curriculum (Coyle 1999):

• CLIL starts with content which focus on subject matter, themes,
cross curricular approaches and it focus on interrelationship between
content (subject matter), communication(language), cognition
(thinking) and culture(awareness of self and others) to build
integrated learning .
• It unites learning theories, language learning theories and
intercultural understanding.

81 | P a g e
 • Subject matter is not only about acquiring knowledge and skills and
understanding which is related to learning and thinking.
• Thinking process (cognition) needs to be analyzed for their linguistic
demands.
• Language needs to be learning and reconstructing the subject themes
and their related cognitive process.
• Interaction in the learning context is fundamental to learning. It
provides necessity of L2.
• The relationship between cultures and language is complex.
• Intercultural awareness and learning is fundamental to CLIL.
• The 4c framework is a tool for mapping out CLIL activities and for
maximizing potential in any model at any level and any age
CLIL integration in classroom:
The 4c’s of curriculum framework of De Coyle is an
important aspect of CLIL which helps in successful integration in classroom
• Language skill development in CLIL
• Reading is a chief source of input
• Listening is usually input activity
• Speaking focus on fluency but accuracy is seen as secondary
• Writing is series of lexical activities in which grammar is recycled.
CLIL Dimension and Focuses:
Culture, environment, language content and learning are the important
factors of CLIL Dimension.
The Cultural Dimension:
• Build intercultural knowledge and understanding
• Develop intercultural communication skills
• Learn about specific neighboring countries
• Introduce the wide cultural context

82 | P a g e
The Environment Dimension:
• Prepare for internationalization
• Access international Certification
• Enhance school profile
The language Dimension:
• Improve overall target language competence
• Develop oral communication skills
• Deepen awareness of mother tongue and target language
• Develop plurilingual interest and attitudes
• Introduce target language
The Content dimension:
• Provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives
• Access subject- specific target language terminology
• Prepare for future studies and working life
The learning dimension:
• Complement individual learning strategies
• Diversify methods and forms of classroom practice
• Increase learner motivation
Advantages
The 4c’s integrated with CLIL provides the following advantages
• A deeper understanding of the target language:
In this phase the students learn content in the second language, they
form links in their minds between their first and target language and the
content. It creates metalinguistic skills that means create the ability to
reflect on language and meaning. The learner has the capability to identify
how languages work and the rules of grammar of a second language.
Mastery of subject:

83 | P a g e
 Mastery of the subject can be achieved by reviewing and
recycling the both information and language. The earlier learning content
is slower and then increased.
For Example: A Science teacher teaches about photosynthesis works in
language2 before that he introduce the necessary vocabulary later explain
about photosynthesis by using presentation skill.
Improved social and critical thinking skills:
In this step gives more opportunities to improve communicative skills
through practices as they move between language classroom and subject
class room.
For example; The language teacher might teach the ways of agreeing,
disagreeing, and asking clarification and they have discussed historical
events and its consequences.
A stronger, more flexible brain:
Students in a CLIL program do more than just they learn a language
Disadvantages:
• Terminology of the content can be difficult
• A difficult to find difference between content and language
• Limited range of resources is available
• If the language taught separately the difficulty arise to communicate
with content
• Mainly concentrate the modules were taught through medium of the
second language
• CLIL cannot save curriculum time.
• Subject teachers do not have required language level to teach
content
• Sometimes students language level could be higher than the teachers
• CLIL involves high intellectual involvement

84 | P a g e
 • Assessing content and language at the same time.
NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK 2005
Introduction
The NCF 2005 serves as a guideline for syllabus, textbooks,
and teaching practices for the schools in India. The NCF 2005 has based
its policies on previous government reports on education, such as Learning
without Burden and National Policy of Education 1986–1992, and focus
group discussion.
Objectives of National Curriculum Framework - NCF 2005
• Introducing the concept of learning without too much load by
reducing the syllabus
• All children should have access to quality education without
any discrimination
• Curricular practices should be in alignment with secularism,
social justice, and equality
• Strengthening a national education system in the society

Principles of NCF 2005:

The NCF 2005 has recommended five guiding principles for curricular
development-
• To shift learning from rote method.
• Connecting knowledge to life outside the school.
• To integrate examination into classroom learning and make it more
flexible.
• To enrich the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks.
• Nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within
the democratic polity of the country.
Importance of NCF 2005

85 | P a g e
 • NCF will lay the base for the further stages, as 3-8 years are crucial
for a child's cognitive development.
• Along with childhood care and overall development, play-based
learning forms the objectives of the National Curriculum Framework
2022.
• NCF highlights the need for a positive and active learning
environment
Features:
• School and class environment reforms
• Learning and knowledge process reforms
• Perspective reforms
• Curriculum and assessment reforms
• Systemic reforms
Problems in NCF 2005r, 441108
• High emphasis on marks and grade system
• Huge burden on the teachers
• Rote based learning approach of students
• Students do not understand what they are learning
• Lack of supervisory staff in institutes

PEDAGOGIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LANGUAGE BASED ON

NCF 2005
Language as a Basic capability
NCF 2005 has recommended recognition of child's mother
tongue and also encouraging proficiency in English. This is possible only
when learning builds on sound language pedagogy. Reading, writing,
listening and speech contribute to the child's progress in all curricular
areas.

86 | P a g e
Recommendations of NCF 2005
• The new National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for the
foundational stages of education, launched by Education Minister
Dharmendran Pradhan last week, has recommended that mother
tongue should be the primary medium of instruction in schools, both
public and private, for children up to eight years of age.
• Children's mother tongues, including tribal languages should be
considered as the best medium of instruction.
• Proficiency in multiple languages including English should be
encouraged in children. Reading should be emphasized throughout
the primary classes.
• NCF 2005 has recommended recognition of child's mother tongue
and also encouraging proficiency in English. This is possible only
when learning builds on sound language pedagogy.
• Reading, writing, listening and speech contribute to the child's
progress in all curricular areas.
• The NCF says that basic language skills are adequate for meeting
situations that are contextually rich and cognitively undemanding,
such as peer-group interaction.
• Advanced-level skills are required in situations that are contextually
poor and cognitively demanding such as writing an essay on an
abstract issue.
• The NCF 2005 emphasized that multilingualism, which is
constitutive of the identity of a child and a typical feature of the
Indian linguistic landscape, must be used as a resource, classroom
strategy and a goal by a creative language teacher.
• NCF 2005 also emphasizes the need of inclusive curriculum keeping
in view the diversity of learners.

87 | P a g e
 • An inclusive curriculum aims to provide quality education that will
enable all children to learn effectively and participate equally in class.
It also provides to children the dignity and confidence to learn.
NCF 2005 on Language Education
• A child acquires his / her home language, naturally through larger
kinship groups, street and neighbourhood and societal environment.
• Children are born with an innate language facility, and research has
shown that Indians have a flair for languages.
• Languages provide a bank of memories and symbols inherited from
fellow speakers and created in their own lifetime. It is a medium
through which knowledge is constructed. Language is identity.
• Let us first recognize this inbuilt language potential of our children
as well as remember that languages get socio culturally constructed
and change our daily lives.
• There is a difference between dialect and language. Similarly, the
language spoken at home is different from the one spoken in the
school, which is usually the standard language, though there is much
give and take between the two.
• Whenever the child enters the school in his / her locality it is
assumed that his/her first language, or mother tongue is the one
spoken in the school, which may not always be true. Therefore, the
child is educated in the standard form of the language.
Language in the Classroom
Input rich communicational environments are a
prerequisite for language learning, whether first or second. Inputs
include textbooks, learner chosen texts and class libraries allowing for
a variety of types. The language environment of disadvantaged
learners needs to be enriched by developing schools into community

88 | P a g e
 learning centres. All teachers who teach English should have basic
proficiency in English.
Evaluation in Languages
• Language evaluation need not be tied to achievement with respect to
particular syllabi, but must be reoriented to the measurement of
language proficiency would help greatly in achieving certain basic
standards. English is perceived to open up opportunities. A student
may be allowed to 'pass without English' if an alternative route for
English certification (and therefore instruction) can be provided
outside the regular school curriculum. The transfer of skills could be
achieved from one language to another.
• In this context the objective of teaching languages is not simply to
make the students learn language skills but to enable them to play
their communicative roles effectively and select languages from their
linguistic repertoire and within those chosen, select registers and
styles, befitting the roles they are playing.
RECOGNITION OF MOTHER TONGUE IN NCF 2005
Introduction:
The NCF 2005 gives much importance to the home
language or mother tongue education, NCF 2005 argues that “ It is
clear that through their innate language faculty and interaction with the
family and other people around them. A child knows not only how to
understand and speak correctly but also appropriately in her language.
NCF guidelines for 2005 make the following recommendations
• Primary school education must be covered through the home
language(s). It is imperative that we honour the child's home
language(s).

89 | P a g e
 • According to Article 350A of our Constitution, 'It shall be the
endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the
State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother
tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to
linguistic minority groups.
• From class III onwards, orally and literacy will be tools for learning
and for developing higher order communicative skills and critical
thinking
• Care must be taken to honour and respect the child's home
languages / mother tongues. At the primary stage, child's
language(s) must be accepted as they are, with no attempt to correct
them. It is known that errors are a necessary part of the process of
learning and that children will correct themselves only when they are
ready to.
• While children come to school equipped with basic interpersonal
communicative skills, they need to acquire cognitively advanced
levels of language proficiency. In addition, higher-level proficiency
skills easily transfer from one language to another.
• It is thus imperative that we do everything we can to strengthen the
sustained learning of Indian languages at school.
Conclusion:
This unit prescribe about an integrated curriculum and
language education. It gives clear clarification about each topic which
introduces new methodology of learning and its drawbacks. The skills
developed in an integrated curriculum are beneficial for further
development of the curriculum so this concept is beneficial for developing
curriculum in different study areas.
Important questions

90 | P a g e
Five mark Questions
1. Explain different types of integrated curriculum
2. Discuss the Coyle’s 4C curriculum and its role in CLIL
approach
3. Discuss the recommendations of NCF(2005)
4. What is multi- disciplinary model of curriculum integration?
Explain its characteristics
Seven mark questions
1. Explain different levels of curriculum Integration
2. Explain the recommendations of NCF 2005 with reference to
recognition for mother tongue in education
UNIT: IV
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
Introduction-Plato’s Problem Theory of Language-
Cartesian Theory of Language-John Locke’s theory of tabula rasa-skinner’s
Imitation Theory- Skinner operant conditioning-Chomsky’s universal
Grammar theory-Schumann’s Acculturation Theory-Krashen’s Monitor
Theory-Piaget’s views on language learning-cognitive development and
changes in schema- Vygotsky’s cultural tools for language learning.
Introduction:
Theory is an idea or a set of ideas that tries to explain something.
Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retains
knowledge during learning with the help of languages based on Cognitive,
emotional, and environmental influences.
Need:
Theory of language learning is a topic from philosophy of
language and theoretical linguistics. It has the goal of answering the
questions "What is language?", "Why do languages have the properties?",

91 | P a g e
or "What is the origin of language?”. The answer of these questions
suggest the following seven theories of language learning.
Types:
There are seven Great Theories about Language Learning by
Brilliant Thinkers
• Plato's Problem.
• Cartesian Linguistics, by Descartes.
• Locke's Tabula Rasa.
• Skinner's Theory of Behaviourism.
• Chomsky's Universal Grammar.
• Schumann's Acculturation Model.
• Krashen's Monitor Model.
i) PLATO'S PROBLEM THEORY OF LANGUAGE:
Introduction
Plato was a Greek philosopher he was born in Athens
(428/427) BCE. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of
Aristotle one who was the author of philosophical works of unparalleled
influence.
Plato's problem theory
Plato's suggestion is, essentially, that people have innate
knowledge. In the field of linguistics, Plato's Problem is the problem
of finding an explanation for how a child acquires language though the
child does not receive explicit instruction and the primary linguistic data a
child does receive is limited.

92 | P a g e
 Plato's Problem is the term given by Noam Chomsky to "the
problem of explaining how we can know so much" given our limited
experience. Most of Plato's philosophical ideas were communicated
through his beloved teacher Socrates as a presence in the dialogues.
Plato states that when a child born in a society they have an
innate knowledge (This is derived from Socrates' belief that one's soul
existed in past lives and knowledge is transferred from those lives to the
current one).After four years, the child knows to construct the complex
sentence and develop their linguistic, calculating and psychomotor skills.
There are four stages of knowledge development:
• Imagining
• Belief
• Thinking
• Perfect Intelligence.
Several questions (or problems) motivate linguistic theorizing and
investigation.
• How does the child can learn languages?
• How do they have an innate knowledge when they were born?
• How does the child start to speech before reach in adult stage?
ii) CARTESIAN THEORY OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTION
Introduction:

93 | P a g e
 The central theme of Cartesian theory is that the general
features of grammatical structures. This linguistic theory points out all
languages have common structure and reflect certain fundamental
properties of the mind. Universal conditions are not learned rather they
provide the organizing principles that make language learning possible, that
must exist if data are to lead to knowledge.
The Descartes one who was a French scientist and mathematician
introduce a language productivity theory. According to his concept the
language was produced new thinks from the existing knowledge and
thinking. He also suggests this new thinking is derived from single and
undividable sources.
Based on his theory Language learning is the process of
identification of similarities between mother language and Target
Language. He also tells to construct a language to organize the structure of
language and earlier experiences from existing language structure.
The Cartesian theory does not prove the efficient way to access
any other language. He also does not provide the explanation about
language learning method so this theory also raises many questions.

iii) LOCKE’S THEORY OF TABULA RASA

Introduction:
John lock (1632-1704) was a greatest philosopher in Europe.
He was a one of the educationalist of Oxford University and medical
researcher. In Book II of the essay gives positive account of how we
acquire materials of knowledge.

94 | P a g e
Theory:
Lock holds that the mind of child is a blank slate (tabula
rasa).In each development stage of our life we learn everything with the
help of our sense through our experience. When do we learn anything, we
get new thing from each step. If we take any steps to learn or speak a
language fluently additionally we learn a new vocabularies and rules also.
This new thing was written in a blank slate.
Locks also suggest the theory of Plato’s. Locke thinks we are born with
variety of faculties to receive and abilities to manipulate or process the
content once we acquire it. The mind can engage in three different types
of action in putting simple ideas together.
The first of this kind of action is to combine them into complex ideas.
Complex ideas are of two kinds
• Ideas of substances
• Ideas of modes
Ideas of substances:
Substances are independent existences. These substances
include God, angels, humans, animals, plants and variety of constructed
things.
Ideas of modes:

95 | P a g e
 Modes are dependent existences. These include mathematical
and moral ideas and all conventional language of religion, politics and
culture.
➢ The second action compares the uniting ideas of simple and complex
or view of the ideas one by another without uniting them. Through
this we can find out the relations and similarity of the ideas.
➢ Find the general concept or ideas from the different ideas. It does
not consider about time and place.
Locks also explain how a variety of particular kinds of ideas
such as ideas of solidity, number, space, time, power, identity and moral
relations arises from sensation and reflection. This tabula rasa theory
provides new life style for children. Based on this theory, a child can build
up self-actualization. Learning is not only for collecting knowledge and skill
but also motivate the children to change from dormant mode to active
mode. When a child continuously in dormant mode their mind will be a
blank slate.
After the birth a child have sustain mind about an images, smells
and movements. When changes made in a mind then they can identify
about their self and development of mind.
Educator’s role:
Healthy children
• Lock asserts that the growth of healthy mind begins a healthy body.
No modern parent would argue that claim though they may
questions lock’s method.
• Lock specifically warns parents against dressing children in warm,
constricting clothing.
• He suggest exposing children to cold temperature and bathing their
feet in cold water

96 | P a g e
 • A bland diet of much bread and very little meat or fruit is lock’s
perception for healthy bones and body.

Authority and Discipline:

According to lock he wrote children should not
be physically punished nor should they receive reward in the way of sweets
or toys. He believed that behavior in children should be motivated by the
esteem or disgrace they receive from their parents. He believed children
should not warn off bad deeds until they actually commit one. When the
behavior of children is horrified lock approve physical punishment.

Education:
Locke would seek, most of the parents feel compelled to
indulge their infants. Locke would let them learn that they cannot always
have what they want. Self-control and willpower are essential character
traits for a growing child. In middle section Locke suggest the children can
be taught in their families by a tutor. In formal school or boarding school
they lose their individuality and can easily learn bad manners. Those
parents who argued that children would see nothing of the outside world if
they stayed mainly at home. Locke countered that they should bring
interesting people into their residence to engage the children in
conversation and learning.
iv) JOHN SCHUMANN ACCULTURATION THEORY
The Acculturation Model is a theory proposed by John
Schumann to describe the acquisition process of a second language
(L2). This acquisition process takes place in natural situation of majority
language setting. The main suggestion of the theory is that the acquisition
of a second language is directly linked to the acculturation process, and

97 | P a g e
learners’ success is determined by the extent to which they can orient
themselves to the target language culture.

The process of acculturation was defined by Brown as "the

process of being adapted to a new culture" which involves a new
orientation of thinking and feeling on the part of an L2 learner. Schumann
asserts that the degree to which the second-language learners acculturate
themselves depends on social and psychological factors
Factors:
Schumann based his Acculturation Model on two sets of
factors:
• social factors
• Psychological.
Schumann identifies eight factors that influence social distance:
• social dominance:
If second –language learning (L2) group is dominant
or lower ranking to the target language group, social contact
between the two groups will tend to be insufficient for optimal target
language acquisition. If they are nearly equal in status, then there will
be more contact between the two groups and the acquisition of
target language will be enhanced.
• integration pattern:

98 | P a g e
 There are three distinct models of integration that are available
currently. integration models are there
ASSIMILATION
Second language group gives up its own life style in favour of the target
language group. This process is called assimilation
ADAPTIVE INTEGRATION
Second language group wants to adopt to TL culture for intra group
interactions without assimilating to it .this is referred to as adaptive
integration or partial integration.
LEAST INTEGRATION
L2 group preserve its culture and remain separated linguistically and
culturally from TL group. This is referred as least integration
Enclosure:
It refers the amount that two groups share the same social facilities such as
school, prayer halls, work places, clubs and others If sharing of social
facilities is more, then it is more favorable to L2 acquisition two groups
have different social facilities, then L2 acquisition is poor.
COHESIVENESS
Cohesiveness means group contacts between second language(2L&TL).2L
group is less cohesive means there will be more contacts.2L is more
cohesive means there will be less contacts.
Size:
If the size of learners group is large it tends to facilitate intragroup contacts
rather than inter-group contacts
CONGRUENCE:
It refers to similarities between two cultures
ATTITUDE:
2Lgroup is favorable to TL group then the group has more attitude.

99 | P a g e
Intended length of residence
Greater social distance between the 2l group and TL group, the more it
affects the acculturation.
Factors that increases psychological distance:
The five affective factors that may increases psychological distance are
• Language shock
• Culture shock
• Culture stress
• Motivation
• Ego permeability
Limitations:
• Second language acquisition often not readily identifiable
• This theory takes into consideration of macro level relationship not
micro level relationship
• This theory criticized other potential factors such as cognitive and
instructional factors
• This theory does not provide responsible for acquisition of L2.

v) SKINNER IMITATION THEORY OF LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION
Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its
parents or careers. Successful attempts are rewarded because an adult who
recognizes a word spoken by a child will praise the child and/or give it
what it is asking for.

100 | P a g e
Skinners operant conditioning
Skinner is known as father of operant conditioning. But his
work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. Skinner introduced a
new term into the law of effect is Reinforcement. Skinner (1948) studied
operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a skinner box which is similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box

Operant conditioning also known as instrumental

conditioning is a method of learning normally attributed to B.F. Skinner
where the behavior is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequent is less likely to
be repeated.
Principles of operant conditioning:

101 | P a g e
 Reinforcement is the key element in skinner’s theory. A
reinforce is anything that strengthens the desired response. There are three
principles
• Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement
• punishment
Negative Reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement is a method that can be used to help teach
specific behaviors. With negative reinforcement, something uncomfortable
or otherwise unpleasant is taken away in response to a stimulus.
Positive reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement refers to the introduction of a desirable or
pleasant stimulus after a behavior. The desirable stimulus reinforces the
behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will reoccur.
Punishment
Punishment can also be positive or negative. All
reinforces (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral
response. A child disobeys his parent, and the child gets punished by losing
access to electronics. The desired effect of the punishment is that the child
will not disobey again. Reinforcement, on the other hand, is a reward or a
prize for doing something right.
vi) STEPHEN KRASHEN'S THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Introduction
Stephen Krashen’s (University of Southern California) is an expert in
the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and
development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-
English and bilingual language acquisition. Since 1980, he has published

102 | P a g e
well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300
lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.

The five hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main
hypotheses:
• The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis.
• The Monitor hypothesis.
• The Input hypothesis.
• The Affective Filter hypothesis.
• The Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.

According to Krashen’s there are two independent systems of
foreign language performance:
• The acquired system
• the learned system'
The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when
they acquire their first language
The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal
instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious
knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces "learning",

103 | P a g e
while an inductive approach in a student-centred setting leads to
"acquisition".
The Monitor hypothesis:
It explains the relationship between acquisition and learning. The
monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar.
According to Krashen’s, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator,
while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the
'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function
when three specific conditions are met:
• The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal.
• They focus on form or think about correctness.
• They know the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat
limited in second language performance. Krashen’s also suggests that there
is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor'
use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time
(over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use
their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the
'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's
psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong.
The Input hypothesis
It is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires
a second language – how second language acquisition takes place. The
Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'.
According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along
the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is
one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
The Affective Filter hypothesis

104 | P a g e
 According to Krashen’s view that a number of 'affective variables'
play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition.
These variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and
personality traits. Krashen’s claims that learners with high motivation, self-
confidence, a good self-image, a low level of anxiety and extroversion are
better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low
motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise
the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible
input from being used for acquisition.
Natural Order hypothesis
It is based on research findings which suggested that the
acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is
predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be
acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of
the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although
the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the
studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the
existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition
The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View
According to Krashen’s, the study of the structure of the
language can have general educational advantages and values that high
schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. Any
benefit, however, will greatly depend on the learner being already familiar
with the language. It should also be clear that analysing the language,
formulating rules, setting irregularities apart, and teaching complex facts
about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is "language
appreciation" or linguistics, which does not lead to communicative
proficiency.

105 | P a g e
 The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result
in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are
interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of
instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are
convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second
language acquisition, and the teacher is skilful enough to present
explanations in the target language so that the students understand.
vii) Piaget Views on Language Learning:
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed acquisition of language
within the context of a child's mental or cognitive development. He
argued that a child has to understand a concept before s/he can acquire
the particular language form which expresses that concept.

Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called

them
• Sensor motor intelligence,
• Preoperational thinking,
• Concrete operational thinking,
• Formal operational thinking.
Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but
only approximately. Sensor motor stage (0–2 years old) Preoperational
stage (2–7 years old) Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old) Formal

106 | P a g e
operational stage (11 years old through adulthood). Piaget believed that
children actively approach their environments and acquire knowledge
through their actions." "Piaget distinguished among three types of
knowledge that children acquire: Physical, logical-mathematical, and social
knowledge.
After many years of observation, Piaget concluded that intellectual
development is the result of the interaction of hereditary and
environmental factors. As the child develops and constantly interacts with
the world around him, knowledge is invented and reinvented.
Jean Piaget's focus on Cognition or how people think and understand.
According to Piaget, in what stage of human development do individuals
experience the world only through sensory contact? Sensor motor stage.
Piaget believed that children actively approach their environments and
acquire knowledge through their actions." "Piaget distinguished among
three types of knowledge that children acquire:
• Physical,
• Logical-mathematical,
• Social knowledge.
Cognitive development and changes in schema
Mental impressions combine to make a network like structure is called
schema
In the process of developing schema and subsequently modifying them
In cognitive development four components are involved. They are
• Assimilation:
Absorbing experience/information from the environment
• Accommodation
Process of combining/modifying existence schema and arriving a new
schema is known ad accommodation

107 | P a g e
 • Adoption
Adjustment made in a new environment is known as adaptation
• Organization
The Process of interconnecting schema is known as organization

• VYGOTSKYS CULTURAL TOOLS FORLANGUAGE LEARNING

THEORY
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist and
teacher who developed a theory about how our social interactions
influence our cognitive development. This is known as Lev Vygotsky's
Socio cultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
Vygotsky's social development theory asserts that a child's
cognitive development and learning ability can be guided and mediated by
their social interactions. His theory (also called Vygotsky's socio cultural
theory) states that learning is a crucially social process as opposed to an
independent journey of discovery. He expands on this by stating that a
child's learning benefitted greatly from being guided by a more
knowledgeable member of the community - such as a parent or teacher.

Vygotsky's theory places importance on guiding children's learning

through their interaction with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The
more knowledgeable other could be anyone with a greater understanding

108 | P a g e
of the task or concept that the child is trying to complete or learn. Most
often, this would be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it could also be a
peer or mentor.
This theory is not limited to academic or educational
learning; it can also be applied to recreational learning such as playing
games or using technology. In these circumstances, a peer or older child is
more likely to be the more knowledgeable other. The MKO could also be
an electronic tutor, in cases where a program is set up to guide learning
using voice prompts or videos. Vygotsky’s theory places importance on
guiding children's learning through their interaction with a more
knowledgeable other (MKO). The more knowledgeable other could be
anyone with a greater understanding of the task or concept that the child is
trying to complete or learn. Most often, this would be a parent, caregiver
or teacher, but it could also be a peer or mentor.
VYGOTSKY’S FORM_BOARD TEST
A Young child and his father and playing with wooden toys of
different shapes and trying to fit them in appropriate wholes in a Form
Board. The young child alone cannot figure out how the various shapes
can fit into the designated wholes. His father describes how each shapes
can fit only into its same shapes whole. The father offers him
encouragement and helps him put a few pieces in their respective wholes.
Vygotsky’s believes the facts language as a tool for thought or
a powerful means of meditation. Vygotskys further elaborated his socio-
cultural theory by explaining the importance of cultural tools though
mediation and language, constructed process in learning, self-regulation,
scaffolding and zone proximal development(ZPD)
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

109 | P a g e
 The concept of the zone of proximal development, also
known as the zone of potential development, is used to explain a child's
potential for cognitive development and ability when they are guided
through a task, rather than asked to do it in isolation. If a child is
presented with a task that is slightly above their ability level, the zone of
proximal development (ZPD) refers to their ability to do it with the
assistance of a more knowledgeable person. This theory explains why some
skills present themselves in a more social context when the child is unable
to display them by themselves. The zone of proximal development can be
described as the distance between the actual developmental level when
assessed independently and the level of potential development when
assessed in collaboration with peers or mentors or under the guidance of a
teacher.
Vygotsky’s and Instructional Scaffolding

Instructional scaffolding is a method of guided learning that

helps a student learns by pairing them with an educator. The educator
should have greater experience with the task or process than the student,
but they should also have an understanding of the level that the student is
at and how they can address this level.
Techniques for instructional scaffolding might include using
visual aids (such as diagrams), providing examples, working one-on-one
with the student and providing feedback. The aim of scaffolding is to

110 | P a g e
create an environment in which the student feels comfortable asking
questions until they can perform the skill without any help.
The benefits of scaffolding include:
• Motivating the learner by helping them through aspects of a task that
they have trouble with
• Minimising frustration for the learner
• Providing a faster learning experience
Social Influences and Cognitive Development
Vygotsky believed that learning was an active process rather
than a natural or passive one. He said that children were engaged in their
own learning and discovery but that their development happened in the
context of social interaction, as opposed to independently or in isolation.
Vygotsky also highlighted the importance of learning that
was guided by an educator or teacher. Techniques used by the teacher to
engage the child, such as performing the task themselves as an example or
providing verbal instruction was referred to as cooperative or collaborative
dialogue by Vygotsky theory.
The process of learning would occur when the child understood
the information, absorbed it and then used it to guide their own
performance.
An example of this guided learning could be if a child is given
a Sudoku puzzle to complete. A teacher or mentor might recommend
certain strategies to the child, such as ruling out places where each number
could go based on the horizontal and vertical positions of that number, or
writing possible options in the corner of the box in pencil to cull the
possibilities. The teacher might also encourage the child to ask questions
and provide prompts when they are close to the right answer. As the child
develops a higher level of competency, the teacher reduces their influence.

111 | P a g e
 This technique is also very common in sport, in which a
coach or more capable peer will often demonstrate the skill before asking
the student to do it themselves. For example, if a soccer teacher was
teaching students how to dribble a ball through a set of cones, they may
perform this skill first themselves in order to set an example for the
students.
Vygotsky's Theory and Language
Vygotsky viewed language as an essential tool for
communication and that culture and behaviour was understood through
language. Vygotsky also highlighted the critical role that language plays in
cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory says that social interactions help
children develop their ability to use language. According to Vygotsky,
there are three stages/forms of language in the development process:
• Social speech - communication between children and others (usually
from the age of 2)
• Private speech - private speech that is directed to the self but has not
yet been internalised (usually from the age of 3)
• Silent inner speech - a child's internal monologue (usually from the
age of 7
Educational Implication of Vygotsky's Theory in the Classroom
Vygotsky's socio cultural theory about child development says that
cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions. In this way,
learning is innately collaborative. He believed social negotiation was
essential for building knowledge and understanding concepts.
Vygotsky proposed that it was not possible to separate learning
in the formative years from its social context. Initial learning occurred
through social interaction and then the individual processed it internally.

112 | P a g e
 Contemporary modes of applying this theory to the
classroom mark a movement away from traditional memory-oriented
models of teaching. 'Reciprocal teaching' refers to a method in which
teachers and students work together to clarify and understand a concept
before students are asked to repeat it or apply it in another context.
For example, if a teacher is reading a paragraph of text on a
certain topic, they will go through a process together with the students of:
• Summarising
• Questioning
• Clarifying; and
• Predicting
This collaborative process allows the students to learn the concept in a
social context before internalising it to apply on their own.
Criticisms of Vygotsky’s
Lack of experimental tests
Vygotsky mostly used observation methods to support his theories, which
has invited criticism about the validity of his findings. He also only vaguely
defined social interaction and never stated the best method for
engagement.
Active participation in learning
Vygotsky's theory about active participation in learning does not account
for some circumstances in which children experience slower cognitive
growth. Other philosophers have suggested that genetics should be
factored in and that the results of passive learning should not be negated.
Social interaction
Some psychologists and philosophers are critical of Vygotsky's
determination that socialisation was key to learning language and culture.
This theory does not explain why some children learn and develop slowly,

113 | P a g e
despite having strong social support. The vagueness of his theories has
been criticised, with some suggesting that they were underdeveloped.
Language as the foundation of learning
Vygotsky's theory that language was a crucial tool of social
interaction and therefore a crucial tool for learning has also been
questioned. Some activities can be taught or learned using physical actions,
hands-on processes, observational techniques or more creative methods,
suggesting that language is not always the foundation of learning.
The zone of proximal development
The concept of the zone of proximal development is
criticised for being unspecific and is sometimes viewed as a general term
that encapsulates various models of cognitive development. It is also not a
fool proof theory, because it doesn't explain why some students cannot
perform certain tasks, even with help.
There are a number of key differences between Vygotsky's
human development theories and Piaget's.
The way that culture affects cognitive development
Vygotsky placed importance on the way culture affected
cognitive growth and did not refer to specific stages of cognitive
development. In contrast, Piaget described universal stages of cognitive
development that did not vary across cultures.
Piaget's theory declared that children would have to reach
each stage before being capable of certain tasks and that each stage would
have to be reached in the same order. The stages he described were as
follows:
• Sensor motor Stage (0-2 years) - The infant explores their
environment mostly through sensory and motor perception. They
begin to develop a sense of object permanence.

114 | P a g e
 • Preoperational stage (2-7 years) - The child begins to use language
to represent and understand the world. They begin to think about
things symbolically but have not yet developed problem-solving
abilities.
• Concrete operational stage (7-11 years) - The child begins to
develop the ability to think logically. They also develop empathy.
The child begins to understand how things work and can reverse
certain processes in their mind.
• Formal operational stage (12 and over) - The child's
thought process can move on from things to ideas. They can handle
abstract ideas because their thoughts have been freed from most
constraints. They can also speculate answers to hypothetical
problems.
Learning as a social process
Vygotsky's theory on children's cognitive development centres
around learning being an inherently social process. He places emphasis on
social interaction as a defining element of learning and says it cannot be
removed from its social context. Vygotsky expands on this by highlighting
the benefits of pairing a student with a more knowledgeable other for the
purpose of guided learning. Vygotsky stated that a child's immediate
environment would have a significant impact on their development.
However, Piaget theorises that learning is mostly an independent process in
which the individual undertakes their own journey of exploration. He
didn't do as much research or observation on the role that social
interaction played in cognitive development.
The role of language
When it comes to the role of language in development,
Vygotsky and Piaget have very different theories. Vygotsky states that

115 | P a g e
thought and language both begin early on in development but that they
are initially separate functions that merge when the child begins to use
inner speech. This usually happens around 3 years of age. He goes on to
say that the internalisation of language is a necessary step for cognitive
development.
In contrast, Piaget says that thought comes first and language
develops as a result of this. Vygotsky also highlighted the significance of
the stage in between external speech and inner speech - private speech.
Piaget's theory did not place much importance on this stage and instead
suggested that it was a sign of immaturity.
Adult guidance
Vygotsky highlights the importance of adults playing a role in a
child's cognitive development. He emphasises this through his model of
the zone of proximal development, which can be used by parents,
teachers, caregivers and tutors to structure and accelerate a child's
learning. On the other hand, Piaget's theory of cognitive development
highlights the role of peers in providing perspective and improving a child's
social awareness and negotiation skills.
Conclusion
In this unit, nine major theories of Language learning ie Plato’s
Problem Theory of language, Cartesian theory of language production,
John Locke’s Theory of Tabula Rasa, Skinners Imitation Theory of
Language acquisition, Chomsky’s Universal Grammar Theory, Schumann’s
Cultural Theory, Krashen’s monitor Theory, Piaget’s Views on Language
acquisition and Vygotsky’s Cultural Tools for Language learning have been
discussed in detail.
Important Questions
5 mark questions

116 | P a g e
 1) Explain Plato’s Problem Theory of language
2) Describe the Cartesian theory of Language production
3) What are the characteristics of social distance that affect the second
language learning
4) What are the factors that affect the accumulation of L2 group with
TL group?
5) Discuss Krashen’s monitor Theory of Language development
6) What are the limitations of Schumann’s acculturation theory
7) Differentiate Language acquisition and Language learning
8) Write short notes on Scaffolding
Seven mark questions
1) Discuss skinner’s theory of Language acquisition
2) Briefly explain Vygotsky’s socio cultural theory of cognitive
development
3) Discuss Piaget’s view on language learning
UNIT V
LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES
Introduction- Bilingualism-Multilingualism- Challenges of teaching language
in multicultural classroom- linguistic Inter dependence and the educational
development of bi-lingual and multilingual children-Nature of reading
comprehension in content areas- developing writing skills for writing in
specific content areas-strategies for developing oral language for promoting
Learning across the subject areas-reading in content areas.

BILINGUALISM
Bi- two lingua - language
Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages. According
to the American Speech Language Hearing Association it is defined as the

117 | P a g e
use of at least two languages by an individual. A bilingual person may be
able to: speak, read, and write fluently in two languages - that is, they are
bi-literate. It is a fluctuating system in children and adults whereby use of
and proficiency in two languages may change depending on the
opportunities to use the languages and exposure to other users of the
languages. It is a dynamic and fluid process across a number of domains,
including experience, tasks, topics, and time.
The "bilingual" experience is unique to every individual. There
is variability in the amount and quality of exposure to the languages the
individual learns, as well as the experiences he or she has using the
languages when interacting with others. Simultaneous bilingualism occurs
when a young child has had significant and meaningful exposure to two
languages from birth. Ideally, the child will have equal, quality experiences
with both languages.
Sequential bilingualism occurs when an individual has had
significant and meaningful exposure to a second language, usually after the
age of 3 and after the first language is well established.
Advantages of bilingual education
1. Cognitive benefits of a bilingual education
A bilingual education can improve the executive function of the
brain. In fact, some research proves that bilingual students are able to use
two languages at the same time, switching consistently; it develops skills for
functions such as inhibition, switching attention, and working memory.
As such, students who are being educated bilingually, often perform better
on tasks which require multi-tasking, decision making and problem solving,
even though they have nothing to do with the language.
2. More options for further education

118 | P a g e
 One of the major benefits of bilingual education is that kids are not
only raised to be bilingual, but also to be bi-literate. This can give your
child more choices when it comes to choosing further education. They will
be free to choose which university they want to go apply for, in which
country, depending on the languages they speak.
3. A bilingual education broadens career opportunities
Being fluent in an extra language can make a candidate stand out
among prospective employers. It also opens doors to extra opportunities
that those without these skills may miss out on. In today's growing global
economy, many international companies are increasingly searching for
employees who are bilingual. Those with a bilingual education have the
advantage.
4. Children with a bilingual education are more adaptable
Language isn't just about learning sets of words and grammar, it is
also understanding other cultures and another way of life. The advantage
of bilingual education gives children a broader outlook and brings them
closer to different races and nationalities. In a world that is constantly
changing, communication is becoming increasingly important. Children
who are able to communicate with a variety of cultures are the ones that
will have more advantages in life.
5. A bilingual education creates more cultural opportunities
A major advantage of attending a bilingual school is that you get to
meet with people from different backgrounds. Learning about other
cultures is important for children and helps them to understand the world
around them. It helps them to grow up more open minded and accept
differences.
Disadvantages

119 | P a g e
 ➢ All learners might not have sufficient second language or L2
proficiency to cope.
➢ Some look at bilingual education as requiring proficiency in the L2,
whereas others see bilingual education as developing proficiency in
the L2. This is linked to age at when bilingual education starts.
➢ Each context is different and so it can be difficult deciding, for
example: - whether bilingual education will be for the whole school
or for a bilingual stream - what age to start bilingual education, as
there are pros and cons of an early start and a later start.
➢ Students learning through an L2 need to be systematically supported
over a period of 5-10 years in developing proficiency in the use of
academic language.
MULTILINGUALISM:
Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an
individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers
outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population.
Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs
of globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to
information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple
languages is becoming increasingly frequent, there by promoting a need to
acquire additional languages. In recent years, linguistic research has
focused attention on the use of widely known world languages such as
English as lingua franca, or the shared common language of professional
and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of
the common language are functionally multilingual.
The challenges of teaching in the multicultural classroom:
Higher academics like colleges, Universities, Engineering,
agriculture, medicine and research which impressed the international

120 | P a g e
students. In this academic should face many problems in classroom
teaching method.
They are
➢ All should teach in common language
➢ In teaching use simple words, more activities, lesser the intermission
between teaching learning method.
➢ Teacher should speak but before consider and enables the word
meaning. In one language the words which are accepted is rejected by
other language. Because cultural background of the people is different.
➢ Food habits, dress and ornaments, relationship with opposite gender,
confident, behavior, and hobbies were reflected in culture difference.
Teacher and students should avoid criticism above all these characters.
➢ The teacher should discuss with the students before select the dress
codes.
➢ International students frequently need more help for understanding
Carleton's specialized academic vocabulary. In particular, concepts
such as distribution requirements, major requirements, and liberal arts
are new to many international students.
➢ A balanced work load, taking into consideration relative amounts of
readings, writing and lab work, with particular consideration of the
student's English language skills.
➢ A balance among courses in the student's major, distribution
requirements, and electives within keeping of a liberal arts education.
LINGUISTIC INTERDEPENDENCE AND THE EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT OF BILINGUAL AND MULTI-LINGUAL CHILDREN
The Linguistic interdependence Hypothesis or the Iceberg Model
was introduced by Cummins in the year 1978 and argues that there could
be positive transfer of knowledge and cognitive processes from one

121 | P a g e
language to another in bilinguals. The interdependence hypothesis includes
the attributes of both ‘transfer’ and 'underlying cognitive processes’ as
basis of the correlation between Ll and L2 literacy -related abilities.
Cummins observes that consistent cross lingual relationships between
aspects of L1 and L2 are reflective of underlying attributes of the
individual in addition to characteristics of the input. That is transfer and
attribute are "two sides of the same coin". The attributes enable the
transfer of language. These attributes are not innate. They are learned

Cummins claims that when students possess the skills and knowledge to use
two or more languages, a ‘two way’ transfer across the language potentially
occurs.
Sources of Linguistic Interdependence (as summarized by Cummins):
The positive relationship between Ll and L2 may be looked at as
being drawn from three sources: and L2 may be

122 | P a g e
1. Application of the same cognitive and linguistic abilities and skills to
literacy development in both languages.
2. Transfer of general concepts and knowledge of the world across
languages, meaning that the individual's prior knowledge of LI represents
the foundation or schemata upon which L2 acquisition is built;
3. To the extent that tthe languages are related, transfer of specific
linguistic features and skills across languages.
Implications for Language Policy and Classroom Instruction
❖ The interdependence theory highlighted the importance of teaching
for cross linguistic transfer both in monolingual programmes taught
through the medium of instruction.
❖ It brought to light the fact that in mono-lingual school programmes,
the home language knowledge and the abilities that students carried
with them to school were significant to their learning of the language
and hence must be constructed upon rather than being disregarded
or overlooked.
❖ The linguistic interdependence theory brought to light the fact that
academic and psychological assessment tests in the school language
may not be considered the only method of assessment as students'
fair better in cognitive development and knowledge when the
assessments are conducted in their home language.
❖ The Bilingual Verbal Abilities tests (BVAT) was designed as an
outcome of increased awareness of the above. It was designed to
assess bilingual students combined verbal conceptual knowledge in Ll
and L2.
❖ Language Interdependence has nullified the advice given to parents
of bilinguals and educators to interact with bilinguals in the school
language. This is found to underestimate the potential of the

123 | P a g e
 students towards developing strong conceptual and academic skills in
their Ll and, also compromises children's development of academic
skills in the school language.
Nature of Reading comprehension in the content areas:
The goal of reading understands. In order to understand print, a child
must be able to decode the words on the page and the exact meaning.
Comprehension is the goal of both reading and listening. Successful
comprehension enables readers (or listeners) to acquire information, to
experience to communicate successfully, and to achieve academic success.
Good reading comprehension involves reading the words on the page,
accessing their meanings, computing the sense of each sentence.
Reading Comprehension in the Content area: Reading comprehension
instruction often includes strategies for tackling certain, discrete skills, like
vocabulary, identification of main ideas, and comparison within and
between texts. Comprehension of a text is made up of smaller pieces all
come together in perfect harmony
Reading Comprehension for Primary students: Primary school teachers
often have the difficult jobs of teaching all subject areas. While this means
having to know a lot of information about a lot of difference topics, it also
means that elementary level teachers are more likely to easily employ
reading comprehension strategies across all areas. Some activities are
followed to develop reading skills in primary students.
Mimic Literature Circles: Teacher can give task like clarifier, connection
maker, questioner and summarizer to students. This will help the students
to get deep comprehension in the subject.
➢ Important Words: Give meanings for the difficulty words helps the
students to understand the subject easily.

124 | P a g e
 ➢ Main Idea and Details: Encourage these students to underline and
highlights of main ideas and details. So that students get main ideas
and details in the subject.
➢ Re-Reading: Re-reading a text will familiarize the students with the
subject matter.
➢ Ask Why? and How?:These two questions get at the analytical and
inferential thinking important for mastering comprehension of
subject matter text.
➢ Reading Comprehension for middle school and High school students:
In middle school and high school teacher teach in a particular
discipline. The Following Method is used for reading comprehension.
➢ 2 Column Notes: This strategy asks students to respond to a text by
organizing notes and thoughts into two columns. The left column is
labelled “Key Ideas” and the right is labelled “Responses”. The “Key
Ideas” section includes traditional notes from the text, like main
ideas in details, people and events. The “Responses” section is a
place for students to record questions, inferences, assumptions, and
connections they’ve made. By linking them better they can
internalize the information from the text.
➢ Important Words: Before starting the class, students allowed to note
most important words. Asking the students to identify the important
words which help them to determine the main ideas and key details
of academic texts.
➢ Free- From Mapping: This strategy allows students to create visual
representations of their ideas. This is known as free- form mapping.
Developing Writing skills for writing in specific content areas: The teaching
of basic writing skills helps the students to write to Learn, Write to

125 | P a g e
Understand, Writer to Construct New knowledge, write to study, write to
Question, write to Communicate, and write to prove a Point.
Writing to Learn Strategies for English
Writing in English can furnish teachers with valuable insight into
students thinking and understanding through,
➢ Anticipation Guides
➢ Before, during and After Interactive Notes
➢ Column Notes
➢ Compare/contrast
➢ Concept/Vocabulary Expansion
➢ Inquiry Charts
➢ Idea Funnel
➢ Marginal notes
➢ Quick –write -free write
➢ Understanding story
Strategies for Writing to Learn in Social studies: When the students write in
Social studies they must think critically about the events and issues they
have studying. Four basic types of writing are frequently used in social
studies: reporting, exposition, narration and argumentation.
The following Strategies are used to develop writing skills in social studies
GIST: Writing main ideas or hints specially the author’s main ideas is called
GIST
Learning Log: Learning Logs document is defined as the learning that
occurs during a class, a project, or a unit of study.
Question-Answer Relationship (QAR): QAR is a way of describing
possible places for finding answers to questions

126 | P a g e
Quick Writes: Quick Writing is a motivating, pre-reading activity that
prepares students for reading new material or reviewing material in
preparation for the understanding new information to be read.
RAFT (Role, Audience, Format, and Topic): This strategy requires
students to write using and assigned format to an audience other than the
teacher.
Reading Response Journal: Journals have been used successfully as means
for students to express their thoughts,, feelings, and reactions about
reading
Strategies for Writing to Learn in Science: Writing in Science can help the
students examine their knowledge and understanding of basic science
concepts and ideas.
➢ Cause and effect of Graphic Organizer
Have students completer a graphic organizer that explains
the cause and effect of relationship.
➢ Column Notes
➢ Use a T-Chart to define terms or explain process
➢ Compare and Contrast
➢ Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
➢ Vocabulary Trees - Use Vocabulary organizers to study the parts of
scientific words and their positions in sentences
➢ Gist
➢ Journaling (Science Notebooks)or learning Logs
➢ Simile Reviews
➢ Quick Write/Exit slips
➢ Word Bank Writing

127 | P a g e
Strategies for writing to learn in Mathematics: Writing in Mathematics can
help students make sense of the process and help teachers understand what
students are learning
Following Strategies are used to develop writing skills in Mathematics
▪ Column Notes
▪ Compare and Contrast
▪ Quick Write
▪ Symbols, Meanings, Writing
▪ Test Corrections
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING ORAL LANGUAGE IN THE
CLASSROOM THAT PROMOTES LEARNING IN THE CONTENT
AREAS
Oral language is not just speaking language. It is a large set of skills that
encompasses listening comprehension, understanding and producing
complex language, vocabulary, word knowledge, grammatical knowledge,
phonological skills, and so much more.
A Few Strategies for Building Oral Language Skills
1) Show and Tell: Students bring an item from home that they want to
talk about and there is a precious question and answer session that ensures.
2) Daily Oral Language: Traditionally, this is an activity where each day,
there is a prompt written on the board for students, such as a sentence
written with incorrect grammar for students to correct individually.
For example, give the words “Since” “Robert” and “party” and makes the
students come up with a grammatically correct sentence and discuss as a
whole group.
Another example is to pre-teach a vocabulary word that could be used
that day. Show the vocabulary word and make the students to talk about

128 | P a g e
its meaning together in a small group and made them to draw a group
picture representing that word. Then share out it with the large group.
3) Dramatic Vocabulary. The students get in a circle and the teacher has a
set of cards with that week’s vocabulary words on them. The teacher pulls
a card and gives it to one student, who must act out the vocabulary word
for the other students to guess. After it is correctly guessed, the students
say, spell, and write the definition of the word together on the board.
4) Word Wall: It is used in secondary classrooms with added elements,
such as grouping by prefix, suffix, roots, etc. Basically, it is a wall of words
that are frequently used in the classroom that are posted for easy
reference. Teachers, feel free to comment on how you elaborate on the
classic Word Wall.
5) Debates and “Take A Stand” activities. Group the students to form
teams for a debate we can provide reading materials for the students to
support their argument, or begin a research project for students to find
their own material for a debate.
6) Listening Activities. For the little ones, this can be done with
‘telephone” where the kids get in a circle and the teacher whispers a
sentence to the first kid, and they have to whisper the sentence to the next
kid. The goal is to have the sentence to be in tact at the end.
For older students, teaching listening skills can be in the form of
teaching good note-taking skills during lecture. Give the class a list of key
phrases that they want to listen for in a lecture such as, “This is
important.”, “One of the main things…” “The first thing you have to do
is…, etc”, “You will need to know…” To begin, you could ring a little bell
or something when you use the key phrase, then transfer that job to a
student.
Reading in the content Area:

129 | P a g e
 Content area reading refers to help students to bitterly understand
what they read in a particular content area course. It has been broadened
in recent years to integrate reading, writing, talking, listening and viewing
in text related learning. The main idea is to use these language parts
effectively to maintain high level learning. A number of studies have shown
that children could be taught strategies to improve learning of fictional and
informational texts. Because of using content area literacy strategies,
students increase their abilities to internalize content of courses, and
develop conceptual understanding about subject matters.
Teachers use following strategies in everyday instruction.
➢ Discussions helps the students to become more aware of their own
cognitive processes and to help them set a purpose for using
comprehension strategies.
➢ Increase the amount and quality of open sustained discussion of the
reading content
➢ Set and maintain high standards for text, conversation, questions, and
vocabulary
➢ Motivate the students in reading
➢ Give students more choices of text and assignments to build their
own.
Reading in Science:
While reading science textbooks requires the same critical
thinking, analysis and active engagement as performing hands on science
activities. Science and reading have many process skills in common.
The general reading skills needs to comprehend the narrative text
and the readers of science text also must be able to apply the following
knowledge and skills:

130 | P a g e
 ➢ Understand specialized vocabulary terms and phrases that are unique
to science
➢ Understand vocabulary terms and phrases that have different
meanings when used in science
➢ Interpret scientific symbols and diagrams
➢ Recognize and understand organizational patterns common to science
text.
➢ Use Inductive and deductive reasoning skills
Reading in mathematics:
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1996)
states that, “Because mathematics is so often conveyed in symbols, oral
and written communication about mathematical ideas is not always
recognized as an important part of mathematics education. Naturally
students do not necessarily talk about mathematics. The teachers should
help them to do so.
Reading Requirements for Mathematics Text:
Students must learn to read through the problem to ascertain
the main idea. Students have to visualize the problem’s context and then
apply strategies that they think will lead to a solution, using the
appropriate data from the problem statement. Students must know the
following key terms: Mathematical such as prime. Median, mean, mode,
product, combine, dividend, height, difference, example, and operation.
Teachers should use suitable technique to teach Mathematics.
Reading in social Science:
Social studies teachers can help students to activate their prior
knowledge and evaluate their understandings by using pre-reading
techniques. Some of these techniques are
➢ Brainstorming ideas that a topic brings to mind:

131 | P a g e
➢ Previewing a passage, noting healings, bold print, and pictures
➢ Asking questions about the topic
➢ Presenting an issue or situation that needs some problem solving:
➢ Constructing an advanced organizer, web, or outline from passage
headings for use in note taking.

The study of social studies is much more than memorizing

historical facts, geographical statistics or government, civic and economic
terminology
Conclusion:
In this unit , the concept of Bilingualism and its different
kinds, advantages and disadvantages of bilingual education, concept of
multilingualism, challenges of teaching language in multicultural classroom,
linguistic inter-dependence and the educational development of bilingual
and multilingual children, nature of reading comprehension content areas
,strategies used for reading comprehension in content areas, developing
writing skills in specific content areas, strategies for developing oral
language for promoting learning across subject areas, reading in the
content areas and instructional strategies of developing reading content
areas of mathematics, science and social studies were discussed elaborately.
Important Questions
5 mark questions
1. What do you mean by Multilingualism? Explain the challenges of
teaching language in multi- cultural class room
2. Explain the nature of reading comprehension in the content areas
3. Explain the process of reading the content areas and the steps
involved it
4. What do you mean by bi-Linguicism? What are its kinds

132 | P a g e
Seven mark questions
1. Explain the linguistic inter-dependency hypothesis of Jim Cummins
and its implications on the educational development of bilingual and
multilingual children
2. Briefly explain the strategies for developing oral language for
promoting learning across the subject areas
3. How writing skills for writing in specific content areas are developed
in children?

133 | P a g e