Contract Act, 1872

CONTRACT ACT – SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE

The law relating to contracts in Pakistan is governed by Contract Act, 1872. It extends to the
whole of Pakistan; and it came into force on 1st September, 1872.

Scope and Significance

The law of contract is at the root of any business transaction. We have already discussed that it
affects every person in one way or the other. We enter into different kinds of contracts in our day
today affairs. The law of contracts is applicable not only to the business community but also to
others. When a person rides a public transport or gets admission in an educational institution or
avails loan from a bank or delivers cloth to a tailor for stitching, he is in fact entering into a
contract, knowingly or unknowingly. By virtue of a contract legal rights and obligations are
created between the contracting parties. The law of contracts is concerned with self-imposed
obligations. The parties to a contract do enjoy freedom of contract and the rights and duties
created by them can be enforced even though the terms of the contract are harsh or unfair to one
party. When people enter into a contract they make private law binding on each other. The
parties to a contract, in a sense, make the law for themselves. It consists of a number of limiting
principles, subject to which the parties may create rights and duties for themselves which the law
will uphold. Thus we can say that the parties to a contract, in a sense, make the law for
themselves. When contracts were entered into freely and voluntarily they would be enforceable
by courts of law. The law of contract determines the circumstances under which a promise or an
agreement shall be legally binding on the persons making it. It also provides the remedies which
are available in a court of law against a person who fails to fulfill his contract and other
conditions. The object and function of law of contract is to see that promises made by the
contracting parties are fulfilled.

Scheme of the Act

At the time of promulgation, this Act comprised of 266 sections. Due to promulgation of new
laws some sections of the Act stand repealed.

 Sections 1 to 75 contain general principles for all types of contract.

 Sections 76 to 123 were related to contracts of sale of goods, these sections stand
repealed by introduction of new law i.e. Sale of Goods Act, 1930.
 Sections 124 to 147 are comprised of contracts of indemnity and guarantee.
 Sections 148 to 181 are comprised of Contracts of bailment and pledge.
 Sections 182 to 238 are comprised of Contract of Agency.
 Sections 239 to 266 pertained to the contracts of partnership, these sections stand
repealed due to introduction of new law that is Partnership Act, 1932.
Applicability of Law of Contract; Law applicable where Parties to a contract belong to
different countries

Where a contract is entered into in one country and is to be performed in another country, the
question of applicability of law shall be decided on the following premises:

First approach is that the law of the country where contract is made shall be applicable.

Second approach is that in cases where contract is entered into one country and is to be
performed in another country then the law of the country where the performance is to take place
shall be applicable. However if such a situation arises, the intention of the parties shall be looked
into to decide the question of applicability of the law.

CONTRACT ACT—DEFINITION & SCOPE

Law of contract is one of the important branches relating to business transaction. Law regarding
contracts is governed by the Contract Act 1872. In order to understand a contract, the entire cycle
that leads to a contract is required to be understood. It is essential to look into the legal
definitions and provisions as contain in the Contract Act but understanding and interpretation of
the same is equally important, this aspect shall remain the focal point during the course of
studying this Act.

Contract as defined in Sec. 2(h) is reproduced below:

“An agreement enforceable by law is a contract”

To understand a contract, we need to know what an agreement is. The agreement has been
defined in section 2 (e) of the Act which is given below.

Agreement

Every promise or every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other is an
agreement. To understand an agreement, we must know what a promise is. The promise has been
defined in section 2 (b) of the Act which is reproduced below:

Promise

When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said
to be accepted. A when accepted becomes a promise.

Void Agreement
An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void agreement.
Agreements in restraint of marriage (sec. 26)

Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any person, other than minor, is void

Agreements in restraint of trade (sec. 27)

Every agreement by which any one is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, trade or
business of any kind, is to that extent void.

ESSENTIALS OF CONTRACT
All agreements are contracts if they fulfill the requirements as contained in section 10 of the
Contract Act, 1872 which are outlined below:
Essentials of valid Contract: These are outlined below:
 Offer and acceptance
 Legal relationship
 Legal consideration
 Competent parties
 Free consent of the parties
 Lawful Object
 Terms of agreement to be complete and certain
 Possibility of performance
 Contract to be got registered & in writing, wherever required
 Contract not declared void under the Act.

Offer and Acceptance For an agreement, it is essential that there should be offer by one party
and acceptance of that offer by the other party. The acceptance must be absolute and unqualified.

Relationship The agreement must lead to a legal relationship between the parties. The parties
must have intention to create legal relationship. Social agreement does not create any legal
relationship, hence not contract enforceable by law.

Legal Consideration According to sec 23 the consideration or object of an agreement is lawful

if it is not forbidden by any law or not fraudulent or does not cause injury to a person or property
or not immoral.

Competent Parties The parties to an agreement must be competent in the eyes of law otherwise
the agreement cannot be enforced by the court of law. According to section 11, following
persons are competent to enter into a contract:

 having attained the age of majority

 of sound mind
 not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject.
Lawful Object The purpose of the agreement should not be against the law. For example, the
contract in restraint of trade shall not be valid contract since it is against the provisions of the
Constitution of Pakistan.

Free Consent of the parties This is an important essential of a valid contract. It requires that
contract should be entered into with free consent of parties. This topic has been explained in
detail in later discussion.

Consent shall be treated as free if not obtained by:

 Coercion
 Undue influence
 Fraud
 Misrepresentation
 Mistake

CONTRACTS — ESSENTIALS AND KINDS

Kinds of Contract: The contracts are classified as outlined below:

(a) Valid contract

b) Voidable contract

(c) Void contract

(d) Unenforceable contract

(e) Express contract

(f) Implied contract

(g) Executed contract

(h) Executory contract

a) Valid Contract

Valid contract is an agreement enforceable by law. In such contract all essentials of a contract as
mentioned in section 10 are required to be fulfilled. In case breach of contract by one party, the
other party has a right to file a suit for this breach.

Illustration: A contract for the sale of a car between Mr. Yasir and Mr. Waqas has been
concluded and all necessary formalities have been completed. The said contract meets all
essentials of a valid contract. If either of the two that is Mr. Yasir or Mr. Waqas fails to perform
his part of contract, the counter party can sue the other party for the breach of contract.
b) Voidable Contract

A voidable contract is the one which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the
parties to the contract, but not at the option of the other or others. As long as the contract is not
avoided or cancelled by the party who is entitled to do so, the contract shall remain a valid
contract. Such contracts are voidable at the option of aggrieved party.

Voidable contract has been defined in section 2 (i) of the Contract Act which is reproduced
below: “An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties
thereto, but not at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract”

A contract becomes voidable in the following situations:

 Where consent of a contracting party is not free

 Where Promisor prevented from performance of the contract

An agreement on account of misrepresentation shall be voidable at the option of the person who
is misled by such misrepresentation. In case a voidable contract is acted upon by a party as valid,
that party cannot subsequently deny the validity thereof.

According to section 14, consent is said to be free when it is not caused by: (a) Coercion or (b)
Undue influence or (c) Fraud or (d) Misrepresentation or (e) Mistake

Example: Mr. Yasir entered into an agreement to sell his house to Mr. Umer for Rs 1 Million.
The consent of Mr. Umer was obtained by use of coercion by Mr. Yasir. This agreement is
voidable at the option of Mr. Umer since his consent was not free.

A voidable contract is like a deal that can be enforced by law, but one party has the option to
back out if they want to. It stays valid unless the party who has the option decides to cancel it.
The law allows this cancellation as long as it's done within certain conditions.

For example, if someone is forced or tricked into making an agreement, that contract becomes
voidable. So, if Mr. Yasir pressures Mr. Umer into selling his house for Rs 1 Million, Mr. Umer
can choose to cancel the deal because his agreement wasn't freely given. The key here is that the
party with the option to void the contract must do so for it to no longer be valid. If they continue
with the agreement after knowing about the issue, they can't later claim it was voidable.

c) Void Contract

A void contract is the one which is not enforceable by law. It has been provided in section 2(j) of
the Contract Act. “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it
ceases to be enforceable”. A voidable contract is a good contract as long as it is not avoided by
the person who has the option to avoid whereas a void contract is not a contract at all from the
very beginning in the eye of law. This is different from a voidable contract, which
is initially good and valid but can be canceled by one party if they choose
to do so. With a void contract, there's no contract status from the start;
it's as if the agreement never existed in the eyes of the law. Example: Mr.
Aslam resident of Lahore entered into an agreement with Mr. Kamal, a rice dealer at Gujranwala
for the purchase of 100 tons of rice. District Coordination Officer (DCO) Lahore had imposed
restriction on entry of rice in the territorial jurisdiction of District Lahore well before the date of
the above agreement. The said agreement is not enforceable at law, hence void. Suppose Mr.
Ali agrees to sell a rare and protected species of wildlife to Ms. Sara. However, the
law strictly prohibits the sale and possession of such endangered animals. As a
result, the contract is void because it involves an illegal activity. Situations of void
contract are;

 Impossibility of performance: It has been discussed in section 56

 Legal contract may become void due to some illegality afterwards.
 Revocation of a voidable contract by the party at whose option, the contract is avoidable
becomes void contract.
 Certainly, let's break down the statement: "Revocation of a voidable contract by the party
at whose option the contract is avoidable becomes a void contract."

 In simpler terms:

 1. **Voidable Contract:**
 - A voidable contract is initially valid and enforceable by law.
 - However, one party has the option (the right) to cancel or void the contract if certain
conditions or situations exist.

 2. **Revocation:**
 - "Revocation" here means canceling or voiding the contract.
 - The party who has the right to avoid the contract decides to do so.

 3. **Becomes a Void Contract:**
 - Once the party with the option chooses to revoke or cancel the voidable contract, it
transforms into a "void contract."
 - In other words, it loses its legal validity and is treated as if it never existed.

 To illustrate:
  Suppose Mr. A and Mr. B enter into a contract, and Mr. A has the right to cancel it if
certain conditions are met. If Mr. A decides to revoke or cancel the contract based on
those conditions, the initially valid contract becomes void. It's no longer legally
enforceable, and both parties are released from their obligations under the contract.

d) Unenforceable Contract

Such contracts are unenforceable before a court of law due to some technical defects such as
non-deposit of court fee, submission of unsigned documents, absence of writing, wherever
writing required, absence of registration, wherever required under law. On removal of these
discrepancies, the contract becomes enforceable.

In simpler terms, an unenforceable contract is one that, due to certain technical issues like
missing signatures, lack of required documentation, or failure to pay necessary fees, cannot be
legally enforced by a court. However, if these issues are fixed or corrected, the contract can then
be enforced in court.

Imagine you and a friend agree on something important, but you forget to sign the agreement. In
this case, the contract is unenforceable because it lacks a crucial element - the signatures. Once
you both sign it, the contract becomes enforceable and can be upheld in a court of law.
Essentially, these contracts have potential legal validity, but certain technical problems prevent
them from being enforceable until those issues are resolved.

e) Express Contract

An express promise shall lead to an express contract. Such a contract may be expressed by words
spoken or written. Express contracts are contained in the provisions of section 9 of the Act.
Certainly! Let's break down the idea of express contracts based on the provisions of Section 9 of
the Contract Act.

**Express Contract:**

An express contract is formed when parties explicitly state the terms of their agreement, either
verbally or in writing. It is based on clear and direct communication of the terms and conditions.

**Section 9 of the Contract Act:**

Section 9 essentially emphasizes that an offer and acceptance may be made expressly (clearly
and directly) or may be implied from the circumstances. The focus here is on the clear
expression of the agreement.

**Explanation with an Example:**

Suppose Mr. Smith verbally offers to sell his antique desk to Ms. Johnson for $500. Ms.
Johnson, in response, verbally agrees to buy the desk for that amount. In this case:

1. **Express Promise:**

- Mr. Smith's statement, "I offer to sell my antique desk for $500," is an express promise.

2. **Express Acceptance:**

- Ms. Johnson's response, "I agree to buy the desk for $500," is an express acceptance.

3. **Express Contract:**

- Their clear verbal communication has formed an express contract for the sale of the antique
desk.

Here, the terms of the agreement are explicitly communicated through spoken words, leading to
the creation of an express contract. This aligns with the provisions of Section 9, where the focus
is on the clarity and direct expression of the parties' intentions in forming a contract.

Implied Contract

Such contracts are inferred from the acts and conduct of the contracting parties.

Example: Mr. Aslam was engaged by a business man as a helper at his shop. He has been
performing the job assigned to him, however no appointment letter was issued by the
shopkeeper. Although there is no express agreement as to the employment of Mr. Aslam but the
acts and the conducts of the respective parties shall lead to a conclusion regarding the nature of
contract between them. Since the conclusions shall be inferred from the acts and conduct of the
respective parties, such contract would be called an implied contract.
f) Executed Contract

Such contracts are those where interactive parties have completely performed their respective
obligations under the contract.
Example:

Mr. Ali entered into an agreement with Mr. Aslam to sell his car for Rs 800,000. Mr. Ali delivers
the car to Mr. Aslam and he paid the promised amount i.e. Rs 800,000 to Mr. Ali. Such a
contract is called an executed contract since both parties have performed their part of promises.

g) Executory Contract:

In such contracts both parties are yet to perform their obligations under the contract.

Example: We take the same example as quoted above but with some difference.

Mr. Ali entered into an agreement with Mr. Aslam to sell his car for Rs 800,000. Mr. Ali has not
yet delivered the car to Mr. Aslam and Mr. Aslam has not yet paid the promised price that is Rs
800,000 to Mr. Ali. Such a contract is executory contract since both parties are yet to perform
their part of promises.

PERFORMANCE OF CONTRACTS
Obligation of the parties to a Contract--sec. 37
The parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective promises,
unless such promises are dispensed with or excused under the provision of this Act, or of any
other law.
Promises bind the representatives of the Promisor in case of death of such promisors before
performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Illustrations
(a) A promises to deliver goods to B, on a certain day on payment of Rs. 1,000. A dies before
that day. A's representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is bound to pity the Rs.
1,000 to A's representatives.
(b) A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a certain price. A dies before the day.
The contract cannot be enforced either by A's representatives or by B.

(c) Mr. X promises to deliver goods to Mr. Z on a given date against payment of specified
amount. The Promisor, Mr. X dies before the specified date for delivery of goods. The
representatives of Mr. X shall be bound to deliver the goods to Mr. Z and Mr. Z shall be bound
to pay the agreed amount to the representatives of Mr. X.
Performance of Contract: Refusal by a party to perform under the contract –effect thereof:
Section 39
When a party to a contract has refused to perform, or disabled himself from performing his
promise in its entirety, the Promisee may put an end to the contract, unless he has signified, by
words or conduct, his acquiescence in its continuance.
Illustrations
(a) A, a singer,-enters into a contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sing at his theatre two
nights in every week during the next two months, and B engages to pay her 100 rupees for
each night's performance: On the sixth night A willfully absents herself from the theater. B is
at liberty to put an end to the contract.
(b) A, a singer, enters into a contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sign at his theatre two
nights in every week during the next two months, and B engages to pay her at the rate of 100
rupees for each night. On the sixth night A willfully absents herself. With the assent of B, A
signs on the seventh night. B has signified his acquiescence in the continuance of the
contract, and cannot now put an end, to it, but is entitled to compensation for the damage
sustained by him through A's failure to sing on the sixth night.
(c) Mr. X a cricket player enters into contract with cricket board to play 5 tests and 4 one day
international matches as per schedule against payment of agreed amount. Mr. X willfully
refuses to play in second one day international. The cricket board has a right to put an end to
the contract.
Performance of Contract: Regarding Time and place for performance of Promise-- Section
47
Promise is to be performed on a certain day, and the Promisor has undertaken to perform it
without application by the Promisee, the Promisor may perform it at any time during the usual
hours of business on such day and at the place at which the promise ought to be performed
Illustration
A promises to deliver goods at B's warehouse on the 1st January. On that day A brings the goods
to B's warehouse but after the usual hour for closing it, and they are not received. A has not
performed his promise.

DISCHARGE OF CONTRACT
Modes of Discharge of Contract

A contract shall be treated to have been discharged in the following situations:

 (a) By Performance

(b) By Impossibility of performance

(c) By Agreement of parties

(d) By Operation of law

(e) By Breach of contract

a) Discharge by performance of contract:

Obligation of parties to contracts (sec. 37): ---The parties to a contract must either perform or
offer to perform, their respective promise, unless such performance is dispensed with or excused
under the provisions of this Act, or of any other law.
Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promises before
performances unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Illustrations
(a) A promises to deliver goods to B, on a certain day on payment of Rs. 1,000. A dies before
that day. A's representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is bound to pity
the Rs. 1,000 to A's representatives.
(b) A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a certain price. A dies before the
day. The contract cannot be enforced either by A's representatives or by B.
b) Discharge by impossibility of performance of contract; Agreement to do impossible
act (sec. 56)

An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is void.

Illustration:
Yasir enters into an agreement with Mr. Faisal to discover gold mines by magic. The agreement
is void.
Contract to do act afterwards becoming impossible or unlawful: A contract to do an act which,
after the contract is made, becomes impossible, or , by reason of some event which the Promisor
could not prevent, unlawful, becomes void when the act becomes impossible or unlawful.
Illustration regarding--Contracts to do act afterwards become impossible or unlawful:

Mr. Z an exporter enters into a contract with an importer in the foreign country for supply of
certain goods at agreed price. The government in exporter’s country before its performance
imposes embargo on the export of the agreed product. The contract becomes void when this
embargo is imposed.
 c) Discharge by agreement between the parties to a contract

An agreement between a creditor and debtor, contract shall stand discharged.

d) Discharge of contract by operation of law.

In case of insolvency of a party to a contract (Adjudicating a party as insolvent by a court of

law.); or say by lapse of time under Limitation Act, contract shall stand discharged.

e) Discharge by breach of contract

“A breach of contract occurs when a party thereto renounces his liability under it, or by his own
act makes it impossible that he should perform his obligations under it or totally or partially fails
to perform such obligations.”

The failure to perform or renunciation may take place when the time for performance has arrived
or even before that, this is provided in section 39 of the Contract Act.

Consequences of Breach of Contract:

Compensation for loss or damage caused by breach of contract Sec. 73:

when a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such breach is entitled to receive,
from the party who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him
thereby, which naturally arose in the usual course of things from such breach, or which the
parties knew, when they made the contract, to be likely to result from the breach of it. Such
compensation is not to be given for any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by reason
of the breach.

Illustration 1:
Mr. Z (seller) enters into a contract with Mr. Y a purchaser for sale of specified goods as per
stipulations of contract. Mr. Z breaks his promise; Mr. Y is entitled to receive from Mr. Z a
particular amount as compensation.
Illustration 2:
Mr. Umer contracts with Mr. Akram to buy his car for Rs 800,000. Mr. Umer breaks his
promise. Mr. Akram is entitled to receive compensation from Mr. Umer the excess amount, if
any, of the contract price which Mr. Akram can obtain for the said car at the time of breach of
contract.

REMEDIES BREACH OF CONTRACT

We have already discussed the compensation for failure to discharge obligation resembling those
created by contract and explanation thereof, the same is reproduced below for reference.
Remedies for Breach of Contract

Following remedies are available to the aggrieved party:

a) Suit for damages: Sec. 73

b) Suit for compensation-- Party rightfully rescinding contract entitled to compensation: Sec
75
c) Suit for specific performance
d) Suit for Injunction
a) Suit for Damages: Sec. 73

Damages are meant to restore the aggrieved party to the position he would have been if the
agreement would have been performed and damage suffered is compensated by way of monetary
award. In case of breach of contract the aggrieved party has a right to file suit for damages.

Loss recoverable by aggrieved party---Defaulting party would be liable to compensate

aggrieved party for imputed as against actual knowledge of loss likely to result from breach of
contract.

b) Suit for Compensation for Breach of Contract where penalty stipulated for: sec. 74

When a contract has been broken, if a sum is named in the contract as the amount to be paid in
case of such breach, or if the contract contains any other stipulation by way of penalty, the party
complaining of breach is entitled, whether or not actual damage or loss is proved to have been
caused thereby, to receive from the party who has broken the contract reasonable compensation
not exceeding the amount so named or, as the case may be, the penalty stipulated for.

Illustrations

(a) A contracts with B to pay B Rs. 1,000 if he fails to pay B Rs. 500 on a given day. A fails to
pay B Rs. 500 on that day. B is entitled to recover from A such compensation, not exceedings
Rs. 1,000, as the Court considers reasonable.

c) Suit for Specific Performance

In certain cases where damages are not preferable option as these may not provide adequate
remedy, the court may direct the party in default to fulfill the contract. The aggrieved party has
the right to file a suit for specific performance.

Instances where suit for specific performance can be filed before the Court:

 Where monetary compensation may not provide adequate relief to the aggrieved party,
 Determination of actual damage is difficult
 Contracts depending on the personal skills and expertise of the contracting party
 When one of the contracting party is minor.
 d) Suit for Granting Injunction:

Injunction is an order of restraining a person from an act.

Illustration:--Mr. Umar, an international player of hockey enters into a contract with M/S ABC
hockey club to play for one year with the stipulation that during this period he will not play for
any other club. However, Mr. Umar entered into a contract with M/S XYZ club. M/S ABC
hockey club has the right to file a suit for injunction and court can issue the order restraining Mr.
Umar to play for M/S XYZ hockey club.