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Chapter 7

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You are on page 1/ 41

William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture

Chapter 7
Operating System
Support

1
Objectives and Functions

Convenience
Making the computer easier to use
Efficiency
Allowing better use of computer resources

2
Layers and Views of a
Computer System

3
Operating System Services

Program creation
Program execution
Access to I/O devices
Controlled access to files
System access
Error detection and response
Accounting

4
O/S as a Resource Manager

5
Types of Operating System

Interactive
Batch
Single program (Uni-programming)
Multi-programming (Multi-tasking)

6
Early Systems

Late 1940s to mid 1950s


No Operating System
Programs interact directly with hardware
Two main problems:
Scheduling
Setup time

7
Simple Batch Systems

Resident Monitor program


Users submit jobs to operator
Operator batches jobs
Monitor controls sequence of events to process
batch
When one job is finished, control returns to
Monitor which reads next job
Monitor handles scheduling

8
Job Control Language

Instructions to Monitor
Usually denoted by $
e.g.
$JOB
$FTN
... Some Fortran instructions
$LOAD
$RUN
... Some data
$END
9
Desirable Hardware Features

Memory protection
To protect the Monitor
Timer
To prevent a job monopolizing the system
Privileged instructions
Only executed by Monitor
e.g. I/O
Interrupts
Allows for relinquishing and regaining control
10
Multi-programmed Batch
Systems

I/O devices very slow


When one program is waiting for I/O, another
can use the CPU

11
Single Program

12
Multi-Programming with
Two Programs

13
Multi-Programming with
Three Programs

14
Time Sharing Systems

Allow users to interact directly with the


computer
i.e. Interactive
Multi-programming allows a number of users to
interact with the computer

15
Scheduling

Key to multi-programming
Long term
Medium term
Short term
I/O

16
Long Term Scheduling

Determines which programs are submitted for


processing
i.e. controls the degree of multi-programming
Once submitted, a job becomes a process for
the short term scheduler
(or it becomes a swapped out job for the
medium term scheduler)

17
Medium Term Scheduling

Part of the swapping function (later…)


Usually based on the need to manage multi-
programming
If no virtual memory, memory management is
also an issue

18
Short Term Scheduler

Dispatcher
Fine grained decisions of which job to execute
next
i.e. which job actually gets to use the processor
in the next time slot

19
Process States

20
Process Control Block

Identifier
State
Priority
Program counter
Memory pointers
Context data
I/O status
Accounting information

21
Key Elements of O/S

22
Process Scheduling

Process Long-Term Short-Term End


Queue CPU
Request Queue

I/O I/O Queue

I/O I/O Queue

I/O I/O Queue

23
Memory Management

Uni-program
Memory split into two
One for Operating System (monitor)
One for currently executing program
Multi-program
“User” part is sub-divided and shared among active
processes

24
Swapping

Problem: I/O is so slow compared with CPU


that even in multi-programming system, CPU
can be idle most of the time
Solutions:
Increase main memory
⌧Expensive
⌧Leads to larger programs
Swapping

25
What is Swapping?

Long term queue of processes stored on disk


Processes “swapped” in as space becomes
available
As a process completes it is moved out of main
memory
If none of the processes in memory are ready
(i.e. all I/O blocked)
Swap out a blocked process to intermediate queue
Swap in a ready process or a new process
But swapping is an I/O process...
26
Partitioning

Splitting memory into sections to allocate to


processes (including Operating System)
Fixed-sized partitions
May not be equal size
Process is fitted into smallest hole that will take it
(best fit)
Some wasted memory
Leads to variable sized partitions

27
Fixed
Partitioning

28
Variable Sized Partitions (1)

Allocate exactly the required memory to a


process
This leads to a hole at the end of memory, too
small to use
Only one small hole - less waste
When all processes are blocked, swap out a
process and bring in another
New process may be smaller than swapped out
process
Another hole 29
Variable Sized Partitions (2)

Eventually have lots of holes (fragmentation)


Solutions:
Coalesce - Join adjacent holes into one large hole
Compaction - From time to time go through memory
and move all hole into one free block (c.f. disk de-
fragmentation)

30
Effect of Dynamic Partitioning

31
Relocation

No guarantee that process will load into the


same place in memory
Instructions contain addresses
Locations of data
Addresses for instructions (branching)
Logical address - relative to beginning of
program
Physical address - actual location in memory
(this time)
Automatic conversion using base address 32
Paging

Split memory into equal sized, small chunks -


page frames
Split programs (processes) into equal sized
small chunks - pages
Allocate the required number page frames to a
process
Operating System maintains list of free frames
A process does not require contiguous page
frames
Use page table to keep track 33
Logical and Physical Addresses
- Paging

34
Virtual Memory

Demand paging
Do not require all pages of a process in memory
Bring in pages as required
Page fault
Required page is not in memory
Operating System must swap in required page
May need to swap out a page to make space
Select page to throw out based on recent history

35
Thrashing

Too many processes in too little memory


Operating System spends all its time swapping
Little or no real work is done
Disk light is on all the time

Solutions
Good page replacement algorithms
Reduce number of processes running
Fit more memory
36
Bonus

We do not need all of a process in memory for it


to run
We can swap in pages as required
So - we can now run processes that are bigger
than total memory available!

Main memory is called real memory


User/programmer sees much bigger memory -
virtual memory
37
Page Table Structure

38
Segmentation

Paging is not (usually) visible to the


programmer
Segmentation is visible to the programmer
Usually different segments allocated to program
and data
May be a number of program and data
segments

39
Advantages of Segmentation

Simplifies handling of growing data structures


Allows programs to be altered and recompiled
independently, without re-linking and re-loading
Lends itself to sharing among processes
Lends itself to protection
Some systems combine segmentation with
paging

40
Required Reading

Stallings chapter 7
Stallings, W. Operating Systems, Internals and
Design Principles, Prentice Hall 1998
Loads of Web sites on Operating Systems

41

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