Kendall Koehler - Radio Simplified - 1923

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RADIO
IMPLIFIED
i\ ' HAT IT IS
TO BUILD AND OPERATE
TITE APPAI«i
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RADIO SIMPLIFIED
WHAT IT IS-HOW TO BUILD
AND OPERATE THE APPARATUS
BY
LEWIS F. KENDALL, JR.

Ixeraucron Y. M. C.A.RUM Scaocm., PHILÁDBLPIM
AND
ROBERT PHILIP KOEHLER

Mammon Y. M. C. A. Troarnom. &moots, Partrzesz.PaiA
ILLUSTRATED BY
F. RUSSELL LYONS
THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

Cnicecto PHILADELPHIA Tonozno
'b
e
Copyright, 1923, by
THE Joan C. Wtserrox COMPANY
Copyright, 1922, by The .1. C. W. Co.
All rights reserved

PRINTED IN U. Z. A.
FOREWORD
It has been the purpose of the authors in the preparation

of Radio Simplified to provide in non-technical language an
explanation of radio with emphasis upon how it works, and to
furnish simple and definite directions and suggestions for
assembling and installing home radio equipment at small cost.
They have endeavored to answer clearly and simply those
questions which first arise in the mind of the novice and which
they have found to be most frequently asked by students in
radio classes.
Radio itself is introduced in a manner which removes the
necessity for a preliminary course in electrical engineering.
Technicalities are omitted unless they are to be put to some
practical use by the amateur. Equipment which is suggested
is that which is most easily obtainable and in many cases can
be made at home. In every instance, definite and specific
directions are given for hooking it up. Numerous picture
diagrams accompany the circuits suggested, so that the novice
may have no difficulty in fitting his equipment into the hook-up.
A great number of good practical hook-ups are shown, especially
for regenerative sets, in which the experimenter may use to
advantage the apparatus he already owns, without purchasing
additional equipment.
Considerable space has been given to the proper erection of
aerials, to the end that they may give the best results and that
they may be a protection against lightning rather than a fire
hazard.
The advantages and the limitations of various hook-ups and
types of sets are frankly discussed. Suggestions are made as to
(I)
FOREWORD
what equipment to select in order to receive what the operator

desires to hear. In the operation of receiving sets, particularly
in regenerative receivers, novices are given specific directions
to follow in tuning.
Many novices, and amateurs as well, have spent good money
for equally good equipment, but have been unable to get the
best results from the set after it has been assembled. Many
others want to own radio sets, but are not clear about what
apparatus to buy or how to hook it up after having purchased
it. Still other amateurs have been operating sets for years
without having become familiar with many of the "kinks" in
hook-ups and in operation that add to the efficiency of any set.
For these three groups, this book has been written.
The authors desire to express deep appreciation to Mr. Logan
Howard-Smith and to Mr. George P Hamilton, who have
unsparingly given time and thought to the preparation of
material, and to constructive criticism of manuscript from the
viewpoint of the experienced radio amateur.
FOREWORD TO THE REVISED EDITION

The very large sale of this book in the original edition and the
great number of enthusiastic letters received from users have
prompted the Authors and Publishers to prepare athoroughly
revised edition to cover all new developments in the radio art
which have proved practical in the hands of amateurs. This
edition includes anumber of new Radio Frequency Circuits, the
De Forest Reflex, the Grimes Inverse Duplex, the Hazeltine
Neutrodyne Receiver, the Reinartz circuit, and many other
new hook-ups.
Thanks are due to Professor L. A. Hazeltine, Mr. David
Grimes, Mr. Boyd Phelps, the Radio Club of America,
"Q. S. T." and the American Radio Relay League for assist-
ance in preparing this revised edition.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
WHAT IS RADIO?
PSG*
Many theories about radio. Vibrations and waves. How radio
works. Sound waves and electrical vibrations. Audio frequency
and radio frequency. Necessity for tuning. Wave length. Varying
the wave length, or tuning 11
CHAPTER II
THE ANTENNA OR AERIAL
Variations in form and size. The receiving aerial. The transmitting
aerial. Making the calculations. The aerial circuit. Size of the
sending aerial T type versus L type. Size of the receiving aerial.. 17
CHAPTER III
ERECTING THE AERIAL
Materials required. Choosing a site. Supports for the aerial.
Making amast. Guy wires and aerial rope. Making up the aerial.
Type of spreaders and insulators. The lead-in. Splices in aerial
wires. Making sure of pulleys and guy wires. How to erect amast.
Raising the aerial. Fire Underwriters' requirements. The aerial
as a protection against lightning. No protection for indoor aerial.
Protecting the outdoor aerial. Lightning arresters and lightning
switches. The lightning ground 24
CHAPTER IV
ESSENTIALS OF A RECEIVING STATION
The simplest receiving set. The addition of a tuning device. The
purpose of a detector. Current oscillations and radio waves. The
crystal detector. The fixed condenser. The head telephones. The
ground connection. Primary and secondary circuits. Setting the
detector. The test buzzer. The loading coil. The variable con-
denser. Capacity effects. Varying the wave length by means of con-
densers. Shunt and series condensers. Tuning by capacity and
inductance. Selecting a variable condenser. The tapped coil with
asingle switch. Coil with aunits and amultiple turns switch. Ad-
iv CONTENTS
PAGE
vantages of double-slide and double-tapped coils. The double-slide
tuning coil. The double-tapped coil. A tapped coil with four
switches. The loose coupler and the variocoupler. Coupling effects
in tuning. Specifications for making a loose coupler. The tapped
loose coupler. The short wave loose coupler. The three-slide
tuning coil. Honeycomb and spiderweb coils. The variometer
Underwriters' requirements 45
CHAPTER V
VACUUM TUBES
Description of the tube. Development of the tube. Use of the tube.
The vacuum tube as adetector. "A" and "B" batteries. Circuits of
the vacuum tube detector. The grid condenser. The grid leak. The
filament rheostat. Action of the vacuum tube. Continuous waves
and modulation. The by-pas3 condenser. Amplifying effect of the
vacuum tube. Advantages of careful adjustment. Operation of the
vacuum tube detector. Regulating filament current and plate
voltage. The hissing point or the blue glow. Selection of grid leak
and grid condenser. Hard and soft tubes. Types of tubes 98
CHAPTER VI
CURRENT SUPPLY FOR VACUUM TUBES
Sources of current. The storage battery. Battery chargers for home
use. Care of the storage battery. Heating the filament from adirect
current _generator. Heating the filament from the farm lighting
plant. Heat ingutsheeofdrent
ing alternating
51aiee se
alternating voeage. ntijn 'Ser
he.
for
writers' requirements 118
CHAPTER VII
THE REGENERATIVE RECEiVER
Principles of regeneration. Regeneration with atickler coil. Polarity
of the tickler coil. The vacuum tube as an oscillator. Autodyne and
heterodyne reception. Regeneration by means of condensers. Short
wave regenerative equipment. Tapped coils in the regenerative set.
Regenerative sets using: the single-slide coil; the double-slide coil;
(variation in "A" battery hook-up); the three-slide coil; the loose
coupler; ("A" and "B" battery potentiometers); the variocoupler.
Building a regenerative receiver with a tickler coil. Regenerative
sets using: two honeycomb or two spiderweb coils; three honeycomb or
three spiderweb coils. The tuned plate circuit in regeneration.
Regeneration with various types of tuning inductance. Variometer
tuned plate and grid circuits. Regenerative sets using: atuning coil
and two variometers; aloose coupler and two variorneteri: (tuning the
CONTENTS V
PA01
set with tuned plate and grid circuits); avariocoupler and two vario-
meters; two/variometers. Distortion in regeneration. The Reinartz
tuner. The Armstrong super-regenerative receiver 129
CHAPTER VIII
AMPLIFIERS, LOUD SPEAKERS, AND LOOP AERIALS
The vacuum tube as an amplifier. Audio-frequency, amplification.
Hooking up the audio-frequency amplifier. 'Principles of audio-
frequency amplification. Multi-stage or cascade audio-frequency
amplification. Control jacks, and plugs. Wiring up stages of
amplification. Loud speakers. Plate voltage for amplifiers with
loud speakers. Radio-frequency amplification at broadcasting wave
lengths. Radio-frequency amplifying transformers. Hooking up the
radio-frequency amplifier. Regeneration with radio-frequency.
Operation of the radio-frequency amplifier. Multi-stage or cas-
eade radio-frequency amplification. Tuned radio-frequency
amplification. Multi-stage tuned radio-frequency amplification.
Size of aerial with radio-frequency amplification. Tuned and trans-
former coupled radio-frequency amplification in combination. Reflex
amplification. A one-tube reflex set. A three-tube reflex set. Inverse
duplex amplification. Disadvantages of reflex circuits. Advantages
of the inverse duplex system. Principles of inverse duplexing. The
Grimes inverse duplex set. Distinctive features of the Grimes circuit.
The neutrodyne receiver. Neutralizing undesirable capacity effects.
Neutrodyne transformers. Inclining the coils. How to make neutral-
izing condensers. Assembling the neutrodyne set. Tuning aneutro-
dyne receiver. Variations in the neutrodyne set. Prevention of inter-
ference due to radiation from receiving set. Loop aerials 178
CHAPTER IX
THE SPARK SENDING SET
Principles of the spark transmitter. Damped oscillations and damped
waves. The use of alternating house current for spark transmitting.
Spark frequency and spark train frequency. Elements of a spark
transmitter. The necessity for coupling the transmitter to the
aerial. The oscillation transformer. The need for a transmitting
condenser. Transmitting condensers. The spark coil transmitting
set. The spark coil. The action of the spark coil. The key. The
spark gap. The spark transmitter operating on 110-volt A. C. The
hot wire ammeter. The rotary spark gap. The safety spark gap.
The power transformer. Selecting a transformer. The kick-back
preventer. The key. Fuses. Underwriters' requirements. Tuning
the spark transmitter. The wave meter. The counterpoise 223
Vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
THE VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER
PÁGS
Regenerative receiving sets as transmitters. The simplest vacuum
tube transmitter. The microphone. Increasing the power of the
simple set. A home-made condenser for a spark coil I. C. W. set.
How to build avacuum tube transmitter. Materials required. The
transmitting or power tube. The socket. The power transformer.
"S" tubes. The filter reactor and filter condensers. The radio-
frequency choke coil. The grid leak. The transmitting grid con-
denser. Aerial circuit and grid circuit tuning condensers. By-pass
and blocking condensers. The magnetic modulator. The microphone.
Indicating instruments: the radiation ammeter; the filament volt-
meter; the plate ammeter. The aerial and the grid tuning inductance.
How to operate the set. Underwriters' requirements 249
CHAPTER XI
LEARNING THE CODE
Advantages of knowing the code. The code. Means of learning the
code 272
CHAPTER XII
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS FOR AMATEURS
Securing astation license. Securing an operator's license. Receiving
stations. Transmitting station regulations: Experiment stations;
Special amateur stations; General amateur stations; Restricted
amateur stations. Calling. Regulations governing messages. Radio
districts. Radio stations and call letters. The International Morse
code. Conventional abbreviations 280
INDEX 297
ILLUSTRATIONS
Amateur home-made vacuum tube transmitter Frontispiece

710. PAW.
1. Elements of a radio telephone system 12
2. Waves in a vibrating rope 15
3. Types of aerials 18
4. Method of calculating the physical length of an aerial circuit 21
5. Types of insulators suitable for a receiving aerial 25
6. Method of insulating and grounding guy wires 27
7. Method of constructing a40-foot laminated mast 28
i 8. Aerial with metal spreaders 30
9. Aerial with wooden spreaders. Approved sleeves for splicing 32
10. A simple method of erecting amast 35
11. Complete installation of an inverted L single wire receiving aerial 38
12. An approved weatherproof lightning arrester 42
13. An approved single pole double throw lightning switch 42
14. A complete inverted L transmitting aerial installation 44
15. The simplest receiving set 45
16. The simple receiving set with a tuning coil and afixed condenser 46
17. A crystal detector 50
18. A simple fixed condenser 50
19. The head telephones or receivers 52
20. Cross section view showing the parts of areceiver 50
21. Circuits of the crystal detector hook-up 54
22. Hook-up for the test buzzer 57
23. A loading coil in the aerial circuit 50
24. A 23-plate variable condenser 59
25. Variable condenser in parallel with the aerial circuit 60
28. Variable condenser in series in the aerial circuit 61
27. Tuning coil crystal detector set with variable condenser in parallel
with both the aerial and the local circuit 62
28. Crystal detector set with avariable condenser in series in the aerial circuit 63
29. Hook-up for the tapped coil with a single switch 66
30. Hook-up for a tapped coil with one units and one multiple turns switch 68
31. Hook-up for a double slide tuning coil 72
32. Hook-up for a tapped coil with two multiple turns switches 73
33. Hook-up for a tapped coil with two units and two multiple turns
switches 75
34. A loose coupler 76
35. A variocoupler 77
36. Hook-up for aloose coupler in a crystal detector set 78
37. Hook-up for a variocoupler in a crystal detector set 79
38. Hook-up for a crystal detector set with a tapped loose coupler 81
39. Hook-up for aloose coupler with four switches in acrystal detector set. 84
40. Hook-up for a three-slide tuning coil in a crystal detector set 88
41. A honeycomb coil 88
42. A spiderweb coil 88
43. Hook-up for two honeycomb coils in a crystal detector set 91
44. Hook-up for a crystal detector set with two spiderweb coils 92
45. A variometer 94
48. Hook-up for a variometer in acrystal detector set 96
47. The three-element vacuum tube 98
48. Hook-up for asimple vacuum tube detector set 101
4i). The four circuito of the vacuum tube detector 103
viii ILLUSTRATIONS
PIG.
PAGE
50. A grid leak and a grid condenser 104
51. A filament rheostat 105
52. Continuous waves and modulated continuous waves 107
53. Essential units of aradio telephone system 108
54. Hook-up for a vacuum tube detector with the filament heated from
alternating house current .. 124
55. Hook-up for a vacuum tube detector with a telephone transformer to
reduce humming 128
56. Hook-up for aregenerative receiver using aloose coupler with atickler
coil 130
57. Resultant of the interaction of local oscillations and received oscilla-
tions 135
58. Hook-up for a single-slide tuning coil in a regenerative set 139
59. Hook-up for adouble-sized tuning coil in a regenerative set 140
60. Hook-up for a three-slide tuning coil in a regenerative set 143
61. Hook-up for a loose coupler in a regenerative set 144
62. Hook-up for a variocoupler in a regenerative set 147
83. Diagram for home construction of aregenerative receiver with atickler
coil 150
64. Hook-up for regenerative effect with two honeycomb coila 158
85. Hook-up for three honeycomb coils in a regenerative set 158
86. Hook-up for three spiderweb coils in a regenerative set 159
67. Hook-up for asingle-slide tuning coil in atuned plate regenerative set 161
68. Hook-up for a loose coupler in a tuned plate regenerative set 163
69. Hook-up for a variocoupler in a tuned plate regenerative set 164
70. Hook-up for aregenerative set with adouble-slide tuning coil and two
variometers 166
71. Hook-up for aloose coupler and two variometers in a regenerative set 167
72. Hook-up for a variocoupler and two variometers in a regenerative set 171
73. Hook-up for a simplified regenerative set using two variometers 172
74. Hook-up for the Reinartz tuner with a detector 174
75. Vacuum tube detector and one stage of audio-frequency amplification 179
76. Amplifying transformer 180
77. Hook-up for avacuum tube detector and two stages of audio-frequency
amplification 182
78. Hook-up for avacuum tube detector and two stages of audio-frequency
amplification, with control jacks 183
79. A control jack and plug 183
80. Hook-up for one stage of transformer coupled radio-frequency ampli-
fication and adetector 189
81. Complete hook-up for aloop aerial, three stages of transformer coupled
radio-frequency amplification and adetector 191
82. Hook-up for one stage of tuned radio-frequency amplification and a
detector 194
83. Hook-up for three stages of tuned radio-frequency amplification and
a detector 196
84. Hook-up for one stage of tuned and two stages of transformer coupled
radio-frequency amplification and a detector. 198
85. Hook-up for aone-tube reflex set with a crystal detector 199
86. Hook-up for the De Forest three-tube reflex set 201
87. Graphic comparison of the principle of operation of reflex circuits and
the inverse duplex circuits 203
88. Hook-up for aGrimes inverse duplex set employing three tubes 206
89. Graphic representation of the capacity effects which result from
coupling together stages of radio-frequency amplification 210
ILLUSTRATIONS ix
PIG.AGE P
90. Hook-up for a three-tube neutrodyne receiver 211
91. Diagram indicating how the coils in aneutrodyne receiver are inclined
in order to reduce inductive coupling, with the first coil cut away
to show the position of the primary winding 213
92. Hook-up for athree-tube reflex neutrodyne receiver with an additional
stage of audio-frequency amplification and jacks 218
93. A loop aerial 220
94. Apparatus for the production of damped oscillations 2'24
95. Graphic illustration of wave trains or damped waves 22,5
96. Elements of a spark transmitter 227
97. A pancake oscillation transformer, 229
98. A glass plate transmitting condenser 230
99. A transmitting conden,ser made up of jars 231
100. Hook-up for a complete spark Coil transmitting set 232
101. Hook-up for a rotary spark gap transmitter operating on 110-volt
alternating current 235
102. Method of coupling a wave meter to the primary of an oscillation
transformer \ 243
103. The regenerative receiver hooked up sa transmitter 250
104. Use of aspark coil to increase the pow rof the receiver type of trans-
mitter 253
105. Complete hook-up for a vacuum tube ttsismitter 256
106. Aerial and grid tuning inductance for the ube transmitter _269
CHAPTER I
WHAT IS RADIO?
Many theories about radio.—Few scientists, engineers

or radio enthusiasts are willing to admit that they know
what radio really is. Many theories and hypotheses have
been advanced to explain its varied behavior. It is not
within the scope of this book, however, to enter into any
technical discussion of the theory of radio. There are,
on the other hand, afew simple facts concerning "how it
works" which even achild can understand. A knowledge
of these facts is useful to every radio enthusiast.
Vibrations and waves.—Radio is essentially the control
of atype of electrical vibrations and the waves resulting
from them.
Everyone is familiar with vibrations and waves of one
sort or another. Grasp the loose end of arope; shake it
rapidly up and down, and waves visible to the human eye
will travel the length of the rope as aresult of the vibra-
tion. Strike a bell, and the vibration which is set up
sends forth in all directions, sound waves audible to the
human ear. Draw abow across aviolin string, or strike
the key of apiano, and audible sound waves are the result.
Kindle afire in astove, and the energy released from the
fuel will cause even the particles of iron in the stove to
vibrate and send off waves of heat to which human bodies
are sensible through feeling.
(11)
11.
12 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
Our vocal cords vibrate when we speak, and the sound

waves which result, carry our speech to all people within
hearing distance.
How radio works.—In transmitting the voice or music
by radio, the sound waves are directed into a sending
device which converts them into electrical vibrations far
too rapid for the human ear to hear. At the same time,
the sending set transfers these vibrations to the wires of
)lliiiiiiii li))iiiliii i
iiii
TRANSMIT TER RECEIVER
1.-ELEMENTS OF A RADIO TELEPHONE SYSTEM.
the sending aerial. The vibrations in the aerial cause

electromagnetic waves to radiate in all directions, instan-
taneously circling the globe. When these electromagnetic
waves come in contact with the wires of another aerial,
they set up in these wires, electrical vibrations precisely'
similar to the vibrations in the aerial which sent the waves
on their way around the earth. The electrical vibrations
in the receiving aerial are then carried by alead-in or drop
wire, to areceiving set, where they are re-converted into
sound vibrations, audible to the human ear. These sound
vibrations exactly reproduce the voice or music which is
being directed into the sending set. This, in anutshell, is
the principle of radio.
WHAT IS RADIO? 13
Sound waves and electrical vibrations.—The modern

radio telephone sending outfit is essentially a collection
of apparatus for converting audible sound waves into
• electrical vibrations and transferring these very rapid or
high frequency electrical vibrations to an aerial.
The modern receiving outfit is essentially an assembly
of apparatus for re-converting the high frequency radio
waves picked up by an aerial, into the corresponding
sound waves, which are of lower frequency and are audible
to the human ear.
The manner in which electrical vibrations are con-
trolled or molded by sound waves will be considered
more in detail in Chapter V and Chapter X.
Audio frequency and radio frequency.—The word fre-
quency in radio language is used to denote rate of vibration.
Sound vibrations in order to be heard by most people
must have a frequency lower than 10,000 per second.
Sound vibrations having a frequency lower than 10,000
per second are said to be of audio frequency because they
are audible to the human ear.
Electrical vibrations which are utilized to propagate
radio waves have a much higher frequency. Electrical
vibrations above 20,000 per second are arbitrarily said
to be of radio frequency. Radio vibrations in the aerial
wires may have afrequency of several million per second. •
It may be interesting to note, in passing, that the audio
frequency range begins at about 40 vibrations per second—
the lowest vibration rate at which the human ear is capable
of sensing sound. Light and heat vibrations are of ex-
tremely high frequency. Heat waves, to which the nerves
of the body are sensitive, are the result of 20 trillions to
14 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
300 trillions of vibrations per second; light waves, of 430

trillions to 740 trillions per second; and ultra violet and
X-rays, 870 trillions to 1500 trillions per second.
Necessity for tuning.—To this point, we have seemed to
assume that every radio receiving station is at all times
picking up messages from every other station which
happens to be sending. Strictly speaking, this is not
possible, nor would it be at all desirable. If such acon-
dition were to exist, the confusion of sounds which would
come from the receiving apparatus would effectually
preclude any possibility of the reception of intelligible
messages.
In order to receive messages by radio, the receiving
operator must tune his station to the station from which
he desires to receive. \We may more readily understand
how this tuning is accomplished by considering the action
of two violin strings exactly alike in key, length and
tension, and strung side by side. If abow is dtawn across
one of the strings, causing it to vibrate, the string which
was not touched by the bow also begins to vibrate and
send out sound waves. In like manner, if two pianos in
the same room are tuned to the same. pitch, and anote is
struck on either instrument, the corresponding string on
the other piano will give out the same tone. All the other
strings will remain silent. In both of these illustrations,
the second string was "in tune" with the first, and sol
vibrated in sympathy.
Similarly in radio, areceiving station must be in tune
with the sending station from which one wishes to receive.
That is to say, the wave length, or vibration period—both
of which are governed, for the most part, by the effective
WHAT IS RADIO? 15
length of the aerial—must be identical4 for both stations.

Sending stations may transmit on al variety of wave
lengths. Tuning to the wave length upon which astation
is transmitting, is accomplished at the receiving station.
Wave length.—Everyone who reads the newspapers
has noticed that when aprogram is announced for broad-
casting, the wave length of the transmitting station is
always given. The question therefore arises as to what
is meant by wave length, and how the length of an invisible
wave can be measured.
In answering these
questions, let us consider
for amoment, waves we 2.—WevEs IN A VIBRATING ItOPE.
can really see—water
waves, for example, or better still, the waves of the
vibrating rope.
The wave length in the case of the rope is plainly the
distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the
next; and every vibration of the arm produces awave of
this length. If we measure this distance and count the
number of vibrations of the arm per minute, we can
calculate, by simple multiplication, the speed at which the
wave travels along the rope. Or if we measure the
distance which one of these waves travels in one minute,
we can divide this distance by the number of vibrations
per minute (or the number of waves which follow the first
one during the minute) and thereby determine the length
of asingle wave.
Radio waves are, of course, invisible. Their .length,
however, may be calculated as exactly as that of the wave
in the rope, and in the same manner,
2
16 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
In the first place, waves sent out by awireless station

are known to travel at the same speed as light-186,000
miles per second, or, in the metric system, 300,000,000
meters per second. In the second place, the rate of
electrical vibration in a sending aerial can be determined
at the sending station. Therefore, dividing 300,000,000
by the number of vibrations per second will give in meters
the wave length upon which the station is sending. For
example, if a station is sending out waves at the rate of
1,000,000 per second, the length of each wave must be
wo=o or 300 meters. Likewise, if it is desired to send
on a 360-meter wave length, the sending station should
be tuned to a frequency of 3c " 3-
6
°-0̀—°° or 833,333 vibra-
1.°
tions per second.*

Varying the wave length, or tuning —Finally, any given
station may be so constructed as to permit both receiving
and sending on a considerable range of wave lengths,
in order to allow freedom in tuning to the wave lengths
of different stations. Such tuning may be accomplished
in two ways:
(1) Increasing the effective length of the aerial
circuit by adding wire from a tuning coil
(commonly termed "adding inductance");
(2) Increasing or decreasing the capacity of the
aerial circuit by means of condensers.
Both of these methods we shall consider later in
connection with receiving and with sending.
•The shortest electromagnetic wave yet measured is afraction of an
inch in length; the longest, more than 1,000,000 miles.
CHAPTER II.
THE ANTENNA OR AERIAL
Variations in form and size.—The antenna or aerial

is apart of the radio equipment used both in sending and
in receiving. Aerials may vary in size from miniature
aerials used with portable receiving sets, to commercial
station types, hundreds of feet long. In form there is
also wide variation, as indicated by the illustrations on
the following page. As a matter of fact, amateurs often
have been able to receive messages more or less satisfac-
torily, using abed spring or even a window screen as an
aerial.
The receiving aerial.—For receiving only, asingle wire,
if of sufficient height and length, furnishes the most satis-
factory aerial. In picking up agiven message, one wire,
strange as it may seem, will collect nearly as much energy
as several parallel or radial wires of equal length. To
compensate for any slight loss in the collection of energy,
a single wire also collects much less atmospheric elec-
tricity (commonly called static); induction (electric or
magnetic influence from local current carrying wires,
without direct contact) occurs to a lesser degree; and
humming and crackling is reduced to aminimum.
The loop aerial, in which the wire is wound on aframe
usually from two feet to eight feet square, is somewhat
widely used as an indoor receiving aerial. But owing
(17)
18 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
FIG. 3.-TYPES OF AERIALS.

THE ANTENNA OR AERIAL 19
to its small size and its limited capability for collecting

energy, sensitive receiving apparatus must be used with
it. We shall therefore postpone to a later chapter the
discussion of its operation and its peculiar qualities
in tuning and in direction finding.
The transmitting aerial.—In sending, best results are,
to be obtained from a multiple wire aerial. Increasing
the number of wires has the effect of lowering the resist-
ance of the aerial to the electrical vibrations impressed
upon it and provides a greater amount of surface for
purposes of radiation. More energy may, therefore, be
transferred from the sending set to the wires and radiated
from them.
The counterpoise aerial, which is used chiefly in sending,
will be considered in Chapter IX.
If one aerial is to be used both for sending and for
receiving, aflat top multiple wire (T or inverted L) type
is the most frequent compromise. It is evident from the
illustration that the only difference between the T type
and the inverted L is in the location of the drop wire
connection. In the former, the lead-in is taken from the
middle of the flat top; in the latter it is taken from one
end. A usual advantage in either of these aerials is ease
of erection.
In the preceding chapter, we have seen that asending
set may be used to transfer electrical vibrations to the
aerial. We have found that the electromagnetic waves
caused by such vibration, spread in all directions over
and through the earth. We have learned that when
these electromagnetic waves come in contact with the
wires of another aerial, they set up in these wires, elec-
20 RiDIO SIMPLIFIED
trical vibrations precisely similar to those in the aerial

which sent the waves on their way through space. We
have seen that the receiving aerial must be tuned to the
wave length of the sending aerial, in order that it may
most efficiently pick up the vibrations which are to be
converted by the receiving set into audible sounds. We
are now ready to plan and to build an aerial.
MAKING THE CALCULATIONS
The aerial circuit.—Generally speaking, the natural

wave length of an aerial depends upon the total length of
the aerial circuit, which is measured from the farthest
end of the longest aerial wire to the point where the
grounding device or grounding system enters the earth.
It is a fact, however, that height, material of the masts
or other supporting structures and other conditions affect
the natural wave length of an aerial. But since there are
no fixed rules as to the effect of shape, length, number of
wires, and the factors mentioned above, the precise
dimensions for an aerial which will exactly produce a
desired wave length cannot be determined before the
aerial is erected. The best procedure is to estimate the
circuit as closely as possible, and make allowance for a
natural wave length somewhat under the desired sending
wave length. A similar procedure should be gone through
in the case of areceiving aerial. This will permit including
in the aerial circuit a tuning device necessary for sharp
tuning, which will be discussed in later chapters.
An aerial constructed from the following specifications
should have anatural wave length well under 200 meters,
which is the maximum wave length, with certain excep-
tions,* allocated by the U. S. Department of Commerce

to amateur sending stations. The introduction of tuning
devices, as indicated in Chapter I, will, of course, permit
the reception of messages upon much longer as well as
upon much shorter wave lengths.
Size of the sending aerial.—To begin with, the total
physical length of the aerial circuit for an amateur sending
station should not exceed 150 feet. For best results in
90'
Aeria l
o1 -
tr•/ Lead-In
Ground Wire
Water Pipe
Earth
FIG. 4.—M ETHOD OF CALCULATING THE PHYSICAL LENGTH OF AN AERIAL

CIRCUIT.
receiving those stations which broadcast on awave length

of 360 meters, the receiving aerial circuit length should be
approximately 200 feet. Purely local conditions, such as
parallel wires—telephone or electric service—guy wires,
proximity to a tin roof, steel masts, or other metal
structures, may have a slight effect upon the natural
wave length of the circuit. As indicated above, neces-
.See Government Regulations, Chapter XII.
22 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
sary corrections for such variations may be made with

a tuning device in the circuit after the aerial has been
installed and tried out. The total length of the aerial
circuit, as outlined in Fig. 4, includes the length of the
longest aerial wire (if the wires are of different lengths),
plus the length of the lead-in or drop wire to the receiving
or the sending set, plus the length of the ground wire
from the set to the water pipe, radiator or other grounding
device, plus the length of pipe line or grounding device to
the point where it actually enters the earth. Not until this
point is reached, is the aerial circuit complete.
The length of the longest aerial wire should be taken as
the distance from the point where the drop wire leaves the
aerial to the farthest end of the longest wire in the aerial.
The fact that there are more wires than one in the flat
top T, or the inverted L type aerial, does not affect the
above calculation. The length is taken as of the longest
wire.
It should also be noted that zig-zagging the wires in
an aerial, that is, carrying the same wire backward and
forward between spreaders or other supports, will not
increase the effective length of the aerial circuit to any
great extent.
T type versus L type.—From the above directions for
computing the length of the aerial circuit may arise the
questions: What is the function of the extra side in the
flat top of the T type aerial? Why not always use an
inverted L type? In answer it may be said that the
additional wire in the T type makes possible the radia-
tion of agreater amount of energy in sending.
Since best results are obtained from an aerial which
extends as high above the earth as possible, and with a

lead-in as short and as direct as possible, it might follow
that the ideal aerial would extend in avertical direction
from the set itself. This may be true in the case of a
receiving aerial, but does not hold for a sending aerial.
However, such an erection is seldom practicable, and a
compromise which will take existing conditions into
account, is usually made.*
Size of the receiving aerial.—The size and the wave
length of an aerial to be used for reception only, may be
computed in the same manner as that suggested for the
transmitting aerial on the preceding pages. It should
be said, however, that in case a receiving aerial is to be
erected under limited space conditions (as for example,
on the roof of ahouse 25 or 30 feet long) the advantages
to be derived from using two to four wires in parallel out-
weigh the disadvantages noted on page 17. The capacity
effect in such an aerial will operate to increase the natural
wave length of the aerial circuit which might be some-
what limited if asingle wire were erected.
It should be noted at this point that the sending aerial described in
the following chapter is an elaborate erection. A much simpler aerial
of the same type may be erected for receiving, and should give satis-
factory results.
CHApTER III
ERECTING THE AERIAL
Materials required.—The materials necessary for the

sending aerial suggested in the preceding chapter are:
(1) copper wire, either bare or insulated,
(2) two spreaders,
(3) aerial insulators,
(4) two pulleys,
(5) aerial rope,
(6) two poles, or other supports,
(7)guy wire,
(8) guy wire insulators,
(9) supports for guy wires,
(10) lightning arrester or lightning switch, or both,
(11) lightning ground and ground wire.
Almost any form of copper wire will do for use in the
aerial. The only requirement is that it be of sufficient
size to offer low resistance to the electrical currents and
to withstand strains imposed by high winds. Since radio
waves can penetrate all substances, insulation on the
wire has no deterrent effect whatever. As a matter of
fact, there is aslight advantage to be obtained from the
use of insulated wire since it protects the surface of the
wire from corrosion. No. 14 solid copper wire, or seven
strands of No. 22, are prescribed by the National Board of
Fire Underwriters as the minimum size. The latter is
most commonly used.
(24)
ERECTING THE AERIAL 25
Phosphor-bronze wire is not so efficient on accounflef

its higher resistance to electrical currents. It is used, as
for example, on ships, on account of its greater mechanical
strength. Aluminum wire should not be used in any
case because it is not strong enough and because the
wire quickly becomes oxidized in the atmosphere, causing
aloss of energy owing to resistance at any splices which
have been made.
If asingle wire type is to be erected, which, as has been
stated, is the most satisfactory aerial for receiving, the
spreaders are unnecessary. Tall trees, or other supports,
if conveniently located, may be utilized instead of masts.
c4ilipf© ro 01[1)
FIG. 5.—TYPES OP INSULATORS SUITABLE FOR A RECEIVING AERIAL.
Owing to the high voltage employed in transmitting,

an aerial which is to be used for sending must be par-
ticularly well insulated. For transmitting sets using from
Y4 to one kilowatt of current per hour, the 10-inch "Elec-
trose" strain insulator such as that shown in Fig. 8, or
a similar type, will serve the purpose. With sets which
use vacuum tubes for transmitting, glazed porcelain
insulators are preferable.
In the case of a receiving aerial, or of atransmitting
aerial employed with a set using less than j 4 kilowatt of
current, such as aspark coil transmitter, the ball type of

insulator may be used. This insulator and other types
suitable for an aerial used only for receiving, are shown
26 , RADIO SIMPLIFIED
eig. 5. The glazed porcelain cleat is inexpensive and

is usually obtainable at any electrical supply store.
The rope should be sufficiently strong to carry the
weight of the aerial in ahigh wind. Sash cord and hemp
rope are both satisfactory. The pulleys should be large
enough to allow the rope to slip through them easily.
Guy wire of seven strands of No. 20 or No. 22 heavily
galvanized steel wire is usually obtainable at any hard-
ware store; the latter is strong enough to guy a40-foot
pole. Seven strands of No. 20 should be used for a
60-foot pole.
Choosing asite.—In choosing asite for an aerial, bear
these points in mind: (1) The aerial wires should be kept
from possible contact with trees or buildings. (2) The
aerial should be kept away from tin roofs. If it is found
necessary to erect an aerial over a tin roof, raise it as
high above the roof as possible—at least several feet.
Close proximity of aerial wires to trees, buildings, and
especially to atin roof, will result in re-radiation and loss
of energy in sending. It will also interfere with receiv-
ing, in that these objects will absorb, to some extent,
energy which might otherwise be collected by the aerial.
(3) The aerial should be elevated as high as possible above
all surrounding buildings, especially any which are of
steel framework. Such structures will lower the receiving
range from their direction, by what is known as ashield-
ing effect. (4) Avoid close proximity to current-carrying
wires. Where it is necessary to erect an aerial near high
tension wires, it should be run in a direction at right
angles to such wires. If this cannot be done, run the
aerial as nearly at a right angle as possible. This pro-
cedure will reduce induction from the current-c

wires to the aerial and will largely eliminate the loud
humming which is sometimes heard in the receivers.
(5) Aerial wires should never be strung over or under
other wires carrying electric current. If the higher wires
should break or sag, and make contact with the lower
wires, danger to appar-
atus as well as to other
property and to life might
result. (See page 39.)
Bearing these points in
mind, we may cast about
for a location for the
aerial.
Supports for the
aerial.—The aerial may
be supported between
FIG. 6.-METHOD OF INSULATING AND
two house tops. It may GROUNDING OUT WIRES OF A POLE
ERECTED ON THE ROOF OF A
be strung from the peak BUILDING.
of the house to a tree, a
flagpole, or a mast in the yard. It may be suspended
from a short pole eight or ten feet long, placed on the
roof. A pole of this size may be placed against achimney
and fastened to it, and would not require guy wires
for support. This method will eliminate the necessity for
nailing and the attendant possibility of a leaky roof.
Iron poles or pipes should not be used on a roof unless
the pole and its guy wires are thoroughly insulated
from all parts of the building and then properly
grounded to a lightning rod or other lightning ground.
Insulation of the pole may be accomplished by resting
28 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
base in a glass or porcelain insulator. If it is not

•thoroughly insulated and grounded, and lightning should
strike the pipe, considerable damage to the building
might result. Guy wires may be insulated and grounded
after the method shown in Fig. 6.
Since the aerial should be well above the roof, the
method of stringing it between low chimneys or other
parts of the building is not advisable. If the far end of
the aerial is to be supported by a telephone pole or by
another building, or if the aerial is to be stretched over
other properties, the permission of the owners must first
be secured.
If the aerial is to be suspended from a tree, at either
end, the pulley should be tied to the tree and sufficient rope
allowance made to meet the wire at apoint beyond reach
of the limbs as shown in Fig. 11. A weight sufficiently
heavy to keep the aerial taut should be attached to the
other end of the rope as shown. This arrangement will
permit the tree to sway without snapping the aerial wire.
Making amast.—If sufficient height cannot be obtained
between the house and a tree, a flagpole, or another
building, atall pole such as is used for aflagpole may be
erected. Such apole should be guyed, even though it is
placed several feet in the ground. This kind of pole,
however, is hard to obtain, especially in cities. Another
good type which has been constructed and successfully
used for several years by the authors, is the larainated
mast shown in Fig. 7.
For a40-foot pole, three thicknesses of white pine strips
of 1-inch by 4-inch material should be used. These
strips should be put together as shown in the drawing.
Five 16-foot pieces, two 12-foot pieces and two 8-foi4

pieces would be required to make this mast.
For a30-foot pole, three thicknesses of 1-inch by 3-inch
material, making the cross section of this mast 3 inches
by 3 inches, should be sufficient. For a 60-foot pole,
four thicknesses of 1-inch by 4-inch stock should be used.
The 30-foot pole and the 60-foot pole should be laid out
on the same plan as the 40-foot pole, care being taken
'L'e•
• 1
id re
;--;-• rt-à
erte". ;
ro l. I le rt loro ortH
Notch For Fastening Goy Wires
Ors so Screws Method 01 Joining Sections
7.-METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING A 40-FOOT LAMINATED MAST.
that the joints of the strips in any one layer do not come
too close to the joints of the strips in another layer.
Sections may be nailed together as shown in the case
of the 40-foot pole. Then these sections which are
nailed, should be joined together by means of brass screws,
which will not rust. This form of construction will per-
mit the pole to be taken apart for transportation, which
otherwise would hardly be feasible in the case of a40-foot
or a 60-foot pole. In joining sections, bolts should not
be used on account of their weight and the possibility of
rusting. Besides, holes for the bolts would weaken the
mast. The laminated pole is more easily constructed and
is stronger than masts made by bolting together joists or
short poles; it is also much more satisfactory than any
30 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
lbon pole made from pipes of reduced sizes fastened to-

gether by reducer couplings. A good coat of paint will
add to the life, as well as to the appearance of the lam-
inated mast.
Guy wires and aerial rope.—One set of four guy wires
would be sufficient in the case of the 30-foot pole; two
sets of four each—one at the top and one at the middle—
FIG. 8.-AERIAL WITH METAL SPREADERS REQUIRING ONLY A SINGLE

INSULATOR AT EACH END. NOTE METHOD OF CONNECTING THE LEAD-IN
TO THE FLAT TOP. NOTE ALSO EASED OFF BENDS TO REDUCE BRUSH
DISCHARGE IN TRANSMITTING.
should be used for either a40-foot or a60-foot pole. All

of the guy wires should, of course, be attached to the pole
before it is raised. A pulley should also be attached,
and the rope for hoisting the aerial should be passed
through it and both ends fastened near the base of the
pole. The pulley should be fastened to the pole by
means of abolt bent into the shape of ahook at one end
and threaded at the other end to take two nuts, as shown
in Fig. 8. Or, the pulley might simply be wired to t

groove sawed around the pole about two inches from
the top, as indicated in Fig. 7.
As previously suggested, the guy wire used for the
'largest pole should consist of seven strands of No.
20 galvanized steel wire. Insulators should be in-
serted at about every twenty feet to prevent dissipation
and re-radiation of energy in transmitting, which would
result if the guy wires were similar in length to the aerial
wires. Guy wires may be attached to any convenient
supports or to posts driven into the ground. Guy wires
should, if possible, be fastened at adistance from the foot
of the pole, equal to the height of the pole.
Making up the aerial.—The flat top of the aerial should
be made up in aclear space, large enough to permit the
wires to be laid out alongside of one another. The
wires should be cut in even lengths and then fastened
about two or three feet apart to the spreaders. Aerial
wires must be exactly alike in length between the spreaders.
If they are uneven, the longer wires will sag when the
aerial is in place. The ideal method of construction
would be to attach the wires to metal spreaders so that
the spreaders form part of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 8.
Brass rods Vt inch square, or brass tubing of a À 3-inch
outside diameter make excellent spreaders for an aerial of

this design. Brass spreaders eliminate the necessity for
insulating each wire from the spreader. Insulating each
wire separately places a number of insulators in parallel
in the circuit and thereby reduces the total insulation of
the aerial to a fraction of that afforded by a single in-
sulator. In other words, the chance of the high voltage
3
4k-
32 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
current leaking to the pole or other support would be

multiplied by the number of insulators used. If the wires
are bolted or soldered to a metal rod or tube of good
conducting material, only one insulator is required be-
tween the rope and the spreader.
The efficiency of this type of aerial may not be evident
to the novice, but by experienced radio amateurs it is
believed that "fading signals" and other undesirable
phenomena, particularly with vacuum tube transmitters,
FIG. 9.-AERIAL WITH WOODEN SPREADERS REQUIRING INSULATORS FOR

EACH WIRE. SMALL DRAWINGS SHOW APPROVED SLEEVES FOR SPLICING.
are partly due to the insulation factor in the aerial, which (
may vary in moist atmosphere or during rainstorms. If, '
because of inability to secure material for an aerial of
this type, or for some other reason, the reader does not
desire to use this kind of spreader, a wooden spreader
may be used, with an insulator inserted between each
wire and the spreading device, as shown in Fig. 9. In
this case the aerial wires should be connected to one
another, at each end of the aerial, by awire soldered across
all of them.
The lead-in.---Keeping in mind that the circuit of a

transmitting aerial should not exceed 150 feet in order to
enable tuning to as low as 200 meters in wave length, we
can decide where the lead-in should be connected. For
example, if the lead-in is to be 50 feet in length and if the
ground circuit is 20 feet in length, we should then be
limited to alength of 65 feet in the flat top of an inverted
L aerial. If plenty of space is available and the flat top
can be extended for as much as 130 feet, we could obtain
acircuit of approximately the same length as in the case
above by connecting the lead-in at the center of the 130-
foot flat top, forming aT type aerial. The lead-in, par-
ticularly for sending, should be of the same current-
carrying capacity as that of the total number of wires in
the flat top. That is to say, if the aerial is made up of
four No. 14 wires, the lead-in should contain the same
number of wires of the same size.
Splices in aerial wires.—All connections in the aerial
and lead-in wires should be scraped bright, tightly twisted,
and soldered, as shown in Fig. 8. The National Board
of Fire Underwriters requires that these wires, if not
soldered, must be connected by approved clamping de-
vices or wire sleeves, as shown in Fig. 9. Necessity for
soldering the lead-in wire to the aerial may be eliminated
in an inverted L type aerial by passing the aerial wire
through the insulator, giving it a number of twists and
then continuing the same wire as a drop wire to the
lightning arrester or switch.
Making sure of pulleys and guy wires.--Before raising
the pole, make doubly sure that the pulley and all guy
wires are securely attached to it; also that the rope which
34 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
is to support the aerial is run through the pulley. This

last suggestion may seem to be an unnecessary caution,
but amateurs have been known to forget this point, and
as aresult have had either to climb the pole after it was
in place or to lower it again to put the rope through the
pulley. The rope ,should be long enough to reach from
the bottom of the pole to the top and down again, so
that after the pole has been erected, the aerial may be
raised and lowered. (See Fig. 10.) The ends of the rope
should be tied together so that an end cannot slip through
the pulley while the pole is being raised. Another method
is to have the rope long enough to reach from the aerial
in the raised position, through the pulley and down to the
base of the pole. Then in raising the pole, and again
when it is desired to lower the aerial, another piece of
rope is tied to the rope used for supporting the aerial and.
enough of the new piece is let out to allow the aerial to
drop to the ground. Of course the aerial should not be
attached to the rope before the pole is raised. The
aerial should be raised only after the pole is in position
with the guy wires securely fastened. Be sure to have
the aerial rope in place before raising the pole.
How to erect amast.—In raising the pole, any one of a
number of methods may be used. In the case of a 40-
foot pole, the base may be rested in a small hollow dug
in the ground and while one or two men keep the base
in this hollow by placing their feet on it, two or three
others may raise the top of the pole from the ground and
walk toward the base, elevating the pole as they go.
After the pole has been raised to an angle of about
45 degrees, two people pulling on guy wires attached to
the top of the pole can raise it the rest of the way. Of
course, two other people should have hold of guy wires
on the opposite side of the pole, so that when the mast
reaches the vertical position, it can be kept from falling
over.
In raising amast, the use of pike poles, which are long,
slender poles with spikes in one end, commonly used by
zneeRytymextretts r•••••••••
FIG. 10.—A SIMPLE METHOD OF ERECTING A suer.
telephone companies and others in erecting poles, is not

advised for amateurs, as considerable experience is re-
quired to manipulate these poles. Sufficient leverage for
a40-foot pole can be obtained, as has been suggested, by
simply pushing it upward with the hands and walking
toward the base. A 60-foot pole would no doubt require
the use of pike poles or some other device.
A more simple way of raising the mast, if conditions
36 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
will permit, is to pull up one end of the pole to the, roof

of ahouse or other building and rest it against the eaves,
as shown in Fig. 10.
The pole should be placed on the ground near the build-
ing, as indicated in the drawing. The end of the pole
that is to be raised to the eaves may be pulled to that
position by the aerial rope lowered from the roof. It
may be seen from the diagram how the pole can be raised
from this last position to avertical position: Two people
should stand off at a distance, each holding a guy wire
attached to the top of the pole. The two guy wires on
the other side of the pole may be run through screw
hooks temporarily fastened at the corners of the house.
One man standing on the ground may hold the two guy
wires which are run through these hooks. As the two
men pull the pole forward to an upright position, the
other man slacks up on his two wires sufficiently to allow
the pole to be righted. If it is not feasible to insert the
two hooks in the edge of the roof so that one man can
hold the two wires, one wire may be carried around each
end of the house; two people would then be required to
pay out the two wires as the pole is being righted.
As soon as the pole has been raised to an upright posi-
tion, each man fastens his guy wire. One man can then
sight the pole, and, by loosening up one guy wire for a
few inches and taking in the slack of the guy wire on the
opposite side, may true up the pole and fasten it securely
in the vertical position.
This latter method of erection can be successfully em-
ployed only where the pole is to be placed near abuilding.
In other words, if the pole were forty feet long, resting
one end on the eaves at aheight of, let us say, twenty-

five feet, would bring the base at the most, only about
thirty feet from the house. It is suggested that the
amateur does not try to move the pole for any distance
after it has been placed in avertical position.
Raising the aerial.—After the masts have been erected,
or if masts are not used, after the pulleys have been
attached to other supports, all connections for the aerial
should be gone over for the last time. See that the aerial
wires are securely fastened to the spreaders or to the
aerial rope. Go over the lead-in connections carefully
and make sure that strong joints have been made. See
that the lead-in wires—one for each wire in the aerial—
are made up of sufficient length to reach to the point
where they are to connect with the lightning switch.
In raising the aerial, it is necessary to guide it so that
it does not become entangled in the guy wires. All
kinks or sharp bends should be removed from the wire
just as it is being raised. A kink allowed to remain will
cause asharp bend and possibly afracturing of the wire
when the aerial is tightened; and even if the wire is later
straightened out, it will be very much weakened at that
point. Drop wires should be allowed to swing free while
the aerial is being raised.
After the aerial is in place, the lead-in wires may be
allowed to hang loose or in a spread out effect to the
point where they are to be fastened to insulators on the
house or building. From this point, it is necessary to
keep them together. This may be accomplished by
twisting them together and continuing the lead-in in this
form from the point where it first is fastened to the
38 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
building to the point where it makes connection witii the

lightning arresting device prescribed by the National
Board of Fire Underwriters. As noted below, lead-in
wires must be supported in such manner that they are at
least four inches away from the building or the supports
on which the insulators are mounted in the case of a
receiving aerial, and five inches in the case of asending
aerial. These insulating supports may be purchased
from any elect' ical dealer.
FIG. 11.-COMPLETE IN.3TALLATION OF AN INVERTED L SINGLE WIRE

RECEIVING AERIAL. NOTE CONNECTIONS OF THE LIGHTNING ARRESTER
AND THE LEAD-IN. N .f? ALSO METHOD OF SUSPENDING AERIAL
WITH PULLEY, ROPE AND WEIGHT, TO AVOID POSSIBILITY OF AERIAL
BREAKING IN A WIND.
FIRE UNDERWRITERS ' REQUIREMENTS
The aerial as a protection against lightning.—The

importance of erecting the aerial in such manner that
it will be aprotection from lightning instead of ahazard
cannot be overestimated. If properly installed, it will
collect and carry to earth any lightning discharge which
might otherwise strike the building. If improperly
installed, it is a source of danger in any locality where
lightning discharges occur. In view of the foregoing,
regulations have been drawn up by a special committee
of the National Fire Protective Association, which is

the authority for the National Electrical Code, in co-
operation with engineers acting for the American Radio
Relay League, the American Telephone and Telegraph
Company, the Radio Corporation of America, and the
Independent Telephone Association. The findings of
this committee are considered standards of good practice
in the installation of aerials and should be strictly com-
plied with.
In the following paragraphs, the recommendations of
the committee are summarized. In some cases, cautions
already given in this chapter are repeated.
No protection for indoor aerial.--In the first place, a
receiving set having an indoor aerial is considered devoid
of hazard, except when storage batteries or other initial
energy is used either for amplification or as a source of
energy for vacuum tubes or other apparatus which the
art may later develop. Proper installation of such
apparatus will be given consideration in later chapters.
With any receiving set, the principal danger is from
lightning brought in over the aerial to the equipment or
to some part of the building. Where there is no outside
aerial, this hazard is removed.
Protecting the outdoor aerial.—The regulations pre-
scribe that aerials outside of buildings shall not cross
over or under electric light or power wires or any circuit
carrying current of more than 600 volts, or of railway,
trolley or feeder wires; nor shall they be so located that
a breaking of either the aerial wires or the above men-
tioned electric light or power wires will result in acontact
between the aerial and such wires. The amateur, how-
40 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
ever, should take even further precautions than these

and should not attempt to string aerial wires over any
electric wires which carry as much as 110 volts. The
aerial might be strung under wires which do not carry
more than 110 volts with afair degree of safety, but even
then the breaking of the electric light wires above might
cause a contact with the aerial wires and destroy the
receiving set.
The Underwriters further require that the aerial shall
be constructed and installed in a strong and durable
manner and shall be so located as to prevent accidental
contact with light and power wires by sagging or swinging.
The Underwriters also require that the aerial and
lead-in be of solid or stranded copper wire, not smaller
than No. 14, excepting that as small as No. 17 copper-
clad steel wire may be used. It might be said that it is
common practice to use No. 14 stranded copper wire
because of its strength as well as its conducting qualities,
and not No. 14 solid, as the latter will kink and break
very easily.
All splices in the aerial and lead-in wires must be
soldered or else be made with an improved connector,
as previously noted.
Bear in mind that a single wire is more satisfactory
for areceiving aerial than anumber of wires; but when
more than one wire is used in an aerial employed for
both transmitting and receiving, the lead-in should be
made up of the same number of wires of the same size,
or else of one wire having a current carrying capacity
equal to the total number of wires in the aerial.
The lead-in wires, if attached to the outside of the
building before reaching the point of entrance, must be

mounted upon insulating supports so that they will not
come nearer than four inches from the wall, as previously
noted. Furthermore, they must be kept at least four
inches from electric light and power wires, unless
separated from them by a continuous and firmly fixed
weatherproof non-conducting material which will maintain
permanent separation, regardless of whether or not the
lead-in wires have insulation on them. However, it is
not good practice in any case to run the lead-in wires
parallel to or near electric light or power wires, as in-
duction which will "drown out" the received signals
may take place.
The lead-in wires must enter the building through a
bushing or tube which is non-combustible, non-absorp-
tive, and insulating—of porcelain, for example, or fibre.
All of the foregoing regulations and suggestions apply
to transmitting as well as to receiving aerials, except
that transmitting aerials should be even better insu-
lated. The lead-in wires of an aerial used for trans-
mitting must be supported five inches from the walls
instead of four inches; and where they pass through the
building, they must be so insulated by a long moisture-
proof tube or lead-in device that there will be not less
than five inches creepage distance between the lead-in
wires at the ends of the tube, and the building or any
other conducting material.
Lightáing arresters and lightning switches.—The lead-
in for the receiving aerial must be provided with at least
an approved lightning arrester, located either inside or
outside the building, but as near as possible to the point
42 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
of entrance of the wires to the building. The lead-in

wires of a transmitting aerial must be provided with a
single pole, double-throw switch having acurrent carrying
capacity of at least 50 amperes and
having four inches clearance between
the contact points of the switch.
This switch may also be used for
the receiving aerial, in addition to
the lightning arrester, and is desir-
able for additicnal protection; but
Fm. 12.—As APPROVED
the switch alone is not sufficient to
WEATHERPROOF LIGHT- conform to the Underwriters' require-
NING ARRESTER.
ments for the receiving aerial. Its
metal parts must be mounted on awaterproof insulating
base. A switch having aslate
base should not be used, as slate
very often has metallic veins.
The switch for atransmitting
aerial must be so mounted that FIG. 13.—ÁN APPROVED SINGLE
POLE DOUBLE THROW LIGHTNING
its current carrying parts are SWITCH.
five inches from the building
wall. It may be located either inside or outside the build-
ing, but it must be at the immediate point of entrance of
the lead-in wires to the building and preferably in the most
direct line between the aerial and the lightning ground.
The set should be connected to one end of the switch,
the lightning ground to the other end, and the lead-in
wires to the middle point.
The lightning ground.—In the opinion of the authors,
the lightning ground wire for the receiving aerial as well
as for the transmitting aerial, should have a current
carrying capacity as large as that of the total number of

lead-in wires from the aerial, although this specification
is made for only the transmitting aerial. According to
the regulations, however, in no case shall the lightning
ground wire be smaller than No. 10. It must be of copper
or other metal which will not corrode to any extent under
existing conditions. The wire may be either insulated
or bare and it does not have to be mounted on insulated
supports, although again it is better practice to have it
supported from the building by means of insulators. A
good arrangement is to mount the lightning ground wire
on porcelain knob insulators such as are commonly used
in electrical work. Sharp turns or bends in the lead-in
wire and in the lightning ground wire should be avoided
and both of these wires should be run in as direct a
line as possible between the aerial and the lightning
ground.
The lightning ground to which the lightning ground
wire is connected should be a good, permanent, earth
connection such as the water pipe system. Gas pipe
systems must not be used for such grounds.
Where the water system is used for the lightning ground,
the ground wire should be connected to tho pipe on the
street side of the meter. In other words, the connection
to the water pipe should be made at apoint between the
water meter and the place of entrance of the water pipe
into the earth, so that if the water meter were removed, the
lightning ground circuit would still be intact to the
pipe running into the earth.
Other lightning grounds which are permitted are
grounded steel frames of buildings, or approved artificial
44 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
grounding devices such as pieces of iron pipe driven into

the ground, or metal plates buried several feet in the earth.
If pipe is used for the lightning ground, it must be of
galvanized iron or other metal which will not corrode or
rust, and it must be at least one inch in diameter. Further-
more, it must be driven down into the earth for adistance
of at least six feet; if aplate is used, it must be buried at
\A
1 • à
Aldiff
I 1:11 e ..,,11!.I I
III I 1!!
) 1°11r
Fío. 14. — A COMPLETE INVERTED L TRANSMITTING AERIAL INSTALLATION,

SHOWING MASTS, GUY WIRES AND INSULATORS, FLAT TOP , LEAD-IN ,
LIGHTNING SWITCH , GROUND WIRE , AND LIGHTNING GROUND .
asimilar depth. It would be much better to use two or

three such pipes or plates than to use only one, especially
if the earth is not very moist at the spot.
An approved device known as aground clamp must be
used wherever the lightning ground wire is connected to
driven pipes or to water piping. When the connection
is exposed to the weather, an approved device designed
specifically for that purpose must be used.
According to the regulations, antenna and counterpoise
conductors must be effectively and permanently grounded
(that is, with the arrester in place. or the switch thrown,
as the case may be, or both) when the station is not in
actual operation (unattended).
CHAPTER IV
ESSENTIALS OF A RECEIVING STATION
A radio receiving set, as we learned in Chapter I, is an

assembly of apparatus for re-converting into sound waves,
audible to the human ear, the high frequency radio waves
which have been radiated A.
from a sending station and
picked up in the form of
electrical vibrations in the
receiving aerial circuit.
The simplest receiving
set.—The simplest receiv-
ing outfit includes (1) an
aerial, (2) a lead-in or drop
wire, (3) adetector, or recti-
fier as it is sometimes called,
(4) a pair of head tele-
phones, or receivers, and (5) Gd.
a connection to the earth, Fla. 15.—TaE SIMPLEST RECEIVING
commonly called the ground. SET.
This simple receiving circuit is shown in Fig. 15.

Such an assembly of apparatus can receive signals from
points within its range if such signals are transmitted on
a wave length corresponding to the natural wave length
of its own aerial circuit. The chief disadvantage in this
circuit grows out of the impossibility of tuning it to
(415)
46 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
receive signals from stations transmitting on different

wave lengths. In other words, no provision has been
made for lengthening or shortening the aerial circuit to
place it in tune with the aerial circuits of different trans-
mitting stations. This disadvantage may be overcome by
introducing atuning coil
into the circuit, as shown
in Fig. 16.
The addition of atun-
ing coil.—A tuning coil is
simply a coil of copper
wire, usually No. 18 to
No. 26, wound on a cyl-
indrical form made of
insulating material as, for
example, a cardboard
tube, and having a con-
tact which may be made
to slide across the turns
of wire. In this hook-up,
FIG. 16.-THE SIMPLE RECEIVING SET the drop wire or lead-in
WITH A TUNING COIL AND A FIXED CON- is connected directly to
DENSER ADDED TO THE CIRCUIT.
one terminal or end of the
coil of wire. The other terminal of the coil remains
unconnected. The sliding contact, or slider, is con-
nected to one side of the detector. The other side of
the detector is connected to one terminal of the cord
attached to the receivers. The other terminal of the
receiver cord is connected to the ground wire. In the
operation of the set, the currents from the aerial will
travel through the coil only to the turn of wire on
ESSENTIALS OF A RECEIVING STATION 47
which the slider rests. As the sliding contact is moved

in the direction away from the lead-in connection, the
electrical vibrations or currents induced in the aerial circuit
must travel around the turns of wire in the coil which
have thus been added to that circuit, before they pass to
the detector through the sliding contact connection.
Adding turns of wire in acoil is commonly called adding
inductance in the circuit. Adding inductance in this
circuit has the effect of lengthening the aerial, as sug-
gested in Chapter I. That is to say, adding wire from a
coil eliminates the necessity of climbing to the roof to
add additional wire to the aerial, which might otherwise
be necessary in tuning.
A tuning having only one sliding contact, as shown in
Fig. 16, is called asingle slide tuning coil.
The purpose of the detector.—The function of the
detector in the receiving circuit is only partiallyIindi-
cated by its name. Its real purpose is to rectify or filter
the radio frequent vibrations induced in the aerial circuit
so that they may be converted by the receivers into sounds
which may be detected by human ears.
To this point in our discussion of radio vibrations and
waves, we have seemed to assume that the electromag-
netic waves caused by the sending set are radiated only'
from the sending aerial. In order to better understand
the action of the receiving set, it will be necessary for us
at this point to examine more closely the nature of radio
vibrations and waves.
Current oscillations and radio waves.—The electric
current which is sent into the sending aerial circuit to
produce radio waves is always alternating current. That
4
48 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
is to say, when the first surge of current is sent into the

sending aerial circuit, the flow in the circuit is in one
direction; the second surge of current travels in the op-
posite direction. In the case of asending set connected
to an aerial and to the ground, if the first surge of current
travels up into the aerial, the second surge will travel to
the ground, the third to the aerial, the fourth to the
ground, and so on. Two successive surges, one in each
direction, make up one complete cycle or oscillation. As
the current surges up into the aerial, amagnetic influence
or pressure or disturbance—commonly called a-magnetic
field—is set up around the wires and the earth connection,
and the first half of an electromagnetic or radio wave is
projected from the aerial circuit into space; as this surge
dies out the'magnetic field surrounding the aerial circuit
collapses. The magnetic disturbance, however, con-
tinues to move on through space in all directions at the
speed of light. •The next surge of current flows in the
direction of the earth. This alternate surge of current,
which goes to the ground, likewise exerts a magnetic
influence and a similar field is set up around the aerial
circuit and is radiated as the second half of the wave.
The next surge in the direction of the aerial starts another
electromagnetic wave, and the foregoing process con-
tinues as long as the station is sending, with a wave
projected from the wires of the aerial circuit and the
earth surrounding the ground connection, for every
complete oscillation.
What we have heretofore termed vibrations in the aerial
are therefore, more properly, oscillations of current in the
aerial circuit, up into the aerial and down into the ground.
The distance that the first wave has traveled through

space when the second wave starts on its way, is the
length of the wave. Bear in mind that the surges or
oscillations which we have been calling vibrations, often
occur at the rate of many millions per second, and that
every complete oscillation projects awave from the aerial
circuit, through the air and through the earth. Remember
also that when these waves come in contact with areceiv-
ing aerial circuit, they induce in it oscillations of alter-
nating current, exactly similar to the oscillations in the
aerial circuit from which the waves have been radiated,
although of lower intensity.
With these facts and theories in mind, let us return to
our consideration of the simple detector.
The crystal detector.—Certain minerals—among them
are galena, silicon, carborundum, and iron pyrites—have
the peculiar property of allowing currents of electricity
to pass through them much more readily in one direction
than in another. If one of these minerals is introduced
into the receiving circuit, we have ameans of eliminating
half of each of the electrical vibrations or, more properly,
oscillations which are induced in the receiving aerial cir-
cuit, and which we desire to convert-into sound waves,
by stopping either the currents which enter the aerial
circuit and flow to the ground, or the currents which enter
the aerial circuit and flow toward the aerial.
In the simple receiving set under discussion, we may
utilize one of these materials—usually a galena crystal—
mounted in asmall cup. As described in connection with
Fig. 16, one terminal from the receiver cord is attached to
the cup, which makes contact with the crystal. The
50 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
tuning coil, which as we have seen is an extension of the

aerial, has its sliding contact connected to the other side
of the detector and makes contact with
the crystal through a fine wire, so
mounted that it rests lightly on the
crystal, as shown in Fig. 17. The con-
Fle. 17.—A CRYSTAL
DETECTOR. nections are indicated in the picture
diagram in Fig. 16.
In the reception of signals, the currents flowing in the
circuit in the one direction, are prevented from passing.
The alternate surges of current, which come from,the
other direction, are passed through the crystal and into a
condenser and then to the head telephones for conversion
into audible sounds. In this manner, the galena crystal
filters or rectifies the oscillations of the alternating cur-
rent and passes on to the receivers a pulsating direct
current; that is, a pulsating current which flows in only
one direction. But even though half of each oscillation
of current has thus been stopped, those impulses which
are allowed to pass are still too numerous and appear in
too rapid succession to operate the telephone receiver
diaphragm slowly enough so that we can hear its vibra-
tion. So we introduce a device called acondenser which
will store up a great number of these electrical impulses
and then discharge them through the receiver circuit in a
single pulse, causing an audible sound
in the telephone receivers.
The fixed condenser.—The con-
denser which we have placed in the 18.—ELEIrENTs OF A
FIXED CONDENSER.
circuit in Fig. 16 is adevice usually
made up of two or more small metal plates or sheets of tin
foil, separated by an insulating medium, such as paper or

mica, so that no electrical contact between adjacent
plates is possible. If there are more plates than two in
the condenser, the first, third, fifth, etc., are connected to
one another; the second, fourth, sixth, etc., are similarly
connected. Fig. 18 shows this fixed condenser in its
simplest form.
The purpose of the fixed condenser in the circuit is to
help to reduce the radio or high frequency pulsations of
current to audio frequency pulsations which can register
in the telephone receivers and be heard by human ears.
It acts as astorehouse for radio vibrations, as suggested
above, and then discharges its store or accumulation of
vibrations back into the circuit and through the telephone
receivers in asingle surge or pulse.
The effect of a condenser is called a capacity effect,
since the condenser may be used to increase, or in some
cases to decrease the capacity of a circuit for storing up
electrical energy.
In Fig. 16 this piece of apparatus is shown connected
"across" the telephone receiver circuit. That is, one set
of plates is connected to that part of the circuit between
the detector and the phones, and the other set to that part
of the circuit between the phones and the ground connec-
tion. The condenser may also be said to be "in parallel"
with or "in shunt" to the receivers. Shunt and parallel
are two terms having the same meaning and will be used
interchangeably hereafter in this book.
The wires in the receivers, as we shall see, are so fine in
size that they offer high resistance to the more or less
feeble currents coming through the detector, On the
52 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
other hand, the relatively large surfaces of the plates in

the condenser afford an easy path for the pulses of current
to enter. So long as they are unable to pass through the
insulation in the condenser, these pulses of current store
themselves up in the manner previously discussed.
The head telephones.—The radio head telephones, or
phones, or receivers as they are usually called, are some-
what similar in appearance and in principle to the ordinary
telephone receiver. Their function is to convert the
pulses of electrical current into sound vibrations. In other
words their purpose is that of
reproducing the voice or music or
other signals which are being trans-
mitted from the sending station.
The receivers, as we have just seen,
Fia. 19.-THE HEAD TELE-
PHONES OR !RECEIVERS.
are actuated by pulsations of the
• rectified oscillating current which,
in the case of radio telephony, has been moulded by the
sound waves of the voice or music at the sending station.
Each receiver consists of asmall hard rubber case en-
closing a U-shaped permanent steel magnet, with a coil
of fine insulated copper wire wound around each pole, as
shown in Fig. 20. A disc of thin sheet iron is supported
80 that its face does not quite touch the poles of the
magnet. A hard rubber cap or earpiece with an opening
at its center, is screwed on the case so that it holds the
iron disc in place. As the pulsating direct current coming
from the condenser flows around the coils on the poles of
the permanent magnet, it sets up amagnetic field or influ-
ence which either strengthens the fields of the permanent
magnet, drawing the steel disc alittle closer to the poles,
or weakens the fields, allowing the disc, which is always

under strain of attraction, to spring away from the poles.
Between pulses, the magnetic field returns to its normal
strength and the disc instantly returns to its original
position. Thus the disc of the receiver vibrates with the
pulses of current, and accurately reproduces the sounds
that are being directed into the trgnsmitter at the station
which is sending. That is, the current carried to the
receiver causes the diaphragm or disc to vibrate exactly
Cap Openin5--, „-Pole Pieces
I /
/
Cop
Permanent --Soft Iron

Steel Magnets Diaphragm
•
Pole Preces-- -' Electromagnet

Binding Poste Coils
FIG. 20.—CROSS SECTION VIEW SHOWING THE PARTS OF A RECEIVER.
as the recording device of the transmitter is vibrating at

the sending station; and these vibrations of the receiver
diaphragm create the sound waves which strike the ear.
The ground connection.—The connection to the ground
completes the aerial circuit. This connection may be a
copper wire connected to awater pipe, radiator, or other
continuous metallic system which enters the earth.
Refinements necessary in the simple receiver hook-up.—
Although either of the two "hook-ups" or circuits which
we have described will accomplish the reception of radio
signals, the novice should not proceed to wire up his
crystal detector set after the plan of either circuit, unless
for the sake of experimenting. Further refinements are
54 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
necessary in order to get best results from the crystal

detector set. These refinements include (1) the removal
of the detector and the
receivers to what we
shall call alocal circuit.
and (2) some slight
modification of the
tuning device, such as
that found in the tap-
ped coil, the double slide
or triple slide tuner; or
even a greater modifi-
cation such as that
found in the loose coup-
ler and the vario -
coupler. The variable
condenser as a device
for reducing or increas-
ing wave length is a
desirable addition; it
becomes a necessity,
however, only if it is
desired to receive sig-
nals on a wave length
shorter than that of the
receiving aerial.
FIG. 21.-CIRCIIITS OF THE CRYSTAL DETEC- The local or sec-
TOR HOOK-IIP. A.PRIMARY IN HEAVY LINES. ondary circuit.—Be-
B.SECONDARY IN HEAVY LINES.
cause of the very high
resistance in the detector crystal and in the telephone
receivers, best results cannot be obtained if they are left
ESSENTIALS OF A RECEIVING STATION e
in the aerial circuit or in the direct path of the currents
flowing in the aerial, lead-in, and ground wire. The
crystal is of such material that it offers very high resist-
ance to the surges of the weak current picked up by the
aerial. The receivers also impede or hold back the cur-
rents on account of the many turns of fine wire in the
coils through which the surges of current have to pass.
It is desirable, therefore, to remove these two instruments
from the direct path of the currents flowing in the aerial
circuit.
These two instruments, therefore, are usually placed in
what is known as alocal or detector circuit as shown in
Fig. 21. The electric current flowing in the aerial circuit
now has a less obstructed path from the aerial to the
ground, or vice versa. The aerial and ground wires and
those turns of wire on the coil included between T and S
in Fig. 21A, now become what we shall call the primary
circuit. The local or secondary circuit, as shown in
Fig. 21B, includes the detector and the telephones and
the same turns of wire on the coil included between T
and S. As in the circuit previously considered, the
aerial-and-ground or primary circuit is tuned by moving
the slider S up and down the turns of wire. This opera-
tion tunes the secondary circuit at the same time.
As the electric current oscillates in the aerial circuit,
part of each pulsation is transferred to the secondary cir-
cuit by conduction or direct contact. The currents thus
diverted or shunted through the local circuit are rectified
by the detector and then made audible by the receivers,
as has been previously explained.
Setting the detector.—Maximum response in the head
56 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
telephones is obtained when the crystal rectifier or de-

tector is adjusted for the greatest degree of rectification.
There is very little to the operation or adjustment of
crystal detectors; in the "cat whisker" type, the free end
of the fine wire (called the "cat whisker") extending from
the upright binding post, is merely raised from and
lowered on the crystal at various spots until the spot
which gives the greatest degree of rectification, as indi-
cated by strength of signals, is found. In the type of
crystal detector which employs two crystals making con-
tact with each other, the two crystals are adjusted by
pressing them together lightly until similar results are
obtained.
The only difficulty arises from inability, under certain
conditions, to tell when the point of the fine wire is
resting on the most sensitive spot of the crystal, in the
case of the former type; and in the case of the latter
type, when the two crystals are touching each other at
sensitive spots. In this discussion we shall consider only
the "cat whisker" type of crystal detector, as it is the
type most commonly used by the amateur.
If signals are being received at the time the adjustment
of the "cat whisker" is made, it is very simple to raise
and lower the wire until the incoming signals are heard
at maximum strength; but signals are not always available
as ameans for assisting the operator to adjust the detector.
An electric door bell with its clapper removed, or a
buzzer of some sort, may be employed to overcome this
difficulty. Any buzzer used for this purpose is commonly
called atest buzzer.
The test buzzer.—If the ordinary electric bell or house
buzzer is set into operation by a battery, pulses of cur-

rent caused by the making and breaking of the circuit at
the vibrator arm, will flow around the buzzer and battery
circuit. Each pulsation of current flowing through the
wire in this circuit sets up magnetic lines of force which
are radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves; and
if any part of this circuit is placed near the receiving set,
feeble currents will be picked up by the receiving set in
roDetector or Groundpii
%
FIG, 22.-1100K-4:T FOR THE TEST BUZZER.
somewhat the same manner as electromagnetic waves

from the transmitting aerial are picked up by areceiving
aerial. If the crystal detector is then adjusted, as pre-
viously explained, it will rectify these feeble currents and
produce sounds in the telephone receivers, similar to the
tone of the buzzer. In a device of this kind we have a
miniature transmitting station, which can be switched on
and off whenever we desire, to provide signals with which
to set the crystal detector.
In practice, however, the electromagnetic waves pro-
duced by the buzzer are usually very weak. Better
results may be obtained, therefore, by connecting awire
direct from the contact screw or point of the buzzer to
one side of the detector, or else to the ground wire of the
58 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
receiving set, as indicated in Fig. 22. This enables some

of the magnetic waves of the buzzer circuit to travel into
either the secondary circuit or the primary circuit of the
receiving set by actual contact or conduction.
The loading coil.---If the coil of the tuning device is not
large enough to
build up the
wave length of
the aerial to
that of the sta-
tion from which
it is desired to
receive, addi-
tional wire may
be inserted in
the aerial cir-
cuit by the use
of what is
known as a
loading coil.
Fia. 23.-A LOADING COIL IN THE Its hook-up is
AERIAL CIRCUIT.
shown in Fig.
23. In tuning the set, all of the wire in the tuning coil
is first utilized and then the wire in the loading coil is
added until the wave length of the receiving set has been
built up to the extent desired.
The name "loading coil" is given to any auxiliary coil
of wire used to build up the wave length of acircuit. The
loading coil may be another tuning coil or simply a coil
of insulated wire which need not even be wound on an
insulating tube. It is customary, howpver, to use a coil
of wire wound on a tube or on some other form, with

taps taken from it at intervals of any desired number of
turns. Fine variations are unnecessary in the loading
coil, since the finer adjustments may always be made in
the tuning device, although a loading coil is very often
tapped at five, ten or fifteen turns. A tapped tuning
coil such as that shown in Fig. 29 makes an excellent
loading coil. The loading coil may be used along with
any tuning device to increase the wave length of any
circuit. Do not lose sight of the fact that the loading coil
is used to increase the wave length.
As previously suggested, there are advantages to be
derived from the use of avariable condenser in the hook-up
just described.
The variable condenser.—
This instrument, as shown in
Fig. 24, is made up of two sets
of thin metal plates, usually of
aluminum. The plates of each
set are fastened at their edges or
sides to arigid support and are
spaced about one-eighth of an
inch apart. One set of plates is
mounted in a fixed position. FIG. 24.-A 23-PLATE VARI-
ABLE CONDENSER.
The other set is so mounted
that it may be revolved iii and out between the leaves or
plates of the first set without making actual contact.
Condensers of 23 or 43 plates are commonly used in
receiving sets. In hooking up the variable condenser,
one connection of a circuit is made to the fixed set of
plates; another connection of the same circuit is made to
60 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
the movable set ;and an effect similar to that described in

the case of the fixed condenser, page 51, is obtained. By
revolving the movable plates in and out of the other set,
we may increase or decrease the condenser effect at will.
The variable condenser may be placed in a circuit in
either of two ways. If
connected in one man-
ner (in parallel with
either the aerial or the
local circuit) it will in-
crease the wave length
of the circuit in which it
is so placed. If con-
nected in another man-
ner (in series in the
aerial circuit) it will de-
crease the wave length
of that circuit. All of
these hook-ups we shall
presently describe.
FIG. 25.—VARIABLIe CONDENSER IN PAR- Capacity effects.—It
ALLEL WITH THE AERIAL CIRCUIT TO IN- is interesting to note at
CREASE THE WAVE LENGTH OF TILE CIRCUIT,
this point that a con-
denser effect is often obtained in other ways than by
the use of plates such as those described for fixed con-
densers and variable condensers. In any case where
one conductor carrying an electric current or charge
is placed near another conductor, the capacity of both
conductors—that is, their ability to store up electrical
energy—is always increased.
That is to say, two conductors in proximity to one
another will always give acondenser effect. For example,

the parallel wires in the receiver cord, like the fixed con-
denser, have a capacity effect and help to reduce radio
frequent vibration to audio frequent vibration. In similar'
manner, the aerial and the earth underneath it form the
plates of acondenser, with
each "plate" of this con-
denser connected by awire
to the set—the aerial by
the lead-in, and the earth
by the ground wire.
Varying the wave length
by means of condensers.
—It is an interesting fact
concerning condensers that
if two or more of them
are connected in parallel,
or in shunt, the total ca-
pacity of these condensers
for storing up energy will
26.-VARIABLE CONDENSER IN
be equal to the sum of FIG. SERIES IN THE AERIAL CIRCUIT TO
the capacities of all of DECREASE THE WAVE LENGTH OF THE
CIRCUIT.
them. Therefore, if we
place acondenser in parallel with the aerial-ground cir-
cuit, which we have just said to be a condenser, we
increase the capacity of this circuit. This connection is
shown in Fig. 25. And, since increasing the capacity of
acircuit increases its wave length, we have increased the
wave length of the circuit. A condenser connected id
this manner may be used for the same purpose as the
loading coil described on page 58.
62 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
On the other hand, if two or more condensers are con-

nected in series, the total capacity for storing up energy
will be reduced to less than the capacity of the smallest
one. Hooking up acondenser, therefore, in the manner
shown in Fig. 26, which is placing it in series in the
aerial circuit,
will decrease the
capacity of the
circuit, and like-
wise the wave
length.
The variable
condenser may
be connected in
parallel with the
local circuit to
enable placing
this circuit in
tune or in reso-
nance with the
FIG. 27.-TUNING COIL CRYSTAL DETECTOR SET aerial circuit.
WITH VARIABLE CONDENSER IN PARALLEL WITH From the fore-
BOTH THE AERIAL CIRCUIT AND THE LOCAL CIRCUIT.
going, we can
see that if the variable condenser were connected as shown
in Fig. 27, the wave length of the aerial and that of
the secondary circuit would both be increased, since the
condenser is in parallel with both circuits. In other words,
the use of the variable condenser in this position would
allow tuning the single slide tuning coil set to much higher
wave lengths. The exact range would of course depend
upon the size of the tuning coil and the sizeof the condenser.
The condenser used in this position also helps to increase

sharpness of tuning. For instance, if astation is receiving
signals from two broadcasting stations which are sending
on awave length of 360 meters, it is practically impos-
sible to separate the signals of one from those of the other..
This device,
however, will
aid in doing so
to a consider-
able extent if
we use a rela-
tively large
amount of the
condenser for
obtaining the
wave length
and reduce the
number of
turns of wire
used from the FIG. 28.-CRYSTAL DETECTOR BET WITH A VARIABLE
CONDENSER IN SERIES IN THE AERIAL CIRCUIT.
coil. For ex-
ample, in tuning a200-meter wave length aerial to a360-
meter wave length, with a 500-meter coil we might use
from 50 to 75 meters wave length on the coil and then
add the other 85 or 110 meters by the use of the variable
condenser, obtaining in many cases a tuning effect which
will eliminate certain stations or signals.
It might be said that in this hook-up (Fig. 27), the
variable condenser is connected across the circuits; or
in shunt to the detector and phones or to the coil; or in
parallel to the detector and phones or to the coil.
5
64 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
Shunt and series condensers.—A condenser placed in

parallel or in shunt is known as a shunt condenser. A
condenser connected in series in the primary circuit is
known as the series or short wave condenser.
In Fig. 28, the hook-up for the variable condenser in
series in the aerial circuit is shown. As suggested above,
this connection would reduce the wave length range of
the receiving aerial.
Two variable condensers may be used at the same
time, the one in series with the aerial circuit to decrease
the wave length of that circuit, and the other across the
secondary circuit to enable sharper tuning.
Tuning by capacity and by inductance.—Varying the
wave length by means of condensers is known as tuning
with capacity. Varying the wave length by means of wire
is known as tuning with inductance. Using a combina-
tion of both condensers and tuning coils is called tuning
by capacity and inductance.
Selecting a variable condenser.—The question as to
what size variable condenser to use is often a trouble-
some one to beginners. This question, however, need not
occasion much concern. It is largely amatter of selecting
asize which will accomplish what you wish to accomplish,
and might be considered analogous to selecting a box in
which to store articles. You would obtain a box which
would hold what you desire to store in it; in any case,
you would want one large enough, and there might be no
objection to using one which would hold more than the
articles you wish to store. The larger box would always
do the work of the smaller one, with some room to spare.
So in the case of the variable condenser, it is amatter of
selecting one which will have enough capacity to tune

the circuit to what you want to hear. Additional capa-
city is not a serious objection, except in the matter of
critical adjustment, which we shall consider alittle later.
Capacitance, or condenser effect, is measured in units
called microfarads (mfd.). Sizes of condensers are
properly designated by capacity in raicrofarads rather
than by number of plates.
The .001 mfd. size is commonly used to decrease wave
length. If a still greater decrease is desired, a smaller
condenser may be used; for example, the .0005 mfd.
size. Bear in mind that to decrease wave length, the
condenser must be connected in series.
For building up the wave length, a .0015 mfd. con-
denser, having a greater capacity than either of the
others mentioned, will furnish a wider range of increase.
As previously stated, to increase the wave length, the con-
denser must be connected in parallel.
The chief disadvantage which grows out of using a
condenser larger than necessary is that it is more critical
in adjustment. In other words, the smaller the capacity
of the condenser, the greater will be the distance through
which it is revolved in tuning to a given wave length.
For example, a.0005 mfd. size would be revolved through
a half circle in adding its total capacity to the circuit;
a .001 mfd. condenser, on the other hand, would revolve
through only aquarter of acircle in adding acapacity of
.0005 mfd.
In attempting to pick up with a large capacity con-
denser, asending station which is sharply tuned, it is an
easy matter in revolving the movable set of plates, to
66 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
pass unknowingly over the point at which the station

may be heard, and fail to pick up the signals.
A smaller condenser, not so critical in adjustment,
would add capacity more slowly and would bring in any
FIG. 29.-HOOK-up FOR THE TAPPED COIL WITH A SINGLE

SWITCH.
given signals over a wider adjustment of its revolving

plates.
The tapped tuning coil with asingle switch.—A varia-
tion of the single slide tuning coil described on page 46 is
to be found in the tapped coil. In this tuning device, taps
taken from the turns of wire at predetermined points and
connected to switch points with which aswitch arm makes
contact, take the place of the sliding contact for varying
the number of turns of wire added to the circuits. This
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 29. Connections or
y
taps are made at every fifth or at every tenth turn of wire

on the tuning coil as it is being constructed. (For method
of tapping acoil, see page 151.) In mounting atuning coil
of this type, connections are made from these taps in order,
to the first, second, third ...points of a switch. As
stated above, the switch simply takes the place of the
slider on the single slide tuning coil. Therefore, this coil
having one switch is essentially the same as the single slide
tuning coil.
In tuning with the tapped coil shown in Fig. 29, it can
be seen that if the switch arm is placed on switch point
No. 1, the circuit will be completed through the fifth
turn on the coil and only five turns of wire will be in-
cluded in the aerial and ground circuit and also in the
secondary circuit. If the switch arm is revolved to the
second switch point, ten turns will be included, and so on.
The use of a variable condenser across the secondary
circuit will enable sharper tuning, that is, finer adjust-
ment to wave lengths which fall between the taps. An-
other variable condenser, in series with the aerial circuit,
will permit tuning to stations sending on ashorter wave
length than that of the receiving aerial. The positions
of these condensers in the circuits are shown by dotted
lines.
The single switch control has an advantage over the
single slide control in the ease with which it may be
operated. It has adisadvantage, however, in that varia-
tions can be made only in steps of several turns; and as( '
broadcasting stations tune very sharply, and can some-
times be heard within avariation of only one or two turns.
of wire on the coil, it is advisable to have an instrument
68 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
permitting finer adjustment than the single switch control

affords.
Coil with a units and a multiple turns switch.—A coil
permitting finer adjustment than will the single switch coil
is shown in Fig. 30. This coil has two switches instead of
7
FIG 30.-1100K-11P FOR A TAPPED COIL WITH ONE UNITS
AND ONE MULTIPLE TURNS SWITCH.
one. As the wire is being wound, a tap is taken from

the first, second, third, fourth and fifth completed turns.
These taps are connected to five points of switch Si, as
shown. If the points of switch S2 are to be connected
to taps at every tenth turn, ten single turn taps are
usually taken from the coil, and eleven contact points on
switch S1 would then be necessary. Do not become con-
fused from these connections: the beginning of the wind-
ing is at the top of the coil, as shown in the diagram.
This end of the wire or the beginning of the winding is

connected to switch point 5 d switch Si. The tap from
the first completed turn is connected to switch point 4;
the tap from the second completed turn to switch point 3;
and so on. The fifth completed turn of wire is connected
to the zero switch points of both switches. The tenth
turn of wire is connected to point 5 of switch S2j the
15th turn of wire, to point 10 of the same switch. The
switch having its points connected to the single turns of
wire, is called the units switch. The other, in this
instance, is called the fives switch. In case the points
of the multiple turns switch are connected to every tenth
turn, it would be called the tens switch.
In tuning with this coil, if it is desired to place one turn
of wire in the circuit, the upper or units switch is placed
on point 1 and the fives switch on the zero point, as
shown in the diagram. If two turns are desired, the
units switch is moved up to point 2and the fives switch
remains at zero, and so on up to five turns. If six turns
are desired, the units switch is brought back to switch
point 1and the fives switch is moved to contact 5. If
seven, eight or nine turns of wire are desired, the fives
switch would remain on contact 5 and the units switch
would be moved to points 2, 3 or 4 respectively. In
order to add from 10 to 14 turns, the fives switch is
placed on switch point 10 and the units switch is put
through the same manipulation, etc.
For sharp tuning, it would hardly be necessary to place
a variable condenser across the secondary circuit of this
double switch control coil, since the switches permit
variations of one turn of wire at a time. It might be
70 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
used to advantage, however, in the position shown by

the dotted lines to tune out one of two stations sending
on the same wave length, by employing a relatively
large capacity of the condenser and less wire or inductance,
as suggested in connection with Fig. 27, page 62.
Remember that avariable condenser might also be used
across this circuit to build up the wave length of both the
aerial and the local circuit to a greater extent than the
coil alone will accomplish.
As with the other tuning coils, acondenser may be used
in series in the aerial circuit, as is also shown by dotted
lines, to enable tuning to lower wave lengths.
Advantages of double slide and double tapped coils.
—The disadvantage of the single slide tuner is that the
primary circuit and the local or secondary circuit are
tuned with the same slider. Neither can be tuned
separately. This disadvantage also holds in the case
of the tapped coils in Figs. 29 and 30. That is to say,
the use of any of the foregoing types of coils always
results in a compromise in tuning, and for the following
reasons: The aerial circuit derives its natural wave
length from the wire in the aerial, lead-in and ground
wire as well as the amount of wire used from the coil.
Since the secondary circuit is much more limited in length
(see Fig. 21) and therefore in wave length, the local circuit
with this type of tuning device, is never in perfect natural
resonance with the aerial circuit. In tuning, therefore,
the slider or the switch control must be moved back and
forth, increasing and decreasing the amounts of wire
equally in both circuits at the same time, until a com-
promise is reached between perfect resonance of the aerial
circuit to the circuit which is transmitting and perfect

resonance of the local circuit to the receiving aerial circuit.
For best results, the tuning coil should be so constructed
that the aerial circuit (which includes the aerial, lead-in,
ground wire, and acertain number of turns of wire in the
tuning coil itself) can be tuned independently to the
incoming signals. Separate means should be provided
for tuning the secondary circuit (which includes the
detector, receivers, condenser, and the necessary number
of turns of wire in the coil) independently to resonance
with the aerial circuit. When the circuits are tuned to
resonance with each other, the maximum amount of
energy passes through the detector and the phones in the
secondary circuit. Independent tuning of these two
circuits can be accomplished by the addition of asecond
slider to the tuning coil.
The double slide tuning coil.—Fig. 31 shows atuning
coil exactly like the single slide tuning coil, with the
exception that it has two sliders instead of one. The
operation of this coil differs slightly from that of the
single slide tuning coil. The primary, or aerial and ground
circuit, is tuned to the transmitting station by adjust-
ment of the slider S2. The local or detector or sec-
ondary circuit is then tuned by adjustment of the slider
Si. This arrangement permits tuning the primary
circuit first and adjusting the secondary circuit inde-
pendently to resonance with the primary circuit.
With the double slide tuning coil, avariable condenser
(CI) may be used across the secondary circuit to increase
its wave length; and another condenser may be used in
series with the aerial circuit (C2)to reduce the wave length
72 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
of this circuit, as has been suggested for the single slide

tuner hook-up, or in shunt to the turns of wire in the pri-
mary circuit, to build up the wave length. The shunt or
parallel connection is made from the lead-in connection
to the ground slider as shown by the position of condenser
FIG. 31.-HOOK-UP FOR A DOUBLE SLIDE TUNING COIL.
C3. All of these connections for condensers are shown by

dotted lines. Each condenser is an aid to sharp tuning.
A loading coil placed in series in the aerial circuit may be
used instead of condenser C3 to increase wave length. Or
both the loading coil and the shunt condenser may be
used; in that case, the condenser should be connected
around both the loading coil and the tuning inductance in
the circuit.
The double tapped coil.—Fig. 32 shows the wiring -dia-
gram for a tuning coil using two switches instead of the

two sliders. This diagram shows taps taken from the
coil at every five or ten turns for each switch, as described
for the single switch control coil. Note that the taps for
both sets of switch points are taken from the same turns
FIG. 32.-HOOK-UP FOR ATAPPED COIL WITH TWO MULTIPLE

TURNS SWITCHES.
of wire. It should be clear, however, that the secondary

circuit and the primary circuit would still be varied
separately. In other words, one switch may be placed
on any of its switch points, regardless of the switch point
on which the other switch arm is placed. Note also that
one set of switch points and the switch, for instance, on
the left hand side, could be swung over or revolved into
the corresponding set of switch points on the other side.
74 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
In other words, since the taps for both sets are taken from
the same turns of wire, one set of switch points would
suffice for both switches, providing the switch arms are
placed one on top of the other, properly insulated from
each other, and so arranged that they may be turned inde-
pendently. This is afeature worth noting since it appears
in some of the more complicated types of receiving sets.
Since the taps of this coil do not permit of close enough
adjustment for tuning either the secondary or the primary
circuit, avariable condenser should be used in each circuit.
The condenser in the secondery circuit should be con-
nected as shown. In the case of the primary circuit, if
the receiving aerial is too large, the second variable con-
denser should be used in series, to permit fine adjustment
of that circuit. If, on the other hand, it is desired to tune
to longer wave lengths instead of shorter, the second
variable condenser should be placed in shunt to the turns
of wire included in the primary winding. The proper
connection for each condenser in the primary circuit is
shown in this figure by dotted lines.
A loading coil in series in the aerial circuit might replace
the shunt condenser; or both the shunt condenser and
the loading coil might be used, in which case the con-
denser should be connected in parallel to both the loading
coil and the tuning inductance, as suggested on page 72.
ql tapped coil with four switches.— In Fig. 33 is shown
the wiring diagram for atuning coil using both atens and
aunits switch in place of each slider of the two slide coil.
A variable condenser should not be necessary across the
secondary circuit in this hook-up, as the tens and the
units switches vary the wire by any desired number of
turns. Just as in the hook-ups previously described,

acondenser might be used in series with the aerial circuit
to cut down the wave length, or in shunt to the turns of
wire of the coil in the primary circuit (by connection
across the two switches as shown by the dotted lines) if
:-
S 5
4
5'
z‘ 0
o'
--F
FIG. 33.-HOOK-uP FOR A TAPPED COIL WITH TWO UNITS SWITCHES
AND TWO MULTIPLE TURNS SWITCHES.
it is desired to increase the wave length to more than the

coil alone will permit. A variable condenser might also
be connected across the secondary circuit, if it is desired
to tune up to high wave lengths.
The loose coupler and the variocoupler.—The loose
coupler and the variocoupler are forms of tuning devices
which transfer the received energy from the aerial circuit
76 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
to a secondary or local circuit without actual electrical

contact. In that respect, chiefly, they differ from tuning
coils and other forms of tuning inductance which use only
one coil of wire for both the primary and the secondary
circuits.
The loose coupler is made up of two cylindrical shaped
coils of wire, wound on insulating tubes such as pasteboard
or fibre. One coil is so mounted
that it can be made to slide into
and out of the other coil with
about one-half inch separation
FIG. 34.-A L003E COUPLER.
or clearance between the two
coils. The turns of wire on
both coils of the loose coupler are made variable by
means of sliders rubbing across the wire, or by taps
taken from predetermined points on the coils to switch
points with which a switch arm may make contact.
Loose couplers are often manufactured for wide ranges of
wave lengths, for instance, 150 to 3000 meters or more.
In practice, however, the loose coupler becomes inefficient
on short wave lengths if it is constructed to cover arange
of more than from zero to 2000 meters. Properly designed
loose coupler receiving sets have an arrangemen tfor con-
necting auxiliary or loading coils in both the primary and
the secondary circuits, which permits tuning to long wave
lengths and yet retains maximum efficiency for shorter
wave lengths.
The variocoupler is much like the loose coupler in con-
struction and in operation. The primary coil is usually
wound on a cylindrical form or insulating tube like that
of the loose coupler; the secondary coil of avariocoupler,
on the other hand, is wound on a spherical shaped form

which is mounted on ashaft and rotates inside the primary
coil instead of sliding in and out as in the case of the loose
coupler. The turns of wire on the outside coil of the
variocoupler are almost always made variable by means
of a switch, with switch points connected to different
turns of wire in the coil. The
inside or rotating coil is made up of
fewer turns of wire and, as a rule,
no allowance is made for varying
the number of turns used in tuning.
The variocoupler is usually designed
FIG. 35.-A VARIOCOIIP-
for a range of about 150 to 600 or LER.
800 meters and for that reason is
more efficient in that range of wave length than a loose
coupler designed to include agreater range.
In the hook-up, the outside coil of either instrument is
connected in series with the aerial and the ground lead.
In other words, the lead-in wire connects to one end of
the outside coil and the ground wire connects to the
variable connection of the same coil or vice versa. Energy
picked up by the aerial, lead-in and ground wire must,
then pass through a certain number of turns of wire on ;
the outside coil.
When the energy which is picked up by the aerial
circuit passes through the turns of wire on this outside
coil, much of it is transferred to the inside coil of wire
by what is termed induction. This transfer of current
takes place although there is no direct contact between
the coils. The energy which is thus induced in the innet
coil of wire, flows out of the coil and is led to the detector
78 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
and to the head telephones where it is converted into

audible sounds as in the case of the tuning coil circuit
previously described.
Coupling effects in tuning.—The chief advantage of the
loose coupler and the variocoupler over other types of
FIG. 36.- HOOK-UP POR A LOOSE COUPLER IN A CRYSTAL DETEC-

TOR SET.
tuning devices is that the position of the inside coil may

be changed with respect to the outside coil. This prop-
erty or effect is called coupling. In the case of the loose
coupler, when the inside coil is pulled out of the other coil,
it is said to be loosely coupled. When the two cogs of the
loose coupler are completely telescoped, the instrument
is said to be tightly coupled. In the variocoupler, when
the inside coil is placed so that its turns of wire are in the
same relative position as the turns of wire on the outside

coil, the instrument is said to be tightly coupled; but
when the inside coil of the variocoupler is revolved 90
degrees so that
its turns of wire
are at right
angles to those z
of the outside
coil, it is said
to be loosely
coupled.
By altering
the relative L.Jor
position of the ,
primary and
secondary coils V. COU P
of either the
loose coupler
or the vario -
coupler, much
closer tuning is
possible. Sig-
nals from two
stations which --.-
are sending on FIG. 37.-HOOK-17P FOR A VARIOCOOPLER IN A CRYS-
TAL DETECTOR SET.
the same wave
length can be separated more satisfactorily with the
loose coupled type of instrument than with the tuning
coil or "single tuned circuit" type of receiver.
In operating the loose coupler or the variocoupler, the
secondary coil should be placed inside of or in close.
8
80 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
inductive relation to the primary coil. If the secondary

coil is variable, its switch or slider should then be set to
provide for a wave length somewhat near that of the
signals which it is desired to receive. After a little
practice with the set, this approximation is not so difficult
as it sounds. Next the primary coil is adjusted by the
slider to the point where the signals come in at maximum
strength, indicating that the primary circuit is in tune
with the aerial radiating the incoming signals. After
the primary circuit has been adjusted to the wave length
.
of the incoming signals and the secondary circuit placed

in resonance with the primary, reduce the coupling of
the two coils by pulling the secondary coil out or away
from the primary coil in the case of the loose coupler,
or by revolving the secondary in the case of the vario-
coupler. In this manner, vary the coupling until the
loudest response is heard.
Separating the secondary coil from the primary coil
is known as loose coupling or sharp tuning and placing
the coils closer together is known as tight coupling or
broad tuning. By altering the relative positions of these
two coils, especially in the case of the loose coupler, it is
possible to separate the signals of one station from those
of another, or if two stations are transmitting on the
same wave length, completely to eliminate the signals
from one station while preserving those of another.
Specifications for making a loose coupler.—A loose
coupler with arange of from zero to about 2000 meters
with the average aerial may be made up in the following
manner: The primary is wound on an insulating tube
4M inches in diameter and 6inches long with No. 22 wire
for a distance of 4% inches, making about 175 turns of

wire. The secondary in wound on a similar tube, 3%
inches in diameter and 5% inches long, with No. 26 wire
.for a distance of 4% inches, making approximately 325
turns of wire. Taps are taken at every IA inch on the
secondary winding,
making eight taps
for this winding.
The tapped loose
coupler.—F ig. 38
shows the hook-up
for a loose coupler
having taps and
switches instead of
sliders. In this dia-
gram, each coil is
shown with a multi-
ple turns switch.
The primary might
be wound similarly
to the coil for the =7
single slide tuner FIG. 38.-1100K-11P FOR A CRYSTAL DETEC-

TOR SET WITH A TAPPED LOOSE COUPLER.
shown in Fig. 29, but
if taps are taken only at every five or ten turns, as in
this case, the variations will not be fine enough for close
tuning. Under these conditions, a variable condenser is
required across the secondary circuit as shown, and
another either in shunt to the primary coil or in series
with it, as shown by the dotted linee. In the case of a
loose coupler with arange from 0to 2000 meters, having
perhaps 200 turns of wire on the secondary coil as few as
82 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
eight or ten taps might be taken from the entire coil.

This, of course, would permit varying the secondary coil
only in large steps.
In justification of this arrangement, we might consider
the fact concerning receiving sets, that a circuit to be
tuned readily to a given frequency, should possess both
inductance and capacity. Both factors are theoretically
necessary for an oscillatory circuit, which, in turn, is
necessary for good tuning qualities. The primary circuit
obtains capacity from the aerial and the earth beneath it
(which we have considered as a condenser), and induct-
ance from the wires in the aerial circuit, especially from
those in the tuning device inserted in that circuit. The
secondary coil furnishes inductance to its circuit, but
adds comparatively little capacity, although a capacity
effect is obtained from the turns of wire lying side by
side on the coil. Therefore, it is advantageous to include
in parallel in the secondary circuit, avariable condenser,
which will add capacity to that circuit. With both capa-
city and inductance at our disposal, we can vary the turns
of wire in the secondary coil in large steps and then add
capacity until we reach a wave length which may lie
between two taps.
Remembering that capacity and wave length of a
circuit are directly proportional, we might better under-
stand the action of the secondary circuit from the following
procedure in tuning: In tuning to 360 meters with acoil
the third tap of which would give us 300 meters and the
fourth tap 40Q meters, it is plain that we should be out of
tune on either switch point. By turning the switch blade
back to the third tap, which gives us 300 meters, and then
adding capacity from the variable condenser, we can tune

to 360 meters or any other wave length which might come
between the taps. The addition of the secondary variable
condenser, however, is not absolutely necessary in all
cases. Very often the secondary coil of this type is broad
in tune and will re-
spond to a great
range of wave
lengths which
should perhaps
more properly be
tuned at points be-
tween the taps. Be-
fore purchasing a -
condenser for use
with this loose
coupler, it is sug-
gested that the
reader borrow a
variable condenser
from a fellow ama-
«err"
teur, if possible, in FIG. 39.-HOOK-UP FOR A LOOSE COUPLER
order to ascertain WITH FOUR SWITCHES, IN A CRYSTAL DETEC-
TOR BET.
whether the instru-
ment will improve the tuning qualities of the set.
It is customary to have aunits and amultiple switch
for the primary of aloose coupler, as shown in Fig. 39, to
permit variations of one turn of wire at a time, instead
of having a variable condenser in the circuit for fine
tuning. However, as in the circuits and hook-ups pre-
viously described, a variable condenser may be inserted
84 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
in series in the aerial circuit to reduce the wave length of

that circuit if the receiving aerial is too large; or one
may be placed across the primary winding if it is desired
to increase the wave length of the aerial circuit to a
greater degree than the coil alone will permit. Both
connections for this variable condenser are shown by
dotted lines.
The connection of a variable condenser across the
secondary circuit for the purpose of increasing its wave
length, is also shown by dotted lines in Fig. 39.
The secondary winding may be varied with aunits and
a multiple switch, as shown, but owing to the construc-
tional difficulties in supporting the leads in such a way
as to permit movement of the coil, this type is quite
uncommon.
The short wave loose coupler. This loose coupler is
simile to the 2000-meter coupler described on page 80,
but is shorter in length. It might be constructed with a
slider arrangement for the primary or with a units and
multiple switch. The primary coil of a 600-meter loose
coupler might be wound on the same diameter tube as
that used for the larger instrument (4 1 A inches), but
only 2 inches or 2% inches in length, thus permitting
about 42 turns of No. 22 wire in its windings. Seven
points would then be sufficient for the units switch, each
controlling one turn, and seven for the multiple switch,
each controlling six turns. The last unit turn is con-
nected to both switches as shown in Fig. 30. The sec-
ondary of a600-meter loose coupler would be varied by
switch points as in the case of the large loose coupler.
The secondary winding of the smaller coupler might
be placed on a 3%-inch tube, covering the same linear

distance on this tube as that covered in the winding on
the primary. The wire for the secondary winding should
be about No. 26, again permitting a greater number of
turns of wire in the secondary than in the primary coil,
or approximately 75 to 80 turns. The short wave length
loose coupler should have about eight taps taken from
the secondary coil, uniformly spaced, and a variable
condenser across the winding should be used as in the
case of the large loose coupler.
The three-slide tuning coil.—A three-slide tuning coil
is constructed in the same manner as adouble-slide tuning
coil, with a third brass rod and sliding contact added.
Its connection in the circuit is shown in Fig. 40. The
aerial and ground circuit is varied by means of the slider
S2 as in the case of the two-slide tuning coil. The three-
slide tuning coil differs from the two-slide tuning coil in
operation in that the detector circuit may be varied by
means of the slider S3 as well as Si.
In tuning with this coil, the aerial and ground circuit
is first tuned to the incoming signals by means of the
slider S2; next the secondary circuit is tuned to the
primary circuit by allowing slider S3 to remain near the
end of the coil to which the lead-in is attached and moving
slider Si toward or away from slider Sa until the signals
are heard at maximum strength. Then, when the
secondary circuit has thus been tuned to the primary
circuit, aslight coupling effect can be obtained by drawing
both the sliders Si and Sa towards the lower end of the
coil, taking care to keep them the same distance apart.
In this ease the turns of wire used in the aerial circuit
86 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
would be at one end of the coil and the turns of wire

included in the secondary circuit would be at the other
end of the coil. This separates to some extent the turns
of wire in the primary circuit from those in the secondary
FIG. 40.-1100K-13P FOR ATHREE SLIDE TUNING COIL

IN ACRYSTAL DETECTOR SET.
circuit as in the case of the loose coupler when the second-

ary coil is drawn out of the primary coil, or of the vario-
coupler when the secondary coil is revolved at right
angles to the primary coil. The only advantage in a
three-slide tuning coil is the slight coupling effect to be
obtained in the foregoing manner; however, this advan-
tage over the two-slide tuning coil is so slight that it
seldom compensates for the difficulty of tuning with the
three-slide coil. The variable condensers C2 and C3
shown by the dotted lines in shunt to the secondary circuit

and to the primary circuit respectively, would be used
in the positions indicated, to increase the wave length
of the three-slide tuning coil set, or to enable sharper
tuning A condenser, C1, is also shown in series with
the aerial to decrease the wave length of the aerial circuit.
The condenser C2 might also be used in shunt to the
secondary circuit when the condenser C1 is used in series
with the primary circuit; in that position, the former
would be used for sharper tuning in the secondary circuit.
The condensers Cs and CIobviously would not be used
at the same time since the purpose of the latter is to
decrease the wave length of the aerial circuit and of the
former to increase it.
A loading coil might, of course, be used with the three-
slide tuning coil, just as in the case of the two-slide or
the single-slide coil or any of the loose couplers. It
should be inserted between the lead-in and the tuning
coil, as in the case of the other tuning devices.
Honeycomb and spiderweb coils.—Honeycomb coils
and spiderweb coils are forms of inductance which per-
form the same function as tuning coils and loose couplers.
Honeycomb coils with slight variations, appear on the
market under such trade names as ultra-honeycomb
coils, duo-lateral coils, G. A. coils, and others.
The honeycomb coil in any of its forms is made up of
layers of wire wound one on top of the other on asmall
insulating tube about two inches in diameter and one
inch in length. This coil is shown in Fig. 41. The turns
of wire in each layer are separated for adistance equal to
two or three times the thickness of the wire. Further-
88 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
more the turns of wire in each layer of the entire winding,

cross the turns of wire in the layers next to it, at an angle,
forming acrisscross effect somewhat similar to the wind-
ing in aball of twine. Around the outside of the winding
is placed aband of heavy paper or other
fibrous material which is fastened at
both ends to a plug arrangement in
order to hold the winding in place
against the plug. The two ends of the
Fla. 41.—A HONEY- coil of wire are soldered to two contacts
COMB COIL.
in the plug.
The spiderweb coil is shown in Fig. 42. Its construc-
tion is similar to that of honeycomb coils in that the
turns of wire in the winding crisscross one another.
Spiderweb coils, however, differ considerably from honey-
comb coils in that the spiderweb coil consists of only one
layer of wire, and each turn of wire
crisscrosses the adjacent turns several
times during a complete turn. The
appearance of a spiderweb coil might
be compared to that of a wagon
wheel with a wire or rope wound Fla. WEB 42.—A SPIDER-
COIL.
in and out between the spokes, start-
ing from the hub and working out towards the rim.
The winding of a spiderweb coil is usually formed on
radial sections or "spokes" cut from a circular piece of
thin sheet fibre about four inches in diameter, having
radial slits cut in it to form the sections or spokes. This
circular form is usually fastened to a support, as in the
case of the honeycomb coils, and connections are made
through the supports to the ends of the winding.
The advantages of spiderweb and honeycomb coils over

ordinary tuning coils grow out of the manner in which
the wires are crisscrossed in the windings, instead of being
wound in spiral cylindrical form.
When a direct current is sent into a tuning coil, in
which the turns of wire are wound alongside of one an-
other in one layer, on atube or other cylindrical shaped
form, a magnetic effect is set up by each turn of wire
which builds up in acumulative manner on the magnetic
effect set up by its adjacent turns of wire, thus forming
the complete magnetic field. But, while this magnetic
field is building up, it induces in the same turns of wire
a momentary current in the opposite direction, which
tends to oppose the original flow of current sent into the
coil. This opposing current is called a counter electro-
motive force (counter E.M.F.). Again, when the original
current is switched off, the magnetic lines of force built
up by it of course collapse, and in so doing they induce a
second momentary pulse of current in the turns of wire
which, strange as it may seem, tends to oppose the cur-
rent that is dying out because of being switched off. In
fact, it opposes the dying current to the extent that the
receding current is momentarily sustained.
The action of the coil in inducing counter electric cur-
rent in itself is known as self-induction.
The property of a coil which enables it to induce
counter electric currents in itself is called inductance. It
is mainly the property of inductance which gives us the
increase in wave length when we connect a coil of wire
in the circuit of aradio receiving or transmitting set, and
for that reason it is desirable to acertain extent.
90 RADIO SIMPLIFIEL
Self-induction occurs in a coil through which a steady

direct current is flowing only when that current is switched
on or off, but with rapidly fluctuating or pulsating direct
current or with alternating or oscillating current, self-
induction is practically continuous, since it occurs at every
pulsation or alternation of the current.
An undesirable capacity or condenser effect is also
obtained, to some extent, from the scheme of winding in
the tubular shaped tuning coil, which is eliminated to a
considerable extent in the case of honeycomb and spider-
web coils. This condenser effect results from the ten-
dency of a current on entering the first turn of wire in
the tuning coil, literally to jump from the point of en-
trance at the first turn, over to the second turn of wire,
without going around the coil. The current also has the
same tendency to go directly across from the second turn
of wire to the third turn and so on for all the turns of
wire in the coil. In trying to go through the insulation
of the wire from one turn to the next, the current stores
itself up in the insulation and in the air space between the
turns in electrostatic lines of force, as in the case of a
condenser. This capacity effect, unlike the inductance
effect, is undesirable in acoil used in radio work, because
the current stored up between the turns of wire repre-
sents aloss, known as the dielectric loss.
It is evident from the foregoing that if we can reduce
the capacity effect without reducing the inductance prop-
erty, we can obtain amore efficient tuning inductance.
. Capacity effect in acoil of wire is known as distributed
capacity. Distributed capacity is lowered to a certain
extent in the honeycomb coils without sacrificing induct-
•
ance to too great an extent, by spacing the turns well,

as suggested above, and by having the turns of wire in
one layer, cross the turns of wire in the adjacent layers
at an angle.
A lower value
of distributed ca-
pacity is also ob-
tained in the
spiderweb coils
by having the
turns of wire in
the one layer
cross each other
at an angle sev-
eral times during
one complete
turn, as previ-
ously noted.
Honeycomb
coils are usually
mounted by
means of plugs
and receptacles
into which the
plug connections
may be inserted.
The arrangement FIG. 43.-HOOK-UP FOR TWO HONEYCOMB COILS
IN A CRYSTAL DETECTOR SET.
is illustrated in
Fig. 43. Such an arrangement permits the interchange
of coils of various sizes for different wave lengths.
Plugs and receptacles as a rule are not used with
92 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
spiderweb coils, as this type of coil is employed only for

short wave length reception due to the fact that coils
FIG. 44.-HOOK-UP FOR A CRYSTAL DETECTOR SET

WITH TWO SPIDERWEB COILS.
designed for long wave lengths would be of such large

proportions that they would be unhandy to manipulate.
Best results are to be obtained with either type of coil
in acrystal detector set when two are used in acoupled

circuit as shown in Figs. 43 and 44. In either hook-up,
coupling is controlled by having the primary coil stationary
and the secondary coil movable. The coupling movement
of the secondary coil is similar to the swinging of adoor
on ahinge. The coupling effect may, however, be ob-
tained without the use of the mountings by laying one
coil on the table and sliding the other coil over it, particu-
larly in the case of the spiderweb coils.
Spiderweb coils for tuning to wave lengths up to 600
meters (with the aid of condensers), may be made up of
two pieces of pasteboard or fibre paper, four inches in
diameter and 112- of an inch thick, with an uneven number
of radial slits (about 15) cut in each, providing an uneven
number of "spokes". Approximately 20 turns of No. 18
to No. 24 wire are wound on one form for the primary
winding and 25 turns of the saute wire on the other
form for the secondary winding.
As indicated in Figs. 43 and 44, a variable condenser
would be necessary in shunt to the secondary coil and
another condenser either in shunt to or in series with the
primary coil to permit sharp tuning. Larger spiderweb
coils might be made up having taps taken from them to a
units and a multiple switch, in which case the variable
condensers would be unnecessary. Some forms of honey-
comb coils have three or four taps taken from them in
order to eliminate the necessity of having separate coils
for different wave lengths. However, as in the case of
those which are not variable, condensers would be needed
for sharp tuning
The variemeter.—The usual type of variometer is made
94 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
up of two coils of wire connected in series and wound on

or glued to insulating forms, one of which is smaller than
the other. These forms are so mounted that the smaller
one, called the rotor, is placed inside the larger 'one,
which is called the stator. The inner form, or the rotor,
is so arranged that it may be rotated.
These forms may be cylindrical or
spherical in shape, but in either case
they are concentric; that is to say,
they both have acommon center or
axis.
FIG. 45.-A VARIOMETER. The variometer differs from the
variocoupler chiefly in that the two
coils or windings of the variometer are connected in series,
while the two coils or windings of the variocoupler are
not connected to each other.
These instruments also differ in that the turns of wire
in the variometer are seldom variable while the turns of
wire on the outside coil of the variocoupler are usually
made variable by means of taps connected to switch
points over which aswitch arm rotates.
A variometer may very easily be made at home. In
the home-made instrument, two pieces of cardboard or
other insulation tubing about 1% or 2inches long may be
used. The larger tube might have an inside diameter of
about 4% inches. The inside tube should then have an
outside diameter of about 3A 1 inches, to permit it to
revolve inside of the larger tube. Each tube should be
wound with forty or fifty turns of No. 20 double cotton-
covered wire. In making the internal connection, either
end of one coil may be connected to either end of the other.
If acurrent of electricity is passed through the variom-

eter, it will of course pass through both coils of wire
(since the two coils are connected in series), and amag-
netic field in each coil will be set up by the current.
When the inside coil or rotor winding is placed so that
its turns of wire are parallel to the turns of wire on the
outside coil or stator winding and so that the current
passing through the turns of wire on the inside coil travels
in the same direction as the current passing through the
outside coil, the magnetic field produced by one coil will
combine with and build up on the magnetic field produced
by the other coil.
If the inside coil is then revolved 180 degrees or given
ahalf turn, the turns of wire on both coils will again be
parallel, but in this case, current passing through the
variometer will travel through one coil in one direction
and through the other coil in the opposite direction. The
magnetic field of one coil will then "buck" or oppose the
magnetic field of the other coil.
If alternating or oscillating current, or pulsating direct
current is sent through the coils of the vaiiometer, an
effect known as self-induction will be present in each coil
at the same time that the magnetic fields of the two coils
are acting upon each other. This self-induction will be
at amaximum when the magnetic fields of the two coils
are building up on each other, and at aminimum when
the fields are opposing each other. As suggested on page
90, when alternating current or fluctuating direct current
is passing through acoil, self-induction is practically con-
tinuous, since it occurs at every alternation or fluctuation.
Self-induction in acoil of wire has the same inductance
96 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
effect which is to be obtained, as we learned in connection

with spiderweb and honeycomb coils, from the addition
of wire to the circuit. Since wave length is directly pro-
portional to inductance, it follows that the wave length
of the circuit in which the variometer is placed may be
FIG. 441-H00K-17P FOR A VARIOMETER IN A CRYSTAL' DETECTOR SET.
varied from aminimum to a maximum by revolving the

inside coil of the variometer through ahalf revolution or
180 degrees. Just how great arange of wave length the
variometer can add to a circuit will depend upon the
sizes of the two coils. In the short wave regenerative set
it usually controls arange of from 200 to 600 meters.
It should be evident from the foregoing that the vari-
°meter offers a very flexible instrument for tuning by
means of inductance. In the case of the instrument of
the range suggested, the inductance may be varied in the
smallest degree by slightly rotating the inner coil in one
direction or in the other.
The variometer may be used in place of a single-slide

tuning coil. As previously suggested, wave length would
be varied with this instrument by revolving the rotor
and not by means of aslider or taps as in the case of the
tuning coils. Both coils in the variometer are included in
both the primary and the secondary circuits if it is used
as atuning coil; therefore, varying the position of the rotor
of the variometer in Fig. 46 will vary the wave length
of the primary and the secondary circuits simultaneously.
As indicated by dotted lines, avariable condenser may
be used in shunt to the variometer to increase, at the
same time, the wave-length range of both the secondary
and primary circuit, or in series with the latter circuit to
decrease the wave-length range of the set.
A variometer may also be used as aloading coil, placed
in series with the aerial circuit; or one may be placed in
series with the secondary circuit; or two may be used
at the saine time. This instrument affords avery flexible
means for adding wave length to either circuit of areceiv-
ing set.
Underwriters' requirements.—The ground wire for any
receiving set may be bare or insulated copper wire, but it
must not be smaller than No. 14, except that approved
copper-clad steel wire not smaller than No. 17 may be
used. The receiving set ground wire may be run either
inside or outside the building, but it must be entirely
independent from the lightning ground wire.
Under no circumstances should the ground connection
be made to agas pipe.
CHAPTER V
VACUUM TUBES
Description of the vacuum tube.—By far the most

important unit at the present time in the transmission
and reception of radio telephone messages is the vacuum
valve, vacuum bulb or
Gloss Bulb- Spiral Grid
thermionic valve, or as
--Grid Support
Plate (cutaway)
it is most commonly
fitment -
..... called, the vacuum tube.
---Plote Support This valve or tube, as
Moment
3upport.. liii shown in Fig. 47, some-
what resembles a small
Gloss Stem' --Bross 8ose electric light bulb. It
differs from the incan-
---PloteTerminal descent lamp, however,
'Moment »runnels» ----Grict Terminal
in that there is enclosed
*
FIG. 47.—THE THREE ELEMENT VACUUM in the glass bulb two ele-
TUBE.
ments in addition to the
filament, and in that it has four external contact points
instead of two. This glass bulb, highly exhausted of air
or gas, is mounted in abrass and composition base through
which the four terminal pins or contacts protrude. It
contains (1) a metallic filament which may be heated to
incandescence by passing an electric current through it,
and to which two of the external contact points are con-
nected; (2) a metallic cage or spiral of wire, called the
(98)
VACUUM TUBES 99
grid, surrounding the filament, and having an outside

terminal; and (3) a cylindrical metal plate surrounding
the grid, also with an external contact point.
Development of the vacuum tube.—For many years
it has been known that a metal filament heated in a
vacuum will give off minute particles or negative charges
of electricity, called electrons, in much the same fashion
as a piece of iron raised to white heat in a blacksmith's
forge throws off sparks.
Dr. J. A. Fleming, an English inventor, was the first
to adapt the emission of electrons from aheated filament
in avacuum tube to apparatus for receiving radio signals.
Into abulb containing afilament, he introduced ametallic
plate with an external contact point, and then exhausted
the air from the bulb. Dr. Fleming found that this glow
lamp, or oscillation valve, as he named it, would pass
electricity better in one direction than in the opposite
direction. In other words, the valve had the property of
rectifying alternating current, similar to that of the
crystal used as a detector. By placing the valve in
series with a source of radio-frequency oscillations, one-
half of each oscillation could be suppressed, and the
circuit would then be transversed by a pulsating direct
current, just as in the case of the crystal detector, with
the difference that the bulb gave much better results.
The three-element vacuum valve (shown in Fig. 47)
which is in general use at the present time, is amodifica-
tion of the Fleming valve. The introduction of the third
element, called the grid, is credited to Dr. Lee De Forest.
Uses of the vacuum tube.—At the present time, the
three-element vacuum tube is used in radio:
100 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
(1) As a detector, to rectify high-frequency oscilla-

tions.
(2) As an audio-frequency amplifier, to magnify
variations in current in the plate circuit of a
detector, thereby amplifying the sounds pro-
duced in the receivers.
(3) As a radio-frequency amplifier, to magnify the
high-frequency currents generated in the
aerial by the incoming signals, thereby build-
ing up weak signals so that they will actuate
the detector.
(4) As an oscillator, to generate high-frequency
oscillations for both receiving and transmitting.
(5) As a modulator, to control or mould the high-
frequency oscillations generated by the send-
ing tube.
The two-element vacuum tube is used as a rectifier of
alternating current for charging batteries and for supplying
direct current for other uses in radio.
Only the first mentioned use of the vacuum tube will
be considered at this point. The other uses will be dis-
cussed in later chapters.
It should not be assumed that the vacuum tube is
restricted in its uses to radio. For anumber of years it
has been used to amplify speech on long distance wire
telephone lines, especially in transcontinental communi-
cation. At intervals along the line, it is employed to
stimulate the feeble voice controlled currents, making
possible the present long distance wire telephone com-
munication.
It is used also to amplify physical sound, as of the
VACUUM TUBES 101
voice of a speaker addressing a widely scattered com-

pany. It has been adapted to use in an instrument to
aid the hearing of the deaf. By the aid of the vacuum
tube, the slow dis-
integration of mat-
ter may be amplified
into audible sounds. G.C.G.
The tube has also

been successfully
employed to amplify
other sense impres-
sions. 111'1 ,1
1111111 ,1i 111111.1 ...
,
B Bat.
THE VACUUM TUBE
AS A DETECTOR .
In considering
how the vacuum
valve operates, it is
necessary to keep in
mind only that like
charges of electricity
repel one another,
while unlike charges
attract one another.
That is to say, posi-
tive repels positive;
negative repels neg- 48.-HOOK-UP FOR A SIMPLE VACUUM
TUBE DETECTOR SET.
ative; but positive
attracts negative. In this discussion, the authors desire
also to draw the attention of the reader to the more
recent theory that electric current flows from negative
to positive in the external circuit of a battery or other

generating source.
Fig. 48 shows the circuit and the picture diagram of
the simplest practical receiving set using a vacuum tube
detector. The tuning device used is asingle-slide tuning
coil. As complicated as this circuit may at first appear,
it can readily be seen that it is the same as that of the
single-slide tuning coil and crystal detector set, with the
vacuum tube detector substituted for the crystal detector.
In fact, the vacuum tube connection may be substituted
for the crystal detector connection with any of the tuning
devices in the hook-ups shown in Chapter IV.
This substitution, however, has made two somewhat
radical changes in the secondary circuit: (1) the use of
the vacuum tube has necessitated introducing two bat-
teries into the hook-up; and (2) the connections to the
filament, the plate and the grid of the tube form three
different circuits in the hook-up of the vacuum tube
detector, in addition to the primary or aerial circuit.
"A" and "B" batteries.—The two batteries used in
the hook-up are commonly called the "A" battery and
the "B" battery. The so-called "A" battery ordinarily
is a 6-volt storage battery and is used only to heat the
filament in the bulb. Its circuit includes a rheostat, by
means of which its current and therefore the temperature
of the filament may be varied. The "B" battery is
usually made up of flashlight battery cells hooked together
to furnish a voltage of 22 1A to 45 volts to the plate in
the valve. Its purpose is to keep the plate charged
positively, and to furnish negative electrons to the fila-
ment. Its circuit includes a means for varying the
VACUUM TUBES 103
voltage, just as the "A" battery circuit includes adevice

for varying the current.
.1.111.1.1.1.1.1.1. 11.1.1.1.1.
.1.1.1 ,1.1. -1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1..1.1 ,1

1
,11. 1
FIG. 49.-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE HOOK-UP SHOWN IN FIG. 48. A'

SHOWS THE AERIAL CIRCUIT IN HEAVY LINES; 1B,TRE SEOONDARY OR
GRID CIRCUIT IN HEAVY LINES; C,THE FILAMENT CIRCUIT IN HEAVY
LINES; AND D,THE PLATE CIRCUIT IN HEAVY LINES
Both of these sources of current will be considered in

detail in the following chapter.
Circuits of the vacuum tube detector.—For the sake of
clearness, the aerial circuit of this set and the three circuits
of the detector are shown in heavy lines in Fig. 49, which
includes four illustrations of the same hook-up. A shows

the primary or aerial-and-ground circuit. B shows the
secondary or grid circuit, which includes the same turns
of wire on the tuning coil as does the primary circuit.
C shows the "A" battery or filament circuit. D shows
the plate circuit.
Note (1) that the grid of the vacuum tube is con-
nected directly to one side of the secondary or grid circuit,
through the grid leak, and grid condenser; (2) that
one side of the filament is connected to the other side of
the secondary or grid circuit, and also to the negative
post of the storage or "A" battery and to the negative
side of the "B" battery in the plate circuit; (3) that the
other side of the filament is connected to the rheostat or
variable resistance, which in turn is connected to the
positive post of the "A" battery; (4) that the plate is
connected through the receivers, to the positive side of
the "B" batteries, virtually making the plate the posi-
tive terminal of the "B" battery.
The grid condenser is a small fixed condenser
very similar to the one described in connection
FIG. 50.-A with the crystal detector set on page 50, having
GRID GRID a capacity to the value of from .00025 t
ANDA LEAX o .001
CONDENSER. m fd.
The grid leak is a high resistance having a value of

from 50,000 to 5,000,000 ohms, usually constructed in the
form of a thin graphite or carbon line placed on some
kind of insulating material. It may even be alead pencil
mark drawn on apiece of paper.
The filament rheostat is usually made up of a coil of
iron or some alloy resistance wire, wound in the shape
VACUUM TUBES 105
of aspiral, about one-half inch in diameter, on aform of

fibre or some other heat resisting insulating material, bent
in a semicircle. A contact is so arranged that it may
be made to slide over the coil of wire and make contact
at various points. The resistance of the fila-
ment rheostat usually has avalue of from six
to ten ohms.
' The action of the vacuum tube.—As pre-
viously stated, when the current from the FIG. 51.-A
"A" battery bas heated the filament, elec- FILAMENTRHEOSTAT.
trons or negative charges of electricity, are
projected from the filament and are attracted to the plate
P, which we have considere .dto be virtually an extension
of the positive post of the "B" battery. This flow of

electrons sets up a current in the plate circuit through
the receivers, the "B" battery, back through the filament
and across again to the plate. This current in the plate
circuit flows only while negative electrons are passing
from the filament to the plate.
At the same time that the electrons are passing from
the filament to the plate, some of them are being inter-
cepted by the grid and stored up on it. The electrons
which have thus collected on the grid cannot flow back
through the grid condenser, and will not force their way
through the high resistance grid leak to the filament until
after a certain value has been reached. The negative
value reached by the collection of electrons on the grid
may be as much as —2 or —3 volts, or more. These
negative charges of electricity, storing up on the grid,
form anegative charge which rises to its given value.
We shall see in a moment how this negative charge
forming on the grid will limit, to a certain extent, the

flow of electrons from the filament to the plate, and
therefore the value of the plate current in the receivers.
In radio telephone reception, radio vibrations or oscil-
lations which have been moulded or controlled by sound
waves passed into the transmitter at the sending station,
are induced in the receiving aerial circuit as we learned in
Chapter I, and are transferred to the local or grid circuit.
When these oscillations of current are set up in the grid
circuit, the grid of the vacuum tube receives alternately
apositive and anegative charge for each oscillation.
When apositive charge is impressed on the grid of the
vacuum tube, it neutralizes the negative charge already
placed upon it from the collection of the electrons. This
decreases the screening action of the grid to the flow of
electrons from the filament to the plate, and momentarily
allows a rush of current from the filament to the plate.
As the current reverses, and flows in the other direction
in the grid circuit, the neutralizing effect of the positive
charge, which has just been impressed on the grid, is
removed and the negative side of the oscillation is im-
pressed on the grid, restoring it to its former negative
value and placing an additional negative charge on the
grid as well. This sudden rise in the negative value of
the grid again repels the electrons and hence reduces the
current passing from the filament to the plate, thereby
effectually reducing the flow of current through the plate
circuit.
In this manner, the alternating pulses of the incoming
oscillations, rapidly impressed upon the grid of the
vacuum tube, fluctuate the stronger current flowing from
VACUUM TUBES 107
the "B" battery to the filament and to the plate and

hence through the plate circuit. These pulses of current
in the plate circuit, however, are occurring at radio fre-
quency and are too rapid in their succession to operate
the disks in the telephone receivers.
In order to understand the reception of radio telephone
messages, we must at this point examine more carefully
than was possible in Chapter I, the nature of radio tele- i
phone oscillations and waves.
In the first place, the radio telephone transmitter in-
cludes adevice which generates continuous oscillations.
In the operation of the set, the generator is set into action,
and throughout the period of transmission, it continues
to furnish oscillations of current to the aerial circuit, at
radio frequency regardless of whether or not sounds are
being passed into the transmitter. In the transmission
of voice or music, the sounds are directed into a trans-
mitter connected to a piece of apparatus called a modu-
lator. This modulator modifies or moulds the continuous
radio-frequency oscillations by varying their amplitude
1
, ...
_
A 8
Fm. 52.
A. CONTINUOUS WAVES OF RADIO FREQUENCY RADIATED BY AN OSCILLA-
TION GENERATOR. B. CONTINUOUS WAVES MOULDED OR VARIED IN
AMPLITUDE BY THE MODULATOR, IN KEEPING WITH THE FRE QUENCY OF THE
SOUND WAVES PASSED INTO THE TRANSMITTER.
at audio-frequency rates corresponding to the frequency

of the sound vibrations being passed into the transmitter.
The action of the modulator will be considered more in
detail in Chapter X. Its effect, however, on the con-

tinuous waves radiated by the telephone transmitter may
be illustrated as in Fig. 52
The elements of a radio telephone system shown in
Fig. 1, page 12, may now be more accurately represented
by Fig. 53.
Returning to our discussion of the vacuum tube de-
tector, we can see that since the radio frequency oscilla-
Iiiiiiiii11111111111111111
OSCILLATION
6 EWERA TOR DETECTOR
MODULATOR TUNER
)))
FIG. 53.-ESSENTIAL UNITS OF A RADIO TELEPHONE SYSTEM.
tions generated in the transmitting set have been modified

in the manner described above, and since the waves
picked up by the receiving aerial have the characteristics
indicated in Fig. 52B, two sets of oscillations must be
present in our aerial circuit and in our grid circuit; and
two sets of pulsations must be present in the plate circuit,
controlled by the valve action of the grid: (1) radio-fre-
quency pulsations, corresponding to the frequency of the
continuous waves; and (2) audio-frequency pulsations
corresponding to the variations in amplitude caused by
the sound waves, through the modulator, at the sending
station. These latter pulsations, of audio frequency,
operate the disks in the telephone receivers. The way
VACUUM TUBES 109
in which the radio-frequency pulsations in the plate circuit

may be put to work will be considered in Chapter VII.
In the manner described in the foregoing pages, the
grid of the vacuum tube acts as avalve or screen, varying
or fluctuating the strength of the plate circuit current,
which flows through the telephone receivers in one-direc-
tion pulses corresponding in intensity and in frequency
to the sound vibrations passed into the distant trans-
mitter.
The by-pass condensen—A fixed condenser connected
across the head telephones and the "B" battery is shown
by dotted lines in Fig. 48. Its purpose is to offer apath
of lower resistance than is afforded by the receivers and
the "B" battery, for the radio-frequency pulsations in
the plate circuit. This condenser wilftnot pass to any
appreciable extent, the audio-frequent pulsations, since it
offers a high impedance to currents of low frequency.
The audio-frequent pulsations will therefore pass through
the receivers in the usual manner.
The by-pass condenser is provided as standard equip-
ment with few vacuum tube detector sets, since most sets
will function quite well without this device. For that
reason, the condenser is shown in dotted lines. As a
matter of fact, the parallel wires in the receiver cords
provide acondenser effect to acertain extent. For best
results, however, this device should be used in the con-
nection indicated, and should provide acapacity of about
.001 or .002 mfd.
The amplifying effect of the vacuum tube.—It is inter-
esting to note at this point that the effect of the weak
oscillations impressed on the grid circuit is greatly mag-
nified in the much stronger fluctuating current flowing

through the receivers. It is this effect which makes the
vacuum tube detector far more sensitive than the crystal
detector; in reality, however, the receivers in a crystal
detector circuit are actuated only by the original incoming
oscillations in the secondary circuit, while the receivers
in the plate circuit of a vacuum tube are actuated by a
much stronger current, which is controlled by the incoming
oscillations.[
As previously noted, the amount of current used to
heat the filament in the vacuum tube is regulated by a
rheostat placed in the filament or "A" battery circuit.
The voltage or degree of positive potential given to the
plate may be regulated by a series of taps coming from
the "B" batteries. The rheostat is used to vary the
amount of current which passes through the filament cir-
cuit. The taps are employed to vary the voltage or
electrical pressure in the plate circuit and the degree of
positive potential on the plate.
Advantages of careful adjustment.—The number of
electrons emitted from the filament at any given time
depends upon its temperature and increases as the tem-
perature is raised; that is to say, increasing the flow of
current from the "A" battery through the filament causes
the filament to throw off a greater number of electrons.
Through its connection to the negative side of the "B"
battery, the filament is continually supplied with negative
electrons. Also, as the "positive" property or potential
of the plate is raised by connecting additional cells of the
"B" battery into the plate circuit, the plate will attain a
"positive" value at which practically all electrons emitted
VACUUM TUBES 111
from the filament and passed through the grid screen,

actually impinge upon the plate. This condition is called
saturation. It is readily seen, therefore, that the plate
voltage required for saturation depends upon the tem-
perature of the filament. In other words, for any given
value of the heating current in the filament, there is a
value of voltage to use in the plate circuit which will give
saturation, and there is no advantage in using any more.
With the proper combination of current in the filament
circuit and voltage in the plate circuit, loud sounds may
be heard in the telephone receivers when but avery small
amount of energy is intercepted by the aerial.
Effective operation of the vacuum tube implies adjust-
ment of filament current and plate voltage to that point
at which the weak "signal" currents in the grid circuit
will control, through the valve or screen action of the
grid, the maximum amount of current in the plate circuit
in which the receivers are placed.
Since the length of life of the filament is decreased in
proportion as current is passed through it, and since bulbs
are expensive, economical operation means using no great-
er filament current than is necessary to set up a flow of
current in the plate circuit which will actuate the receiver
diaphragm at maximum efficiency; this implies varying the
plate voltage simultaneously to apoint just below that at
which saturation is obtained as described above.
OPERATION OF THE yAcinni TUBE DETECTOR
Regulating filament current and plate voltage.—The

rheostat used in a vacuum tube detector is invariably
arranged so that at one end of the resistance coil the
8
cireuit,"ef the "A" battery through the filament is broken.

This eliminates the necessity of having another device to
switch on and off the "A" battery current.
As the rheostat is turned towards the "on" position,
the first slight movement connects the sliding contact of
the rheostat with the last turn of wire in the resistance
coil. This throws all of the resistance into the circuit at
the start. As the rheostat is further moved towards the
"on" position, it gradually throws out of the circuit the
turns of wire in the resistance coil, and as more resistance
is removed from the circuit, more current is allowed to
flow into the filament, until in the "on" position, all of
the resistance is removed from the circuit.
Under this condition, all of the voltage of the "A"
battery is impressed upon the filament, passing the
maximum amount of current through the filament.
The rheostat should at first be turned only about one
third or one-half way towards the "on" position, when
using asix-volt battery for asix-volt filament. This will
reduce the voltage to from three to five volts, and conse-
quently less than the maximum quantity of current
allowable, will pass through the filament.
At this stage, aterminal should be selected on the "B"
battery with the variable tap, depending upon the amount
of plate voltage at which the particular vacuum tube
gives best results. Detector tubes are usually designed
for 22M volts in the plate circuit. The 21-volt tap, for
instance, might first be selected. The filament rheostat
is now again adjusted,. by turning it towards the "on"
or the "off" position.
The foregoing explains the adjustment of the filament
VACUUM TUBES 113
current for agiven value of plate voltage. This particular

combination of current values, however, may not be the
best one for the particular tube in use. Various taps
should now be tried on the "B" battery in order to arrive
at the best combination, as indicated by the strength of
the incoming signals. For instance, if signals are being
received and the "B" battery tap is on the 19-volt
terminal, the terminal either below or above should be
tried and the filament current adjusted once more to see
whether an increase or adecrease in signal strength is ob-
tained. Other terminals, farther above or below, should
be tried, with accompanying adjustment of the filament
current. It may be found that signals can be heard with
223/2 volts plate voltage and with one-half the filament
rheostat in the circuit, but that they are stronger when
the 18-volt terminal on the "B" battery is used, with
possibly two-thirds of the filament rheostat placed in
the circuit, reducing the amount of the filament current
used.
The hissing point and the blue glow.—At certain ad-
justments of the filament rheostat, ahissing sound in the
receivers may be heard or ablue glow may be noticed in
the tube. The former is an indication that for the given
amount of plate voltage, the filament is being heated to
an excessively high degree and is giving off too great a
quantity of electrons. The filament current should in
that case be reduced just to the point where this hissing
in the receivers becomes inaudible. Above this point,
the vacuum in the bulb becomes over saturated with.
electrons and no advantage in sensitiveness is gained; in
fact, the sensitiveness of the bulb is decreased. A
glow from the filament of atube indicates that the plate

voltage is excessive and should be reduced.
Once adetector tube has been adjusted after the fore-
going method and the point found where signals seem to
come in best, thereafter with the same bulb, the same
adjustments can be used with very slight alterations in
the values of the two currents. These values will remain
constant to afair degree until either the "B" battery or
the "A" battery begins to lose its strength. The substi-
tution of other batteries or detector bulbs will necessitate
the foregoing operations being made all over again.
Bear in mind that the best adjustment is that which
uses the minimum amount of filament current, because
the more filament current used, the higher will be the
degree to which the filament is heated and the shorter will
be the life of the filament.
With the vacuum tube adjusted for maximum sensi-
tiveness, tuning is accomplished with the single-slide tuner
exactly as has been explained for the single-slide tuning
coil in the crystal detector set.
Selection of grid leak and grid condenser.—If the
vacuum tube detector has been purchased as acomplete
unit, in all probability an appropriate grid leak and grid
condenser has been included in the set. A grid leak and
grid condenser of particular values should, however, be
selected for best results with any given tube. The best
procedure is to keep an assortment of various sizes of grid
leaks and grid condensers on hand and while the vacuum
tube is being adjusted after the above procedure, these
different sized grid leaks and grid condensers may be
tried in the circuit, with further adjustments of filament
VACUUM TUBES 115
current and plate voltage, until the value of each which

gives the best results is found. Several companies have
placed on the market devices in which both grid leaks
and grid condensers can be slipped in or readily replaced,
allowing a quick substitution of one after another until
the best combination is found for the vacuum tube in use.
Variable grid leaks which operate satisfactorily and per9
mit ready adjustments to desired values are also available.
Adjustments of grid condenser and grid leak values is
necessary, however, only in case it is desired to obtain
maximum results from the set. If it is not the desire of
the reader to go to this trouble, a grid condenser of the
value of .00025 mfd. and a grid leak of the value of one
or two million ohms might be used for satisfactory results
with almost any tube. Many manufacturers construct
the grid leak and grid condenser as one device, selecting
a given value for each which will work well with most
detector tubes. This instrument embodying both the
grid leak and grid condenser should not be confused with
either a grid leak or a grid condenser to be purchased
separately.
Hard and soft tubes.—Tubes which have been highly
exhausted are spoken of as being hard tubes. Tubes
less highly exhausted are called soft tubes. Soft tubes
are more critical in adjustment and more sensitive than
are highly exhausted tubes and are therefore more com-
monly used as detectors. Hard tubes, on the other
hand, are more efficient amplifiers. Attention, however,
should be called to the somewhat frequent use of hard or
amplifier tubes as detectors by novices. Since such tubes
are less critical, signals may be tuned in with coarser
adjustments of the filament rheostat than would be neces-

sary in the case of asoft tube.
Types of tubes.—As previously noted, the ordinary
vacuum tube used in areceiving set requires direct cur-
rent of six volts to heat the filament. This tube consumes
approximately one ampere an hour.
Special types of tubes, which operate on lower voltages
(1 32 or 3volts) or on 5to 6volts but consume asmaller
amount of current (from 0.06 to 0.25 amperes) are from
time to time placed upon the market. Among these have
been the WD-11 (1% volts), WD-12 (1% volts), UV-199
(3 volts), and 201-A (5 volts).
The WD-11 tube gained its popularity among radio
fans because it can be operated from asingle dry cell as a
source of filament current. This tube is a hard or high
vacuum tube, and can be used either as adetector or as
an amplifier. Originally the tube was produced for use
in a particular type of receiving set with special sockets
which did not permit the insertion of any other type of
tube. Adapters, however, were quickly developed and
praced .upon the market to fit between the base of the
special type tube and the ordinary type socket. Later
the WD-12 tube appeared, similar to the WD-11 except
for its base which is of the standard type.
In operating either the WD-11 or the WD-12 as a
detector, 22 volts is normally used on the plate. For
operating as an amplifier, 45 to 60 volts is recommended.
Tubes of this type are seldom very critical in adjust-
ment of filament current or plate voltage.
In the case of the 201-A tube, the filament is of very
high activation, capable of emitting perhaps 1000 times
VACUUM TUBES 117
as many electrons as preceding tubes, making it possible

therefore to reduce the filament temperature greatly, and
still secure agreatly increased emission of electrons. As
aresult, this tube consumes only one quarter as much
current as its predecessors. The filament is sturdy and
will stand rough usage. It is less likely to burn out than
are other tubes, but sometimes loses its activity when
excessive voltage is accidentally applied to it. This con-
dition may often be corrected, however, by allowing the
filament to burn without application of "B "voltage to the
plate. Attention should be called to the fact that this type
is avery hard tube. Usually, therefore, it gives better
results as an amplifier than as a detector. Used as an
amplifier, the 201-A requires approximately 90 volts in
its plate circuit. As adetector it usually operates satis-
factorily at alower voltage.
The UV-199 is similar in construction and in operation
to the 201-A tube, with these exceptions, that 3 volts
only are required to heat its filament, and its current
consumption is only .06 amperes.
Peanut tubes are very small tubes, originally developed
to accomplish some of the results now accomplished by
the larger tubes described in the preceding paragraphs.
If volume in reception is desired, the larger tubes are
recommended for amateur use.
CHAPTER VI
CURRENT SUPPLY FOR VACUUM TUBES
Sources of current.—In our discussion of the vacuum

tube, we found that the introduction of this piece of
apparatus necessitates two sources of electrical current
in the receiving circuit, usually called the "A" battery
and the "B"battery, the former to heat the filament in
the bulb and the latter to place a positive potential or
charge on the plate.
The "A" source of electric current, used to heat the
filament of the usual type vacuum tube in areceiving set,
may be almost any source of direct current to the value
of six volts.
With the special types of tubes referred to on page 116,
which consume much less filament current than ordinary
tubes, dry cells are both convenient and economical as
a source of current. These dry cells are not the flash
light type used for "B" current, but the kind ordinarily
used to operate a doorbell in the home.
It is possible to use four such cells to heat the filament
of the ordinary 6-volt, 1-ampere tube. Dry cells, how-
ever, have a comparatively low capacity and therefore
a short life. This source of current, therefore, becomes
quite expensive in the case of this type of tube.
The storage battery.—As previously stated, the usual
supply of current for the filament is a 6-volt storage
battery such as is commonly used in a motor car.
The 32-volt storage battery of a farm lighting plant,
(118)
CURRENT SUPPLY FOR TUBES 119
as a source of current, will be considered later in this

chapter.
The 6-volt storage battery furnishes a uniform direct
current of the proper voltage and is most satisfactory.
Its only disadvantage lies in the fact that astorage battery
has to be recharged about once a month or oftener,
depending upon the extent to which it is used.
The size or capacity in ampere hours, of the battery
selected, should be dependent, as we shall see, upon the
number and type of bulbs used in the receiving set and
upon whether or not a charging outfit is to be used for
recharging the battery at home.
As previously stated, the ordinary 6-volt vacuum tube
consumes about one ampere per hour; a40-ampere-hour
battery would, theoretically, light such abulb for 40 hours.
In practice, however, after about 25 ampere hours have
been consumed, the voltage drops to about 5 volts and
the battery needs to be recharged, not only for the reason
that it is best for the battery but because in most cases
it will not, at that voltage, heat the filament sufficiently.
A 40-ampere-hour storage battery would light one
vacuum tube an hour aday for about amonth. If two
tubes were used, or if one bulb were lighted for two hours
each day, abattery of this size would supply current for
only about two weeks before recharging would be neces-
sary. In the latter case, it would probably be more
convenient to have an 80-ampere-hour battery.
Again, if the vacuum tube set includes two stages of
amplification, making three bulbs to be supplied, and the
set is to be used three hours an evening for perhaps four
evenings aweek, we can see that the complete set would
•
consume approximately nine amperes an evening or 36

amperes for the week.* In this case, at least a140- to 180-
ampere-hour battery would be required for a month's
service. A difficulty now arises in that astorage battery
with acapacity larger than 80 ampere hours is too heavy
to be transported easily to aservice station for recharging.
In this case, the amateur usually finds it advantageous
to purchase an outfit for recharging.
Battery chargers for home use.—Ordinarily, 110-volt
alternating current (110-volt A. C.) is supplied by electric
service companies for house lighting. Before this current
can be used for charging batteries, it must be rectified
into direct current, and also reduced in voltage to 12 or
15 volts, in order to prevent damage to the battery.
There are three general types of rectifiers on the market,
—the electrolytic rectifier, the magnetic rectifier, and the
vacuum tube rectifier. The first named utilizes asolution
or electrolyte and is usually undesirable because of the
possibilities of the container being tipped over or of the
electrolyte leaking out. The magnetic rectifiers, of which
the "Homecharger" is perhaps the best known, incor-
porate a transformer and avibrator similar to that used
in aspark coil. This type of rectifier works satisfactorily
and is the most economical of the three in its operation,
but requires some care in adjustment and is somewhat
noisy. The vacuum tube type, such as the "Rectigon"
or the "Tungar" rectifier, is perhaps the most desirable.
Both the magnetic and the vacuum tube rectifiers reduce
the voltage to such an extent that they may be con-
*The use of low current consumption tubes in the set will of course
affect these calculations.
fleeted directly to the batteries without any additional

attachments.
If the house electric service happens to be direct cur-
rent, the battery may be charged directly from a lamp
socket, by connecting a suitable rheostat or a small
number of electric light bulbs in series in the circuit to
limit the amount of current passing through the battery.
Care of the storage battery.—In almost every instance
when a battery is purchased, it arrives from the local
dealer fully charged; or if it is shipped for some distance,
the electrolyte is sent with it, and complete instructions
are enclosed for putting the solution in the battery and
placing the battery in operation. The following sug-
gestions, however, are made concerning the care of the
battery: The electrolyte of the lead plate battery is a
solution of about 1part sulphuric acid to 5 parts pure
water, and, when the battery is fully charged, should
have a specific gravity of from 1.275 to 1.300 depending
upon the make of the battery.
The specific gravity of the acid solution is measured by
an instrument called a hydrometer, which may be pur-
chased for about 75 cents. Battery readings should be
taken at least once aweek and when the specific gravity
falls to 1.200 or lower, the battery should be recharged.
Usually before this point is reached, the reduced brilliancy
of the detector or amplifying bulbs will indicate a drop,
in the voltage of the battery and the resultant decrease\
in current to the filament.
From time to time and especially during charge, pure
water (distilled water or rain water) should be added to
the electrolyte in each cell so that at all times the solu-
tion will be inch above the plates. Do not add acid

to the electrolyte unless some of the solution has been
spilled, since only the water evaporates and needs to be
replenished.
The hydrometer furnishes the best means of ascertain-
ing the completion of the charge. When the specific
gravity has been raised to its required value (1.275 to
1.300) the charge is complete.
Care should be exercised in fighting the filament of a
bulb immediately after the battery has been charged, as
there is often an excess voltage in a6-volt battery to the
value of 1or 1% volts and this additional voltage might
be enough to burn out the filament in the first few minutes.
After a few minutes usage, however, the voltage of the
battery will fall to its normal rating or to about 6to 6.5
volts.
It might be suggested that with ahome charging out-
fit, abattery much smaller in capacity may be used than
would be desirable if the battery had to be charged at a
service station. With ahome outfit, the battery may be
charged as soon as its voltage begins to fall. However,
charging asmall battery daily might become monotonous.
It is usually advisable, therefore, to select a40-ampere-
hour or 60-ampere-hour size if three tubes, for example,
are to be supplied with current from it.
Care should always be exercised in handling the battery
so that none of the solution is spilled, since the acid will
attack and disintegrate most substances and materials
with which it comes in contact.
Heating the filament from adirect current generator.—
Another possible source of current for fighting the filament
is the direct current generator. When this source is used,

however, a continual hum caused by the moving con-
tacts of the machine, is usually heard in the receivers.
Whether or not this hum will be loud enough to be objec-
tionable will depend upon the design and the condition
of the generator and upon the strength of the signals it is
desired to receive.
The amateur should not attempt to light the filament
of the vacuum tube from a 110-volt D. C. source, unless
he is extremely careful in selecting the proper resistance
to cut down the voltage to six volts. Othe/wise the fila-
ment of an expensive bulb might be burned out in an
instant.
Heating the filament from the farm lighting plant.—
Conditions similar to the foregoing would hold in using
the generator of a farm lighting plant. If the farm
lighting plant is equipped with storage batteries, as most
of them are, the filaments of the vacuum tubes can be
lighted from these batteries. The safest plan would be
to take the filament lighting circuit from 3 cells of the
battery so that there would be no danger of applying more
than 6volts to the filament. Theoretically, however, it
is not good for the battery system to take from fewer than
the entire number of cells in the battery, although lighting
one or two vacuum tubes each evening by that method
probably would have little harmful effect on the battery
system as awhole, since the batteries are usually charged
every day. If the filaments were to be connected to all
of the batteries, that is to the entire 32 volts, care would
again have to be exercised in inserting aproper resistance
in series with the filaments. In the method suggested for
lighting the filaments from 3 cells, two wires would have

to be run direct from the 3 cells of the battery to the
terminals of the filaments at the receiving set.
In the method suggested for lighting the filaments
from the entire 32 volts with a resistance in series, con-
nections could be taken from a socket in the room by
FIG. 54.-HOOK-up FOR A VACUUM TUBE DETECTOR

WITH THE FILAMENT HEATED FROM ALTERNATING
HOUSE CURRENT.
means of aplug and the proper resistance inserted at the

receiving set.
Heating the filament from alternating house current.—
It is also possible to heat the filament with ordinary alter-
nating house current, with the voltage transformed down
from 110 volts to 6 volts, and receive radio signals; but
again, unless special apparatus is installed, there will
result such ahumming sound in the receivers as to make
reception of messages highly unsatisfactory. In this
case, the continual reversals or alternations of current at
the rate of 120 times asecond (in 60-cycle A. C.) cause a
loud humming which comes in strong in the receivers.
This difficulty, however, may be overcome as previously

suggested, by the use of special apparatus in the circuit.
A possible hook-up for this additional apparatus is shown
in Fig. 54. The circuits are essentially the same as those
of the simple vacuum tube detector, except for the con-
nection of the secondary or grid circuit to the filament.
In this case, apotentiometer in the form of acarbon or
graphite rod having a resistance of 1000 ohms or more,
is connected across the low voltage leads from the trans-
former to the filament, and the grid of the vacuum tube
is connected, through the coil, to the movable contact of
the potentiometer. If one side of the grid circuit were
connected directly to the filament, as is the case when a
storage battery is used as a source of current, the grid
would have apositive and anegative potential alternately
impressed upon it due to the continuous reversal of the
alternating current coming from the transformer. These
oscillations of current, which would be present in the
grid circuit along with the incoming radio oscillations,
would also fluctuate the "B" battery current flowing
through the plate circuit, producing a hum in the re-
ceivers which would probably drown out all signals.
By proper adjustment of the potentiometer, however,
I
aneutral point in the reversals of potential in the alter-
nating current can be found. The neutral point will be
at the center of the resistance rod.
The filament current supply is obtained through atoy
step-down transformer connected by means of a plug
and socket, to the alternating house current supply.
Care should be exercised in making the connections of
the filament to the step-down transformer.. If the trans-
former has several different voltage taps on the secondary

or low voltage winding, the filament should be connected
to the tap, or the switch arm should be placed on the
switch point, which will provide six volts; and likewise,
if there is aswitch arrangement on the primary winding,
(i. e., the 110-volt side) the switch arm should be placed
F G. 55.-HOOK-up FOR A VACITI7M TUBE DETECTOR

WITH A TELEPHONE TRANSFORMER TO HELP REDUCE
THE HUM FROM THE ALTERNATING CURRENT USED TO
HEAT THE FILAMENT.
on the switch point which will provide for six volts in

the secondary or filament leads of the transformer.
If the potentiometer does not entirely eliminate the
hum of the alternating current, an ordinary telephone
transformer, which is inexpensive, may be substituted for
the telephone receivers in the plate circuit, with its
primary winding connected to the plate circuit and its
secondary leads connected each through afixed condenser
of about .001 mfd. size, to the receivers. The hook-up
for this device is shown in Fig. 55.
In the latter case, the condensers in series with the

secondary leads of the telephone transformer will block,
to agreat extent, the low frequency pulsation caused by
the 60-cycle alternating current, without impeding to any
great extent the higher audio-frequency signal pulsations
in passing to the telephone receivers.
As amatter of fact better results may often be obtained
by connecting the receivers to the plate circuit through a
telephone transformer, when a storage battery or other
source of direct current is used to light the filament. In
the event that a storage battery is used, however, the
two blocking condensers are not necessary. There is a
further advantage in this arrangement in that the re-
ceivers are removed from the plate circuit in which the
constant "B" battery current is flowing, with the con-
sequent saving of the receivers from depolarization. Even
better results will be obtained, from the use of astep-down
telephone transformer with receivers of low resistance-
75 or 80 ohms—instead of 2000 or 3000 ohm phones.
Low resistance receivers will respond more readily to the
heavier pulsations of current in the secondary of the step-
down transformer than to the weaker pulsations in the
plate circuit.
For reasons given on page 109, a fixed -by-pass con-
denser with avalue of .002 mfd., should be placed in
shunt to the primary of the telephone transformer and
the "B" battery, as shown in the diagram.
—,The "B" battery.—The "B" battery for avacuum tube
_
usually has avalue of 22% to 45 volts, and may be made
up of almost any type of cells; it is usually composed of
small dry cells similar to those used in flash-light bat-
9
teries. As amatter of fact, any desired number of flash:

light batteries purchased at aten cent store may be con-
nected in series and used very satisfactorily for placing
positive potential on the plate, and will usually last for a
long time. Care should be taken not to short circuit the
cells of any battery at any time. "B" batteries should
always be kept in a dry place, and when in use, placed
as near the set as possible so that the wires connecting
them in the plate circuit may be as short as possible.
Use of alternating house current for plate voltage.—It
is possible to use alternating house current for plate
voltage, with additional apparatus to change the alternat-
ing current into aconstant direct current and to smooth
out the ripples or fluctuations of the supply. However,
the additional equipment is both complicated and expen-
sive, and is not advised for use by the amateur unless
he has had considerable electrical or radio experience.
Underwriters' requirements.—In receiving sets employ-
ing vacuum tubes for detecting, amplifying or other pur-
poses, where the current supply for them is obtained from
storage batteries, the wiring between the storage batteries
and the set must be of No. 14 gauge approved rubber-
covered wire. Each conductor from the storage batteries
should be protected by a fuse of a capacity not greater
than 10 amperes. The fuses must be installed at the
nearest accessible point to the storage battery.
Storage batteries of a type having exposed terminal
connections must be placed in a ventilated box, or pro-
vided with aventilated cover, secured in position so that
accidental short circuits across the terminals of the cells
will be prevented.
CHAPTER VII
THE REGENERATIVE RECEIVER
In Chapter V we learned that when continuous electro-

magnetic or radio waves which have been moulded or
modulated by sound waves at the transmitting station
are picked up by avacuum tube receiving set, the oscilla-
tions set up in the grid circuit of the detector tube
by these waves cause two sets of fluctuations in the plate
circuit of the tube. In other words, owing to the valve
action of the grid, weak incoming oscillations are made
to control astrong pulsation of "B" battery current in the
plate circuit at radio frequency, corresponding to the fre-
quency of the incoming oscillations, and another pulsa-
tion at audio frequency corresponding to the sound waves
passed into the transmitter at the sending station.
In the simple vacuum tube detector set, the audio-
frequency pulsations of plate current are made to actuate
the,telephone receivers, but no use is made of the radio-
frequency pulsations.
Reg en eration.—In the regenerative receiving set, this
radio-frequent current is put to work in an ingenious man-
ner, by being "fed back" to the grid circuit to reinforce or
strengthen the incoming oscillations. This feeding back of
plate circuit energy to the grid is accomplished by coup-
ling the plate circuit to the grid circuit in any of several
methods which we shall presently describe. Its effect is
(129)
that of amplifying weak oscillations which have been re-

ceived in the aerial circuit and transferred to the grid cir-
cuit, so that these strengthened oscillations may control
still larger fluctuations of the audio-frequent plate cur-
rent which operates the
telephone receivers.
Regeneration with a
tickler coil.—The ac-
tion of a regenerative
receiver may best be
understood by con-
sidering aloose coupler
set employing a vac-
MI» uum tube detector, in
which the plate circuit

is coupled to the sec-
ondary of the loose
coupler by means of a
Fm. 56.-HOOK-UP FOR A REGENERATIVE
SET USING A LOOSE COUPLER WITR A tickler coil.
TICKLER COIL. In the hook-up
shown in Fig. 56, the racho-frequency fluctuations,
which are present in the plate circuit, are fed back
through a tickler coil, wound on one end of the tube
on which the secondary coil of the loose coupler is
wound or otherwise placed in inductive relation to the
secondary coil, so that the radio-frequent plate circuit
current sets up a magnetic flux which builds up the
strength of the incoming oscillations in the grid circuit.
This operation repeats itself a great number of times,
with cumulative effect, the reinforced oscillations in th
grid circuit controlling still greater fluctuations of audio-
THE REGENERATIVE RECEIVER 131
frequent plate current which causes the telephone receiver

disks to vibrate more violently, producing louder sounds.
The amount of regeneration in any case will depend
upon the particular vacuum tube in use and the circuit in
which it is employed.
Polarity of the tickler coil.—In using as a tickler coil,
the secondary winding of aloose coupler or any winding
which cannot be rotated, connection to the plate circuit
may be made in such a way that the pulsations of
current fed back, "degenerate" instead of regenerating
the incoming oscillations.
For regeneration, the pulsations of current from the
plate circuit must pass through the tickler coil in such
direction that their electromagnetic effect will be that of
building up the incoming oscillations which are passing
through the grid inductance. If the reverse connection
has been made, the effect of the fed back pulsations will
be to oppose and decrease the effect of the incoming
oscillations in the grid circuit. If such acondition obtains
with atickler coil which cannot be rotated, it is necessary
only to interchange the two wires connecting the plate
circuit to the tickler coil, and the plate circuit pulsations
will travel through the coil in the opposite direction.
The vacuum tube as an oscillator.—In adjusting the
tickler coil type of regenerative receiver, the amount of
regeneration is controlled by the coupling of the plate
circuit to the grid circuit through the tickler coil. That
is to say, if the coupling of the plate circuit to the grid
circuit is increased (by tightening the coupling) the feed-
back effect will be increased, and vice versa.
In the reception of either spark signals or voice, if the
coupling is gradually increased from aminimum toward

maximum, thereby increasing regeneration from minimum
toward maximum, the signals or voice will become louder
and louder until the regeneration becomes so violent that
distortion of signals or voice results.
Such distortion is due in large measure to the fact that
the radio-frequent pulsations in the plate circuit which
are being fed back to the grid circuit are amplifying some of
the incoming oscillations to agreater extent than they are
amplifying the others. This effect is not so objectionable
in the reception of spark signals as in the case of telephone
reception, since it merely alters the tone of the signals.
In the reception of voice or music, however, the tones
may be distorted to such an extent that they can not be
recognized.
If the coupling of the plate circuit to the grid circuit is
still further increased, adull thud or click will presently
be heard, and the spark signals or voice, if not very loud
originally, will entirely disappear. This condition is an
indication that the bulb has begun to oscillate. Oscillation
may have been started by any one of several causes, as,
for example, aslight jar, or amovement of the operator's
hand or body affecting the capacity of the grid circuit or
the plate circuit, or a sudden variation in incoming
oscillations or some other electromagnetic effect picked
up by the aerial circuit. Oscillation, however, is most
frequently caused by afurther increase of the inductance
or the capacity of the plate circuit when the tube is
feeding back violently. Under this condition, a slight
increase in plate current is impressed upon the grid
and instantly causes a more violent fluctuation of the
plate current, which, in turn, is instantly transmitted

to the grid, still further magnifying the fluctuation of plate
current, and so on, creating in this manner, aseries of
self-sustaining oscillations. In any case, the tube must
have been regenerating or feeding back energy to agreat
degree, or it must have been so adjusted for ahigh value
of filament current and plate voltage that it was capable
of feeding back violently upon a variation of potential
on the grid from any local or external cause.
Some tubes oscillate more readily than others. In
other words, a particular tube may regenerate and os-
cillate with a very low value of filament current and
plate voltage, while another may require a much higher
value of filament current and plate voltage to make it
oscillate. The values of the filament current and plate
voltage necessary to produce oscillation with agiven tube
depends upon the composition of the filament and the
degree of vacuum in the tube.
With the tube in a state of oscillation, an oscillating
current traverses plate and grid circuits with afrequency
depending upon the capacity and the inductance of either
or both circuits. We shall now see to what use these
oscillations in the receiving set may be put.
If a station is sending out continuous or undamped
waves on a wave length of 300 meters, and therefore at
the rate of 1,000,000 waves per second (see page 16,
Chapter I) the receiving aerial circuit with which these
waves come in contact, will have induced in it 1,000,000
dscillations per second, if the two aerial circuits are in
tune, corresponding to the number of waves coming from
the sending station each second.
The 1,000,000 oscillations per second will be transferred

from the receiving aerial circuit to the secondary or grid
circuit, if the latter is tuned to the former, and the grid
circuit will be traversed by an oscillating current at the
same frequency. These oscillations in the grid circuit
will produce corresponding fluctuations in the plate cur-
rent, but such fluctuations obviously will be beyond the
range of the telephone receivers; and even if they could
actuate the receivers, the sounds produced by the vibra-
tions of the receiver diaphragms would be above the
range of audibility, as previously explained.
If, however, we now cause the vacuum tube to oscillate,
in the manner previously described, we may produce in
the grid and plate circuits, local oscillations of afrequency
which will depend upon the adjustment of the circuits.
These local oscillations will be present in addition to the
incoming signal oscillations. Then by adjusting the set
to produce oscillations at a frequency of, let us say,
999,000 we can produce a third oscillating current in
the grid circuit, due to the interaction of the local or
forced oscillations with the incoming oscillations. The
third oscillating current will have a frequency, in this
case, of 1000 oscillations per second—the numerical differ-
ence between the two interacting sets of oscillations—
for, at 1000 points during each second, a local oscilla-
tion will add its complete value to an incoming oscillation,
producing a beat, while at 1000 points midway between
the beats, alocal oscillation will practically neutralize the
effect of the incoming oscillation; and between the beats
and the neutral points, the local oscillations will gradually
decrease and increase the effect of the incoming oscilla-
tions from maximum to minimum and then to maximum,

and so on, at the rate of 1000 increases and 1000 decreases
or 1000 complete cycles a second. The production of
beats may be illustrated graphically as in Fig. 57. In
the figure, the ratio of the two sets of oscillations is taken
as 10 to 9. This third oscillating current will therefore
Remfqrced Neutnalszed Remfeced Neutrqbred Reinf?rced
runnunnusuunniunr
FIG. 57.—RESULTANT Or THE INTERACTION Or THE TWO BETS OF

OSCILLATIONS.
produce 1000 variations asecond in the plate circuit cur-

rent, and 1000 vibrations of the receiver diaphragm which
will be audible to human ears.
The same condition would hold if the forced or local
oscillations were made to occur at afrequency of 1,001,000,
for again the difference would be 1000 oscillations per
second, and 1000 beats would result.
Autodyne and heterodyne reception.—With areceiving
set in which the forced oscillatiorks are produced by the de-
tecting tube itself, the effect is known as autodyne reception.
In any case where the local oscillations, and hence the
beats, are produced by a separate source—for example,
by another tube in a circuit coupled to the detector cir-
cuit—the operation is known as heterodyne reception.
Heterodyne reception requires additional apparatus

with the necessary additional adjustments and for that
reason is not in common use among amateurs.
It might be suggested that in neither autodyne nor
heterodyne reception, does the operator need to concern
himself about the frequency of the local oscillations to be
produced in receiving undamped or continuous waves.
The aerial circuit and the secondary or grid circuit are
tuned in the usual way, to the wave length of the signals
which one desires to pick up. Then the tube is made to
oscillate, either by increasing the coupling of the tickler
coil or by varying its inductance; or, in the case of the
tuned plate circuit which is not coupled to the grid cir-
cuit, by varying the inductance or the capacity of the
plate circuit. As the various adjustments are made, the
frequency of the forced oscillations will be varied, and
when impressed on the incoming oscillations, they will
give different beat notes or tones, ranging in frequency
from below audibility to above audibility. As the dif-
ferent tones are produced, the operator may leave the
apparatus adjusted at that point where the forced oscilla-
tions produce a beat note which is most pleasing to the
ear or where signals or messages are most easily read
through any interference which may be present.
It should be pointed out that distortion is likely to
occur to agreater extent in beat reception than in simple
regeneration. In fact, oscillation of the tube may often
destroy signals entirely, as suggested at the beginning of
this discussion. Distortion to the point of destruction of
signals is due to the interaction of the radio-frequency
and the audio-frequency currents in the circuits.
Both spark signals and voice, however, may be greatly

magnified if the local or forced oscillations are made to
occur at the frequency of the incoming oscillations. Such
an effect is known as zero beat reception, since no beat is
produced in the receiving set.
In the type of hook-up shown in Fig. 56, the plate circuit
is inductively coupled to the grid circuit. Regeneration
in a receiving set may also be obtained by electrostatic
coupling, through the use of one or more condensers; by
conductive coupling, with actual connection of the plate
circuit to the grid circuit; or by combinations of the fore-
going methods.
Regeneration by means of condensers.—Almost any
type of vacuum tube receiving set may be made regener-
ative by simply hooking acondenser in the proper place
in the circuit and changing two or three connections.
Hook-ups for electrostatic and conductive coupling are
shown in Figs. 58, 59, and 60. Of the many such circuits
which are possible with tuning coils, these are probably
the most common.
Short wave regenerative equipment.—In this connec-
tion, it might be said that tuning coils and loose couplers
have been gradually abandoned by most amateurs, for
short-wave regenerative sets using variocouplers, variom-
eters, honeycomb and spiderweb coils, and various other
forms of tuning inductance. The greater efficiency and
ease of operation of these types of inductance are un-
questionable; however, very good results can be obtained
and greater wave lengths can be tuned in by means of
tuning coils and loose couplers than are possible with the
short wave regenerative set. And, even though areceiving
set covering wave lengths up to 2500 meters is slightly

inefficient for short wave length reception, it is suggested
that the amateur first adapt to a regenerative hook-up,
his tuning devices which he already is using, in order to
become familiar with the characteristics of asingle-tuned
circuit, for example, or a loose-coupled circuit, before
purchasing or assembling a more efficient short wave or
long wave receiver.
Tapped coils in the regenerative set.—Although the
tuning inductances in the following two hook-ups are
shown with sliding contacts, it should be noted that
coils with taps will give much better results in a regen-
erative circuit, for the following reason: As a slider is
moved across the turns of wire, breaking contact with
one turn and making contact with the next, a distinct
click is heard in the receivers for every make and every
break, if the tube is oscillating for receiving continuous
wave (C. W.) signals. If the slider is moved at all
quickly, the rapid succession of clicks will sound like a
roar, often drowning out the signals which one is trying
to pick up. In the case of tapped coils with switch
points close together, the switch arm, in revolving, makes
contact with a new switch point before breaking contact
with the one it is leaving, and therefore does not cause
the objectionable roar referred to above.
The corresponding tapped coil described in Chapter IV
may be substituted for any of the slide coils which
follow, without change in other parts of the hook-up.
i
The single slide tuning coil in a regenerative set.—

Fig. 58 shows ahook-up for asingle slide tuning coil and
a vacuum tube detector in which the radio-frequency
fluctuations in the plate circuit are fed back to the grid

circuit by direct connection from the plate. In this case,
FIG. 58.-HOOK-17P FOR A SINGLE SLIDE TUNING

COIL IN AREGENERATIVE SET.
the plate is conductively coupled to the grid circuit, andl

also electrostatically coupled since the feed back circuit
includes the variable condenser shown in the ground lead.
Tuning is accomplished by means of the slider (as

explained in connection with Fig. 16, Chapter IV) as well
FIG. 59 - HOOK-UP FOR ADOUBLE SLIDE TUNING COIL

IN A REGENERATIVE SET.
as by means of the variable condenser which is in series

with the aerial circuit, the local circuit, and the feed-back
circuit.
Highly satisfactory results should not be expected from
the single slide or tapped tuning coil set converted into a

regenerative receiver, owing to inability to control re-.
generation successfully.
The double slide tuning coil in a regenerative set.—
Fig. 59 shows the fundamental hook-up for connecting
up the double slide tuning coil for regeneration. Regen-
eration in this set also is obtained by a combination of
electrostatic and conductive coupling. A connection
is made from the plate, through a condenser, to the
end of the coil opposite the lead-in connection. Regen-
eration in this case is more readily controlled than in the
single slide tuning coil hook-up.
As explained in connection with Fig. 31, Chapter IV,
the primary circuit is tuned by the slider to which the
ground wire is connected, and the secondfkry circuit is
tuned by the other slider. It can readily be seen that
the energy which is fed back will pass through the turns
of wire which are included in that part of the coil between
the plate connection at one end and the turn where the
secondary slider makes contact with the coil. Part of
the energy will also flow through all of the coil of wire
and pass to the grid itself. Furthermore, induction from
the turns of wire in the feed-back circuit will build up the
oscillations in the turns of wire included in the grid cir-
cuit between the lead-in connection at one end of the coil,
and the secondary slider. It is evident that the regen-
erative effect in this case is obtained in asomewhat com-
plex manner but the regeneration is entirely controllable
by the electrostatic coupling through the condenser in
the plate circuit. As indicated by dotted lines, a con-
denser may be used (1) across the secondary or grid
circuit, (2) in series with or (3) in parallel with the primary

circuit for increasing or decreasing wave length range as
explained on page 61, Chapter IV, but very little ad-
vantage in tuning will be gained by their use.
As suggested for the preceding hook-up, it is desirable
to use tapped coils rather than slide coils for regenerative
hook-ups.
Variations in "A" battery hook-ups.—A variation is
introduced in the connections of the "A" battery in this
hook-up. The grid of the vacuum tube is shown con-
nected, through the tuning inductance and the secondary
slider, to the positive terminal of the "A" battery. With
the grid connected to the positive side of the "A" battery,
a grid condenser and â grid leak are necessary, while
with the grid connected to the negative terminal of the
batteries, the grid condenser and leak are optional. Even
in the latter case, however, the average tube will function
much better with agrid leak and condenser than without
them.
In connecting positive "A" to negative "B" through
the filament binding post as shown in this diagram, an
additional positive potential is obtained on the plate in
relation to the filament, since the "A" battery voltage
has been placed in series with the voltage of the "B"
battery.
It is asimple matter to try out both methods of hooking
up the batteries in order to determine which connection
will give best results in a given set. Care must be
taken, however, to avoid connecting the "B" battery across
the terminals of the filament. Such a connection would
instantly burn out the filament.1
...
.
WirMI1H7n-
As suggested in Chapter V, various sizes of grid con-

densers and grid leaks should be tried out with different
bulbs.
FIG. 60.-110011-1TP FOR A THREE-SLIDE TUNING COIL

IN A REGENERATIVE SET.
The three-slide tuning coil in aregenerative set.—Fig.

60 shows the hook-up for using athree-slide tuning coil as
a tuner in a regenerative receiving set. The tuning of
lo
the primary circuit is accomplished by means of the ground

slider and of the secondary or grid circuit, by means of
the secondary slider, as explained in Chapter IV. Tuning
FIG. 61.-HOOK -up FOR A LOOSE COUPLER IN A REGEN-

ERATIVE SET.
of the plate circuit as well as the control, in part, of re-,

generation, is accomplished by means of the condenser
shown in full lines in the plate circuit; regeneration,
b
ill
however, is mainly controlled by the slider to which the

plate circuit is connected. The greater the number of
turns between the secondary and the plate sliders, the
greater will be he regenerative effect. Additional con-
densers may be used, as shown by dotted lines, for in-
creasing or decreasing the wave-length range of the tuner,
as discussed in Chapter IV.
The loose coupler in aregenerative set.—Fig. 61 shows
the adaptation of aloose coupler to aregenerative hook-
up, through inductive coupling. The secondary of this
tuning device is used as a tickler coil; i. e., the plate
circuit is inductively coupled to the grid circuit (which is
also the primary circuit in this case) for regeneration.
This tickler adjustment will be found to be quite critical,
but regeneration can readily be controlled by both the
taps on the secondary and the coupling of the secondary
coil to the primary coil.
It should be observed that the primary winding of the
loose coupler is used virtually as a single slide tuning
coil; and condensers may be used in the primary circuit
as shown by dotted lines. If desired, both the primary
and the secondary windings may be connected in series
and used as one tuning coil for long waves; in that case,
the connections would be identically the same as shown
in Fig. 58 except that the two coils would be wired in
series. The loose coupler illustrated has taps on the
secondary coil and a slider on the primary coil, but any
of the loose couplers described in Chapter IV may be
used in place of this one, with the grid circuit leads of
this hook-up so connected that they replace the secondary
circuit leads in the loose coupler crystal detector hook-ups.
"A" battery and "B" battery potentiometers.—Note

that the hook-up of the "A" and "B" batteries in this
diagram shows apotentiometer connected across the "A"
battery with the negative of the "B" battery connected
to the sliding contact of the potentiometer. The voltage
drop of the "A" battery across the termiiials of the
potentiometer is utilized for adding voltage in very small
amounts to the plate circuit. The main variations of the
plate voltage are made by means of the taps on the "B"
battery, and finer adjustments are then obtained by
moving the sliding contact of the potentiometer. The
potentiometer may be in the form of acarbon compound
resistance rod having a contact which slides along its
length or having contact points imbedded in it over which
aswitch arm rotates; or it may be in the form of acoil
of high-resistance wire with a sliding contact, similar to
arheostat. It should have aresistance of about 400 ohms.
The current from the "A" battery consumed by the
potentiometer is negligible.
Few vacuum tubes on the market at the present time
are critical enough to require the use of apotentiometer
for adjusting the plate voltage. However, gas content
tubes, which are vacuum tubes having aslight quantity
of a certain kind of gas introduced into them in manu-
facture, are quite critical in both filament and plate cur-
rent adjustment but when accurately adjusted, are more
sensitive than other tubes; therefore, apotentiometer is
frequently used with them.
A "B" battery potentiometer, that is, apotentiometer
connected across the "B" battery for fine variations of
plate voltage, should not be used, as it causes adrain on
the "B" battery which, slight as it may be, will materially

reduce the life of the "B" battery.
1.•
FIG. 62.-HOOK-up FOR A VARIOCOUPLER IN A REGENERATIVE BET.
The variocoupler in a regenerative set.—Fig. 62 shows

the hook-up for a variocoupler in a regenerative circuit.
The connections for this instrument are practically the
same as those for the loose coupler shown in Fig. 61.

That is to say, the primary of the variocoupler is em-
ployed as asingle-slide tuning coil, and the secondary is
connected in series with the plate circuit and made to
react back upon the grid circuit through the coupling of
the primary and secondary coils.
As explained on page 77, the secondary of a vario-
coupler is not variable in turns of wire; the regener-
ative effect is entirely controlled by rotating the spherical
shaped secondary or tickler coil.
As explained on page 95, Chapter IV, the magnetic
effect of one coil upon another is at maximum when the
turns of wire in the first coil are in the same relative
position as-the turns of wire in the second coil. In the
case of atickler coil which may be rotated, as for example,
the secondary of a variocoupler, there are two possible
positions where its turns of wire will be in the same
relative position as the turns of wire in the primary coil.
In one position, the fluctuations of the plate current will
build up on the incoming oscillations and therefore produce
regeneration. In the opposite position, that is, with the
coil rotated 180°, or given a half revolution, the fluc-
tuations of the plate current will oppose the incoming
oscillations in the primary coil and give "degeneration".
In this case it is simply amatter of turning the secondary
or tickler coil to one position or the other in order to find
which position gives regeneration or increase of signal
strength.
There are also two possible positions of the secondary
or tickler coil in which its turns of wire will be at right
angles to the turns of wire on the primary coil. In either
of these positions the effect of the plate current fluctu-

ations on the incoming oscillations in the primary coil
will be zero.
A revolving coil coupled to the grid circuit in this
manner furnishes one of the most flexible means of con-
trolling the feed-back effect in a regenerative receiving
set. The primary coil of the variocoupler, which forms
both the primary and secondary circuits of this receiving
set, is shown with both a units and a multiple turns
switch, thereby permitting close adjustment to wave
length with the turns of wire. This particular instrument
used in this manner constitutes an excellent short wave
regenerative receiver.
A condenser may be used in either position, as shown
by dotted lines in the primary circuit, to increase or to
decrease the wave length range of the receiver, or to aid
in sharper tuning to signals. A condenser might also
be used in shunt to the tickler coil, to assist in regeneration,
for reasons which will be explained in connection with
tuned plate circuits.
An "A" battery potentiometer is shown in this dia-
gram and is used as explained for the preceding hook-up.
The grid of the vacuum tube is shown connected to the
positive end of the filament for reasons suggested on
page 140 in connection with the hook-up in Fig. 59.
Any of the four methods of connecting the "A" and
"B" batteries which have been shown to this point may
be used interchangeably in vacuum tube detecting or
regenerative circuits with varying results. In most of
the circuits which follow, however, the negative "B" to
negative "A" connection will be shown.
Building a regenerative receiver with a tickler coil.—

The advantages and disadvantages of the single-circuit
FIG. 63.-DIAGRAM FOR HOME CONSTRUCTION OF A REGEN-

ERATIVE RECEIVER WITH A TICKLER COIL.
type and the coupled type of receiver have been dis-
cussed in Chapter IV.
It might be said that the single-circuit type of receiver

is coming into favor with the novice, largely owing to its
simplicity of control. There is no question that the
coupled type of receiver offers greater selectivity than
the former type, although that does not mean that the
single-circuit type is not selective. Because of simplicity
of control, as well as for reasons previously mentioned,
it is suggested by the authors that the novice, in attempt-
ing to build a regenerative receiver, first construct a
single-circuit type and become familiar with its operation
before attempting the construction and manipulation of
the coupled type of receiver with tuned grid and plate cir-
cuits, and its many controls.
If the reader desires to use the tickler or inductive
method of coupling with a single-circuit receiver, to
secure aregenerative effect, it is advisable to construct a
new tuning coil with atickler winding on the same tube,
rather than to attempt to adapt the ordinary tuning coil
to the new purpose.
In Fig. 63 is shown the wiring diagram for a single-
circuit receiver, using atickler coil, which has been very
successfully operated by many who were not thoroughly
acquainted with regenerative receivers. It will be noted
from the diagram that the tuning inductance—that is,
the coil of wire which tunes the aerial (and in this case,
the secondary or grid circuit as well)—performs the same
function as a single-slide tuning coil or the tapped coil
suggested in connection with Fig. 58. It should also be
noted at this point that it is not necessary to adhere
strictly to the suggestions here given for the construction
of the set. For example, amultiple turns switch may be
used in place of the units and the multiple turns switch

on the tuning inductance; or other variations might be
made. However, if both multiple and units switches are
employed, the necessity for variable condensers to tune
the aerial and the grid circuits will be removed. Other
features of the set might also be changed, but again, some
arrangement would have to be made to compensate for
any change, and unless the reader fully understands the
principles of the regenerative receiver, it might be con-
fusing to attempt to alter, to any extent, the design of this
set.
The constructional details for this receiver are as
follows:
The form on which the two coils are wound should be
about 3 inches in diameter and 8 inches long. Such a
form may be obtained in the shape of acardboard mailing
tube or other pasteboard tube. One hundred turns of
No. 24 insulated wire are wound on one end of the tube,
for tuning inductance. This wire may be enamel covered,
or single or double cotton or silk covered wire but double
silk-covered wire is preferable, for low values of distributed
capacity and high efficiency in insulation. The winding
is done as suggested for the tapped coil described in
Fig. 30, but in this case, 10 single turns are connected to
11 switch points for the units switch and the remaining
90 turns are connected to 10 points of the multiple
switch. It can of course be seen that this winding differs
from that of the tapped coil described on page 68 in that
the multiple switch is a ten's switch instead of afive's
switch and that 10 single turns are tapped for -ale
switch instead of 5turns.
About 1A inch space is left between the tuning induct-

ance winding and the tickler winding. The ticklerwinding
consists also of 100 turns, and is wound on the other end
of the same tube. The winding is begun, as suggested
above, at a distance of 1 % inch from the end of the in-
ductance winding. The tickler winding is made variable
by 10 taps, for ten turns each, taken from it. It should
be noted, however, that it will require 11 switch points,
and that the first one is connected at the beginning of
the winding, to enable switching all of the tickler winding
out of the circuit if it is desired to prevent feed-back
effect or regeneration. This control would perhaps not
be necessary in most cases, but if atube which oscillates
readily is used, the control might be necessary in order to
prevent distortion when receiving radiophone speech or
music. Care should also be taken that the switch points
of botli.windings are connected as shown in the diagram,
so that whatever plate inductance is used will be adjacent
to the turns of wire used in the tuning coil. In other
words, if it were necessary to use only 10 or 20 turns in
the tuning inductance for tuning to short waves, approxi-
mately the same number of turns in the plate inductance
should be used for maximum regeneration and the wiring
should be arranged as shown, so that the 10 or 20 turns in
the plate inductance would be near the turns employed in
the tuning inductance. In winding either coil, perhaps
the best method of taking off the taps would be to punch a
hole in the cardboard form at the place where each tap
is to be taken. Then aloop of the wire long enough to
reach to the switch point, is drawn through the hole and
the winding is continued to the next hole. The loops
which have been drawn through the tube, are then

brought from the inside of the tube and connected to the
switch points. This method eliminates the necessity ot
soldering taps to the wire in the coil.
The whole receiving set may be mounted on a bise
board for a panel type of set such as that shown in the
picture diagram, Fig. 63. In that case, the switch points
would be on the panel front with the taps led to them.
It might be suggested at this point that ahighly polished
hard rubber or composition panel does not add to the
efficiency of a set. It only adds to the appearance and
facilitates the control. Equally good results may be
obtained by mounting all of the instruments of this set
on a board with the switch points also mounted thereon,
or with the switch points mounted on a block fitted
into the end of the tube as shown in the picture dia-
grams for the loose coupler. Switch points connected
to a block fastened in the end of the tube are, how-
ever, very difficult to wire. Practically all of the other
instruments which go to make up the set would have to
be purchased. The grid condenser and the by-pass con-
denser could be made at home, but if best results are
desired, these condensers should be purchased. The
by-pass condenser, as in the case of the other regen-
erative receiving sets in this chapter, should have avalue
of about .001 to .002 mfd., and the grid condenser avalue
of approximately .00025 mfd. A grid leak of the value
of 2,000,000 ohms might be selected, but as previously
mentioned, not every grid leak or grid condenser will
work well with all tubes. A variable condenser may be
used in series in the aerial circuit, for tuning to short
wave lengths, or it may be used in shunt to the primary

or to the grid circuit (which in this case are the same)
for tuning up to long wave lengths. These connections
for the variable condenser are suggested by dotted lines.
There are many good types of rheostats, switches, bat-
teries, and phones on the market, and it is a matter of
price and design as to what makes shall be selected.
In tuning this set for spark signals or radiophone voice
or music, the plate inductance should be set at the zero
switch point and the tuning inductance varied as in the
case of the single-slide tuning coil and other single-circuit
receivers previously described. When the voice or
signals have been picked up, plate inductance may be
added by rotating the switch until regeneration results,
and the increase of signals is obtained to the desired
extent. This method will enable the operator to increase
the strength of the signals which are first heard.
The more difficult tuning comes in picking up signals
which are too weak to be heard without regeneration.
In that case, the plate inductance and the tuning induct-
ance should be varied, with acorresponding increase and
decrease of each inductance, throughout the range of the
switch points. This last method enables the maintaining
of regeneration just below the point of oscillation and
thereby gives maximum sensitiveness in tuning.
For the reception of continuous wave signals with this
set, oscillation must of course be maintained, by using a
sufficient amount of plate inductance at all times, and
tuning with the aerial or the grid inductance. This
procedure enables beat reception, as described at the
beginning of the chapter.
Two honeycomb coils in a regenerative set.—Fig. 64

shows the connections for two honeycomb coils in a
FIG. 64.-HOOK-UP FOR REGENERATIVE EFFECT WITH TWO

HONEYCOMB COILS.
regenerative circuit. The action of these coils is pre-

cisely the same as that obtained by the use of a loose
coupler or a variocoupler, in that one of the two coils is
used as inductance in the primary and secondary circuits,

while the other is used for feeding back the plate energy
to the grid circuit. The feed-back effect is entirely con-
trolled by varying the distance separating the coil in the
plate circuit from that in the grid circuit. This is usually
done by moving the tickler coil away from or towards the
other coil in the manner described in connection with
Fig. 43, Chapter IV.
The sizes of the two coils should be about equal. As
the coils are not variable for fine adjustments in turns of
wire, it is necessary to employ avariable condenser either
in shunt to or in series with the coil in the grid or second-
ary circuit (which is also the primary circuit in this
case). A variable condenser may also be employed in
shunt to the plate circuit coil, as suggested for pre-
ceding diagrams.
It may be found that, for reasons explained in con-
nection with the loose coupler in a regenerative set, the
wires leading to the coil used as the tickler may have to
be reversed as the coils may not be of correct polarity.
Two spiderweb coils or other coils of similar type, may
be connected and operated in identically the same man-
ner as the two honeycomb coils. As suggested in Chap-
ter IV, best results will not be obtained by the use of
one coil, of any of these types, for tuning both the
primary and secondary circuits of areceiving set. Bet-
ter tuning will result in the use of the following hook-up.
Regeneration with three honeycomb or three spider-
web coils.—In Figs. 65 and 66, regenerative hook-ups for
three honeycomb coils and three spiderweb coils, re-
spectively, are shown. In each case, one coil is used as
the primary, the center or fixed coil as the secondAry, and

the third coil as atickler. Coupling is obtained between
FIG. 65.—Hoo -p FOR THREE FIONEYCOMB COILS IN A REGEN-

ERATIVE SET.
the primary coil and the secondary or grid coil as well
as between the tickler and the grid coil.
Again, variable condensers must be used for both the

primary and the secondary circuits in each receiving set;
FIG. 66.-HOOK-UP FOR THREE SPIDERWEB COILS IN AREGENERATIVE SET.
a third condenser may be used in the tickler circuit, as

suggested for the preceding hook-ups.
11
THE TUNED PLATE CIRCUIT IN REGENERATION
The single-slide tuning coil is again shown in Fig. 67,

having what is commonly called a tuned plate circuit
instead of the inductively, conductively, or electrostatically
coupled plate circuit or a combination of the foregoing
methods of coupling.
Almost any form of variable inductance, as a tuning
coil, for example, may be connected in series with the
plate circuit to obtain a regenerative effect; but the
variometer, as shown in the hook-up, is preferable because
of the ease with which the regenerative effect may be
controlled by revolving the rotor of the variometer. (See
page 96, Chapter IV.)
In the tuned plate regenerative receiver, the plate cir-
cuit is placed in tune with the secondary or grid circuit
(and likewise with the aerial circuit) by altering the
relative position of the inductance coils in the variometer.
When oscillations from incoming signals occur in the
grid circuit, they produce corresponding pulsations in the
"B" battery current of the plate circuit. From the
discussion on page 95, Chapter IV, it can be seen that a
sudden increase in the plate current passing through the
plate tuning inductance, will generate in the coils of the
variometer, aback electromotive force (E. M. F.) which
will tend to oppose the impulse. Likewise the immedi-
ately following decrease of the plate current in the plate
inductance, will generate a back E. M. F. which will
tend to sustain the decreasing plate current. These
E. M. F.'s induced in the inductance, alternately aiding
and opposing the plate current, set up oscillations of
plate current which react upon the grid circuit, partly
through the connections of the plate circuit to the grid

circuit and partly through the condenser effect between
_
FIG. 67.-HOOK-UP FORA SINGLE SLIDE TUNING COIL IN
A TUNED PLATE REGENERATIVE SET.
the plate and the grid in the vacuum tube. The oscilla-
tions of the plate current, reacting on the grid circuit in
this manner, build up the original oscillations in the grid
circuit, and therefore amplify the oscillations imposed on

the grid by the energy from the received waves.
In using avariometer in the plate circuit, the maximum
increase or decrease, or amplitude of the fluctuations in
the plate current will be obtained when the inside or rotor
winding is placed so that its turns of wire are running
in the same direction as the turns of wire on the outside
coil, provided the plate circuit happens to be in tune with
the grid circuit at that position. Likewise, the wave
length of the plate circuit will be at amaximum when the
rotor is in that position, as explained on page 95, Chapter
IV. If the rotor is revolved 180 degrees, the inductance
effect, and therefore the regenerative effect and the wave
length of the plate circuit, will be at aminimum.
It is evident that in revolving the rotor toward maxi-.
mum inductance, both the wave length and the regener-
ative effect are increased at the same time, resulting in an
arrival at maximum regeneration by means of a com-
bination of tuning and the reacting of the plate circuit.
A combination of the tuned plate circuit and the
coupled plate circuit may be arranged which will give even
better results than will either arrangement alone. That
is to say, the inductance in the plate circuit may be tuned,
and at the same time coupled to the grid circuit as is
the case with the variable tickler coil described in con-
nection with Fig. 63. Again the tickler coil itself need
not be variable, as shown in Figs. 62 and 64, but may be
tuned by means of a variable condenser placed in shunt
to it, or by a variable inductance, such as a variometer,
placed in series with it.
For receiving short wave lengths with such receivers,
the values of the tickler coil and the plate tuning induct-
ance would have to be such that the plate circuit could
FIG. 68.-HOOK-UP FOR ALOOSE COUPLER IN ATUNED PLATE REGEN-

ERATIVE SET.
be tuned low enough to reach the desired wave length,

for example, 200 or 360 meters.
Directions for tuning the vaxiometer tuned plate cir-
cuit are given more in detail on page 166.
Regeneration with other types of tuning inductance.—

The single-slide tuning coil which is shown in Fig. 67
L) ..,
1„U
«M.M.M.M.
FIG. 69.-HOOK-UP FOR AVARIOCOUPLER IN ATUNED PLATE REGENERATIVE

BET.
may be replaced by the double-slide coil, the triple-slide

coil, or any one of the tapped coils, by simply connecting
the grid circuit leads of the vacuum tube detector in place
of the secondary circuit leads of the crystal detector sets

shown in Chapter IV. For that reason, many of those
possible circuits will not be shown in this chapter.
Figs. 68 and 69 show the connections for tuned pine
regenerative circuits employing a loose coupler and a
variocoupler, respectively. The action of the tuned plate
circuit is exactly similar to that described in connection
with Fig. 67.
The loose coupler in Fig. 68 may be replaced by any
other form of loose coupler; a variocoupler having only
the multiple switch instead of a units and a multiple
switch may of course be used in place of the one indi-
cated in Fig. 69. For sharp tuning, a second variable
condenser in either of the positions in the aerial circuit,
indicated by dotted lines, would then be necessary.
VARIOAIETER TUNED PLATE AND GRID CIRCUITS IN

REGENERATION
Regenerative set with a tuning coil and two variom-

eters.—In Fig. 70 is shown the hook-up for atuning coil
and two variometers—one in the plate circuit and one in
the grid circuit.
In this particular hook-up, a two-slide tuning coil is
shown. However, asimilar coil with taps, or the single
slide or single tapped, or the triple slide coil, may be
connected in its place as has been suggested for pre-
ceding diagrams. Any of those types of coils would con-
stitute the well-known single circuit receiver with vari-
ometer tuned plate and grid circuits.
It should be noted that the grid variometer will enable
tuning to wave lengths greater than the secondary cir-
cuit of the tuning coil alone could accomplish. Con-

densers may be used, if desired, for increasing or decreasing
FIG. 70.-HOOK-up POR A REGENERATIVE BET WITH A DOUBLE SLIDE

TUNING COIL AND TWO VARIOMETER13.
wave length, as indicated in the secondary circuit and in

the primary circuit. Procedure in tuning with tuned
plate and grid circuits will be considered in detail in con-
nection with the following diagram.
Regeneration with aloose coupler and two variometers.

—Fig. 71 shows the use of the loose coupler in what is
Fla. 71.—HOOK-up FOR A LOOSE COUPLER AND TWO VARIOMETERS IN A

REGENERATIVE BET.
known as the coupled circuit type of regenerative receiver,

with variometer tuned plate and grid circuits. Again in
this case, any other form of loose coupler described in
Chapter IV may be substituted for the single slide coupler

here illustrated. Connections are shown for the use of
variable condensers, if it is desired to increase or decrease
the wave length range of the set.
Tuning the set with tuned plate and grid circuits.—
There are two distinct methods of procedure in tuning
any set employing variometer tuned plate and grid
circuits.
In tuning for spark or telephone stations, the plate
variometer may first be set at minimum inductance, pro-
ducing no regeneration and therefore no distortion from
regenerative amplification. If the receiving set is of the
coupled circuit type, the coupler is set for tight coupling.
Next, an adjustment of the primary circuit to the desired
wave length is approximated. At the same time, the
secondary or grid circuit is tuned by means of the
secondary inductance, if the coil is variable, and by
the grid variometer in order to keep the primary and
secondary circuits somewhat in resonance while tuning in
the signals. If the secondary inductance of the tuner is
not variable, the grid variometer only is used for tuning
that circuit. After both the primary and the secondary
circuits have been tuned to the desired signals, the plate
variometer may be slowly rotated, in order to amplify the
signals by means of regeneration, until the signals or
voice begin to break, or become distorted from violent
regeneration or from oscillation of the tube. Then the
coupling of the tuner, if of the coupled type, may be
reduced, in order to reduce the possibility of interference
from other stations which may start transmitting.
The foregoing method may be used for tuning in and
amplifying signals, which are strong enough to be heard

without the aid of regeneration. The following method,
however, must be resorted to for picking up spark or
telephone signals which are too weak to be heard without
regeneration.
Again, if the receiving tuner is of the coupled type, set
the instrument for tight coupling. Next, adjust the
primary circuit approximately to the wave length of the
desired signals, as suggested above. Then, with the
secondary inductance (if it is variable) adjusted to furnish
asmall amount of inductance, rotate the grid variometer
and the plate variometer each through a complete turn.
The two valiometers should be revolved at the same
time, one following the other, in such away that maximum
regeneration is maintained throughout the complete revo-
lutions of the two instruments. Bear in mind that maxi-
mum regeneration occurs and therefore maximum sen-
sitiveness of the detector is attained when the set is
adjusted to just below the point of oscillation.
Signals picked up in the manner last described are
rarely loud enough to permit loosening the coupling to
any extent. However, loose coupling to even the slightest
degree will always help to reduce the possibility of inter-
ference.
Exactly the same operations, as those described in the
method of tuning last suggested, are gone through in
tuning for C. W. or undamped wave signals, except that
in the latter case, while the valiometers are being rotated,
the detector is kept in a state of oscillation rather than
regeneration.
This condition imposes, at all times, forced oscillations
of varying frequency on any incoming continuous oscilla-

tions which are picked up as the variometers place the
grid and the plate circuit in tune with different wave
lengths within their range. The result is the production,
at will, of beat notes of any desired tone for a given
station.
It can now be seen that the continuous waves, or car-
rier wave of aradio telephone transmitter, may be picked
up, as well as the voice modulated portions, by simply
changing the adjustments of the instruments from those
which produce regeneration to those which produce oscil-
lation.
The foregoing principles of operation apply, in part, to
the tuning of variometer tuned plate circuit regenerative
sets shown in preceding diagrams, while all of the above
suggestions apply directly to the variometer tuned, grid
and plate regenerative sets which follow in this chapter.
The arrangement of two variometers one in the plate
circuit and one in the grid circuit—provides amore flexible
control than does the variable condenser, for varying the
wave length in tuning to stations whose wave lengths
fall between the taps on the secondary of the loose coupler.
The hook-ups using two variometers in this manner are
therefore popular among amateurs.
A regenerative set with avariocoupler and two variom-
eters.—In Fig. 72 is shown what is perhaps the most
popular type of receiving set with amateurs—the receiving
set employing a variocoupler and two variometers. As
noted above, this set is tuned in exactly the same manner
as the preceding set.
Simplified regenerative set using two variometers.—
Fig. 73 shows the hook-up for aregenerative set with two

variometers. One variometer is used as tuning induct-
Fla. 72.-1100H-13P FOR A VARIOCOIIPLER AND TWO VARIOMETERS IN A

REGENERATIVE SET.
ance for both the primary circuit and the grid circuit.
At the same time, it affords the flexibility of control in
the grid circuit referred to in connection with the last

three circuits.
III -IuIllIlIlIpIltI
Fla. 73.-1100K-171P FOR A SIMPLIFIED REGENERATIVE SET

USING TWO VARIOMETERS.
On the other hand, the variometer in this position has

the same disadvantage as the single slide tuning coil. That
is to say, it varies the wave length of both the primary

and the secondary circuit at the same time. The in-
clusion of avariable condenser, however, in series in the
aerial circuit will permit independent tuning of this cir-
cuit, to acertain extent.
The advantage of this type of receiver is in simplified
control. Only three controls are used—the condenser
and the two variometers; and even though the possibility
for critical adjustment of primary and secondary circuits
and the coupling of those two circuits is eliminated, this
set will be found to be quite selective and to produce satis-
factory results in amplification of signals.
In order to receive waves under 360 meters, the series
condenser is a necessity. A small amount of capacity
and agreat amount of inductance should be used for such
wave lengths, so that the set may regenerate and oscillate
readily.
If the series condenser is short circuited or removed from
the aerial circuit, the set will respond to wave lengths up
to 600 meters; but in order to obtain regeneration and
oscillation for wave lengths up to 600 meters, it may be
necessary to have the variometers so arranged that they
may be moved and placed alongside of each other to
allow magnetic coupling between the grid circuit and the
plate circuit.
Distortion in regeneration.—Remember that excessive
regeneration of either spark signals or broadcasts will
cause distortion; therefore, in receiving broadcasts, it is
well to keep regeneration at aminimum in order to pre-
serve the quality of the voice or music. In receiving spark
or I. C. W. (interrupted ccmtinuaus waves) signals, the
natural tone of the signals may be distorted to aconsider-

able extent before the signals become too greatly broken
up to be easily read.
THE REINARTZ TUNER
A circuit which has recently become very popular

(Mien Exterior Coil Circuit When Using
-.4 1, 4r its
Exterior Coil)
.0005 •
Fia. 74.-HOOK-UP FOR THE REINARTZ TUNER WITH DETECTOR.
among amateurs and broadcast listeners owes its inven-

tion to Mr. John L. Reinartz.
This receiver is not only inexpensive and easy to build
but quite remarkable in its operating characteristics. Its
chief advantages are: (1) the tuning is accomplished by
the antenna and grid switches with the secondary con-
denser for fine adjustment; (2) feedback is accomplished
by a combination of electrostatic and inductive coupling
rather than by the tuned plate method, so that once the
feedback has been adjusted, the tuning may be varied
over practically the entire range of the set without read-

justment; (3) body capacity effects can be almost entirely
eliminated by the proper connection of the secondary and
feedback condensers.
Fig. 74 shows the hook-up for this circuit. The induc-
tance consists of a set of two windings in a single spider
web form, with atotal of 90 turns of No. 20 S. C. C. wire
wound on nine spokes around a2M inch center, the com-
pleted coil being about 5 inches in diameter. After 45
turns are wound, the wire is cut; this coil forms the plate
inductance. The winding is then resumed in the same
direction and 45 additional turns are put on. These wind-
ings form two coils very tightly coupled to each other.
Taps are brought out to three switches in the following
manner: The inner coil or plate winding is tapped at 0,
15, 30 and 45 turns, for control of the feedback. These
taps are carried to a four-point switch. The outer coil is
tapped for the antenna switch at the 3d, 5th, 7th, 9th,
11th, 13th and 15th turns and a ground connection
taken off at the 16th turn. The taps for the grid switch
are taken from the 25th, the 35th, and the 45th or out-
side turn for tuning purposes.
The range of this coil is from 150 to 600 meters but
this may be increased by adding proportionately to the
three sections of the coil, by using a larger secondary
condenser, or by adding a loading coil in the follow-
ing manner: It will be noticed that both the grid and
antenna switches have an extra point and that the plate
switch has a point at 0 turns. When the switches
are placed on these points an exterior load coil of any
desired value may be connected to the three bind-
12
ing posts marked P, F, and G. One-third of the turns

on the load coil should be connected between the filament
and plate posts and two-thirds between the grid and
filament posts. For 750 meters, a coil should be used of
70 turns of No. 20 S. C. C. wire on a 2% inch cylinder,
tapped for the filament lead at 50 turns from the grid
end. The circuit when an exterior load coil is used is
shown in the small diagram on the right-hand side of
Fig. 74.
For radiophone reception, spark, or I. C. W. signals,
the feedback adjustments may easily be made for maxi-
mum value of regeneration, while for continuous wave
signal reception, the receiver is ideal, in that the feed-
back may be set so that the detector tube is oscillating
at the proper frequency and the tuning varied over the
entire range without further adjustment of the feedback.
Certain details are of considerable importance in hook-
ing up the set; the negative side of the B battery must be
connected to the positive side of the A battery; it is
most important that in order to minimize body capacity
effects, the rotary plates of the feedback condenser be
connected to the antenna and the rotary plates of the
tuning condenser to the ground.
THE ARMSTRONG SUPER-REGENERATIVE RECEIVER
This circuit, while it includes no apparatus which has

not already been treated in this book, is somewhat
complicated and is more difficult to construct than an
ordinary regenerative receiver; yet it produces results,
when properly built and operated, that are little less
than astounding. Edwin H. Armstrong, the inventor,
estimates that the amount of amplification of the super-

regenerative system is from 100,000 to 1,000,000 times
as great as that obtained with an ordinary regenerative
receiver. The advantages of this system lie in the great
volume of sound which may be obtained from a very
weak signal, and in that spark or damped wave signals
are not amplified to the same extent as are the con-
tinuous or modulated continuous waves used in radio
telephony. A third important characteristic claimed for
this circuit is that it amplifies the shorter wave lengths
to a greater degree than the longer, opening up a new
band of short wave lengths for radio transmission.
Owing, however, to difficulties both of construction
and particularly of operation, a detailed discussion of
the super-regenerative receiver is not within the province
of this book.
CHAPTER VIII
AMPLIFIERS,LOUD SPEAKERS,AND LOOP

AERIALS
The vacuum tube as an amplifier.—In the preceding

chapter we have seen that by the use of the vacuum
tube, weak currents coming from the aerial may be made
to control strong currents which actuate the disks in the
telephone receivers, reproducing the sounds which are
being directed into a transmitter at the sending station.
In other words, the vacuum tube, even when used as a
detector, is fundamentally an amplifier, since it uses
relatively weak currents in its grid circuit to control much
stronger currents in its plate circuit. Since feeble varia-
tions or oscillations in the grid circuit of a vacuum tube
produce relatively great changes in the strength of the
current in the plate circuit, the plate circuit from one
tube may be coupled through a transformer, to the grid
circuit of a second vacuum tube, to produce still greater
changes in the plate circuit of this second tube, and so on
as far as may be desired.
In similar manner, one or more amplifying tubes with
their transformers may be introduced into the grid circuit
of the rectifying or detector tube. Stages of amplification
so placed, magnify the effect of the weak signal currents,
before these currents reach the detector tube.
Amplifiers placed in the circuit between the detector
(17.3)
AMPLIFIERS, SPEAKERS, LOOPS 179
and the telephone receivers are called audio-frequency

amplifiers, because they magnify the effect of currents
which have been reduced from radio frequency to audio
frequency. Amplifiers used between the aerial circuit and
the detector are called radio-frequency amplifiers, since
they act upon the high-frequency currents before they
have reached the detector. In this connection, it should
be kept in mind that audio-frequency amplification can
magnify only those signals which are strong enough to
operate the detector. It can have no effect whatever on
signals which are too weak to fluctuate the detector plate
current. Radio-frequency amplification, on the other
hand, may be used to magnify signal currents too weak
in themselves to control the detector plate current vari-
ations which actuate the telephone receivers."
AUDIO—FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION
Hooking up the audio-frequency amplifier.—As has

been previously stated, the amount of sound produced by
Shorted,or Connected
to aTickler,,or aTuned
Plate Inductance Amplifie.
7h Secondary
or Grit/Circuit
Induct° net
_Islibli11111 ,11111 81. _

III. _111.111 ,1.11111. dot .
75.—DIAGRAM SHOWING A VACUUM TUBE DETECTOR AND ONE STAGE

OF AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION.
the telephone receivers is proportional to the magnitude

of the pulses of current passing through them. The
hook-up for asingle stage of audio-frequency amplification,
which will further increase the signal currents applied to

the telephone receivers, is shown in Fig. 75.
(For the sake of clearness, separate "A" and "B" bat-
teries are indicated for the detector and the amplifier. In
succeeding hook-ups, connections will be shown to com-
mon sources for filament current and for plate current.)
The amplifier circuit here shown includes atransformer,
an amplifier tube, sources of filament and plate current, a
separate rheostat for controlling the filament current for
the amplifying tube, and the telephone receivers.
The transformer is made up of two coils of wire—a
primary and asecondary winding—placed on an insulating
form, and having an iron core. The secondary winding is
made up of a greater number of turns of wire than the
primary, in order to "step up" the voltage. Usually the
windings of amplifying transformers have
aratio of 3or 4to 1. Transf ormers with
a ratio as high as ,9 t,o 1or 10 to 1, are OA sgl
available for use in radio. The last men-

tioned ratio, however, seems to be the
upper limit. The amplifier tube is simi-
lar to the detector tube, but is more Fia. 76.- AMPLIFY-
highly exhausted, and therefore more
nearly a vacuum than is the rectifying or detector tube.
As can be seen in the diagram, the primary winding of
the transformer is placed in the plate circuit of the de-
tector where the receivers have heretofore been con-
nected. The secondary winding is connected in the grid
circuit of the amplifying tube. Note that the secondary
of the transformer takes the same place in the amplifier
tube hook-up as the secondary of the tuning inductance
does in the case of the detector tube. The receivers are

now placed in the plate circuit of the amplifying tube.
It should be noted that the grid circuit of a detector
tube which is used with one or more stages of audio-fre-
quency amplification may be connected to any type of
receiving tuner shown in Chapter IV. Furthermore, the
detector circuit may be made regenerative by inserting in
it any of the types of tickler coils or tuned plate induct-
ance described in Chapter VII.
The addition of one or more stages of audio-frequency
amplification to the simple vacuum tube detector hook-up
or to the regenerative hook-up occasions no change what-
ever in the receiving circuit.
For best results, a by-pass condenser should be used
across the detector plate circuit in shunt to the "B" bat-
tery and the primary of the amplifying transformer, par-
ticularly if the detector circuit is of the regenerative type.
\principles of audio-frequency amplification.—As has
been previously explained, the grid in a vacuum tube
acts as an interrupter to cause variations of current in the
plate circuit. We also understand that the voltage ap-
plied to the primary winding of atransformer is increased
in the secondary in the same ratio that the number of
turns in the secondary bears to the number of turns in
the primary
When the audio-frequency pulses of direct current in
the plate circuit of the detector pass through the primary
winding of the amplifying transformer, corresponding
pulses of much higher voltage are induced in the secondary
winding. These magnified pulses pass to the grid of the
amplifier, fluctuating the plate circuit current, as in the
case of the detector, but controlling much larger pulses

of current in the plate circuit than are controlled in the
detector plate circuit. Due to the amplifying properties
of the tube, the variations in grid voltage are magnified
from five to thirty times in the plate circuit. These
magnified pulses in the amplifier plate circuit cause the
telephone receiver diaphragms to vibrate with greater
amplitude, producing much louder sound.
Multi-stage or cascade audio-frequency amplifica-
tion.—If instead of the telephone receivers, the primary of
another amplifying transformer is placed in the plate cir-
cuit of the first amplifying tube, the same process may be
reproduced in asecond stage of amplification, with acor-
respondingly greater magnification of received signals.
Additional stages may be added in similar manner, but
Shortee or Connected ro
Q 7ickler, or a Tuned Plate
Inductonm,
To Secondary
i-4
or
arid Circuit
Inductance
I
+LWi.- - illilliMill +-111114111114ii i.
22V. 45-90 V.
FIG. 77.-1100K-1TP FOR A VACUUM TUBE DETECTOR AND TWO STAGES OF

AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION
complications arise in using more than two stages, for in-

duction, static and physical vibration of the instruments
are also magnified, and to such degree that they often
drown out the signals. In addition, even three stages
require such critical and delicate adjustment of filament
rheostats and plate voltage that they can be operated
satisfactorily only after continued practice.
A hook-up for a detector and two stages of audio-fre-
quency amplification using common "A" and "B" bat-

teries is shown in Fig. 77.
Control jacks and plugs.—Fig. 78 shows the hook-up
for a two-stage audio-frequency amplifier using control
Shorted.or Connected toe
Tickler. or a Tuned Plate
Inductance?
e'seg'dwd."
1
Inductance
.$1.J .1.1.1.1.141.1 ,14.1.14.

FIG. 78.-1100K-17P FOR AVACUUM TUBE DETECTOR AND TWO STAGES OF
AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION, WITH CONTROL JACKS
jacks. These jacks are similar to those used in telephone

switchboards, into which are inserted the plugs connected
to the telephone cords. Both of these devices are shown
in Fig. 79. The jacks permit the "plugging in" of the re-
no. 79.—A CONTROL JACK AND PLUG
ceivers on the detector tube alone or the detector and

one stage of amplification, or the detector and two stages
of amplification. Such an arrangement has decided ad-
vantages in many instances. For example, signals may
be so loud with both stages of amplification in use, that
the receivers cannot be kept close to the ears with com-
fort. Or again, sufficiently loud signals may be heard
with the detector or with the detector and asingle stage
of amplification. It is, of course, uneconomical to use
more tubes than are necessary for the desired results,

since such use causes adrain on the "A" and "B" batteries
and reduces the life of the tubes.
It can be seen from the diagram that when the tele-
phone receiver or the loud-speaking device is not plugged
into any one of the jacks for the reception of signals, the
jacks are in their normal position and the "A" battery
current circuits are broken for all of the tubes.
As the plug attached to the receivers or loud speaker is
inserted in the jack in the detector tube circuit, the plug
forces to the left the spring contacts of the jack, and these
contacts complete the filament circuit of the detector tube
through the first two levers to the right in the jack. •(There
is no need of controlling the plate circuit by the jacks since
plate current does not flow unless the filament is heated.)
If the plug is removed from the jack in the detector
circuit and inserted in the jack which is in the circuit of
the first stage of amplification, the filament circuits of both
the detector and the first amplifying tube will be com-
pleted through the second jack, and the first stage of
amplification will therefore be added to the detector.
In similar manner, the second stage of amplification
would be added to the detector and the first stage, by
inserting the plug in the third jack.
Wiring up stages of amplification.—In the operation of
areceiving set which includes several stages of amplifica-
tion, considerable annoyance may be caused and signals
are often interfered with by a shrill tone or sustained
"howling" which is heard in the receivers. This howling is
due to the fact that somewhere in the hook-up, the voltage
variations in the plate circuit of one of the vacuum tubes
is being transferred by induction to the grid circuit of the

same or of some other tube. This induced variation in
the grid circuit is then amplified in the same manner as
the received signals, and may come through the receivers
so strong as to make radio reception impossible.
In building up stages of amplification at home, care
should be taken to locate the transformers as far from one
another as possible—at least several inches—unless they
can be properly shielded, as for example, by placing each
bulb and its transformer in a metallic compartment
and grounding the compartment. If this method is not
followed, transformer cores should be placed at right
angles to one another and cases of the transformers should
be grounded. In every case, care should be taken to make
the leads from one transformer to the grid of the succeed-
ing stage as direct as possible. Whenever possible, keep
leads from running parallel to one another, and make all
bends in the wires at right angles.
•
---7 LOUD SPEAKERS
Numerous loud-speaking devices which may be used to

replace the telephone receivers so that a number of
people may listen at one time, have been developed and
placed upon the market. The amateur should insist upon
a careful demonstration before purchasing apparatus of
this type. He should also know something about the
possibilities as well as the limitations of such equipment
and the conditions governing its use.
To begin with, the type of horn or megaphone which
uses the ordinary radio-telephone receiver as part of its
equipment is subject to certain limitations. It cannot
properly be called an amplifier of signals for it only con-

centrates and directs the physical sound coming from the
receiver. Furthermore, the ordinary receiver is not de-
signed to produce very violent diaphragm vibrations,
and distortion almost invariably results from its use with
any type of horn.
' In the reception of speech and music by radio, there
are two desired results. The first is volume. The
second is lack of distortion. Many amateurs consider
the second result much more important than that first
mentioned. In other words, they prefer to have less dis-
tortion at the expense of volume rather than great volume
accompanied by distortion. With properly designed am-
plifiers, however, and an electrodynamic type of loud
speaker operated at full capacity, it is possible to amplify
radio music or voice so that either can be heard through-
out alarge sized hall or auditorium.
One efficient type of loud speaker employs a specially
constructed "Baldwin "receiver in connection with ahorn.
The receiver consists of apowerful permanent magnet, a
coil which is connected in the plate circuit of the last
stage of amplification, a soft iron armature which can
move in the field of the magnet in accordance with the
variations of amplified telephone current passing through
the coil, and a diaphragm or disk so fastened to the
armature by means of a lever that its movement is
greater than that of the armature.
If apower tube is used in the last stage of amplification,
even better results are to be obtained from any electro-
dynamic type of loud speaker. The operator, however,
should first make sure that the windings of the amplify-
ing transformer are able to pass the increased current

which will flow in the plate circuit of the power tube.
It should be remembered that the dynamic loud speakers
are so designed that arelatively large amount of energy
is required to operate them. Additional "B" batteries
are usually necessary, therefore, to their operation.
Plate voltage for amplifiers with loud speakers.— It
should be noted that higher plate voltages are needed for
amplifying tubes in both audio-frequency and radio-
frequency amplification. Amplifying tubes, as previously
mentioned, are more highly exhausted, and the higher
degree of vacuum permits the application of a much
higher voltage between the plate and the filament, before
causing the blue glow or hissing effect. The use of this
additional plate voltage with audio-frequency amplifiers
results in agreater flow of current through the receivers or
the loud speaker, and therefore produces louder sounds.
Plate voltage which may be used in amplification is
limited by the amount of current which the amplifying
transformers and bulbs or other instruments will pass.
Amplifying transformers will usually stand about 125
volts, when placed in series with the plate circuit of an
ordinary amplifying bulb. Amplifying tubes, however,
and power tubes will stand up to 200 or 300 volts, or more.
Special transformers may be purchased which will pass
current up to the limit of the tubes, without burning out.
RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION AT BROADCASTING

WAVE LENGTHS
Necessity for radio-frequency amphfication.—When a

signal is so weak that it fails to operate the detector,
audio-frequency amplification is of no use, regardless of

the number of stages employed, and radio-frequency
amplification must be used to bring in the signals.
Radio-frequency amplifiers are connected between the
aerial circuit and the detector, and increase the strength
of the received oscillations before they are impressed on
the detector for rectification in the usual manner. In
radio-frequency amplification, weak impulses are am-
plified in the same proportion as stronger ones. In this
respect, radio-frequency differs from audio-frequency am-
plification, which is very unfair to weak signals. It
further differs from audio-frequency in that it amplifies the
signals to which its circuits are tuned, without amplifying
"off-tune" interference and local induction. One or
more stages of audio-frequency amplification may, of
course, be used to advantage in conjunction with radio-
frequency amplification.
Radio-frequency amplifying transformers.—Radio-fre-
quency transformers for coupling amplifying tubes to-
gether are available for private users of radio. Several
types of such transformers are made with a certain
amount of iron in their composition, which enables them
to respond over a considerable range in wave length.
Due to their broad wave range, they accomplish perhaps
only one-half the amplification for each stage, that would
be possible if the iron were omitted and the transformers
designed to cover only 300 to 400 meters. Care should be
taken, therefore, in selecting radio-frequency amplifying
transformers. If the user desires to hear only stations
sending on wave lengths between 200 and 400 meters,
and to obtain maximum amplification, he should select
transformers covering this range, with no iron in their

composition. If he desires to cover broader wave ranges,
transformers with iron in their make-up will be necessary.
More tubes, however, must be employed to obtain the
same amplification which can be obtained if transformers
of the former type are used.
Hooking up the radio-frequency amplifier.—The wiring
diagram for a simple one-stage radio-frequency amplifier
Shorted.or Connected to a
Tuned Plate Inductance
Defector li-
To Secondary
or Grid Tuning'
Inductance
FIG. 80.—HOOK-UP FOR ONE STAGE OF TRANSFORMER COUPLED RADIO-FRE-

QUENCY AMPLIFICATION AND ADETECTOR.
and a detector is shown in Fig. 80. The set may be

hooked-up to the secondary circuit of any of the tuning
devices shown in Chapters IV and VII.
The primary of the amplifying transformer is con-
nected in the plate circuit of the amplifying tube. The
secondary of the transformer is connected to the grid
and to the filament of the detector tube. The receivers
are connected in the plate circuit of the detector.
-The potentiometer (Pot.) has already been described,
in connection with Fig. 61, Chapter VII. The two ends
of its resistance coil are connected across the "A" battery
leads as indicated. The variable contact of the potenti-
ometer is connected, through the secondary circuit of the

tuning inductance, to the grid of the amplifying tube
and not to the plate of the detector tube as in Fig. 61.
Note that the grid leak is connected from the grid of the
detector tube to the filament rather than in shunt to the
grid condenser.
If audio-frequency amplification is added to a set em-
ploying radio-frequency amplification, the primary leads
of the transformer in the first stage of audio-frequency
are connected in series in the plate circuit of the detector,
where the telephones are here shown.
Regeneration with radio-frequency.--As indicated in
Fig. 80 and Fig. 81, regeneration may be employed with
radio-frequency sets for the reception of C. W. signals
or for picking up the carrier wave of distant broad-
casting stations. A variometer may be connected in the
plate circuit of the detector tube at the point indicated,
for a receiver of this type may be operated when the
detector tube is in the oscillating condition. The fre-
quency of oscillation or the beat note is then determined
by the tuning of this variometer.
Operation of the radio-frequency amplifier.—The aerial
circuit and the secondary circuits of the set are tuned in the
usual manner. Meanwhile the potentiometer or stabilizer
is adjusted. The purpose of the potentiometer is to
plaoe the proper potential on the grid of the amplifier
tube so that the tube may be made to oscillate or rather,
brought near the oscillating point, where best results are
obtained in the reception of signals. Continuous wave
stations may be received by turning the stabilizer knob
toward the negative side of the "A" battery connection.
Regular amplifier tubes, with 45 to 100 volts on the

plate and asoft detector tube with about 22 volts in its
plate circuit, are usually used in areceiving set of this type.
A hard tube, however, may be used for the detector, and
will be found to be less critical than the regular detector
tube. The use of ahard tube as adetector will therefore
help to keep down the number of critical adjustments
necessary in a set which includes one or more stages of
amplification. The plate voltage required for ahard tube
Shorted or Connected too

Tuned Plate Inductance)
IeSto 2,
14 Sto e Jet. stoee Dee 4
lib» IIII
-
6 y; «. /1.
„ 43-90V.
FIG. 81.—COMPLETE 11001C-UP FOR A LOOP AERIAL, THREE STAGES OF

TRANSFORMER COUPLED RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION AND ADETECTOR.
used as adetector would be approximately the same as

that required for the same tube if used in the amplifier
stage.
, Multi-stage or cascade radio-frequency amplification.—
A complete hook-up showing all the connections for a
receiving set with aloop aerial and three stages of trans-
former coupled radio-frequency amplification is given in
Fig. 81. Filament control jacks are not used in the stages
of radio-frequency amplification since the receivers or the
13
loud speaker may be used only on the detector or the
audio-frequency amplifiers.
The receiving set illustrated is of sufficient sensitivity
to allow the use of aloop aerial. However, much louder
signals can be received on an outdoor aerial.
Broadcasting stations within a distance of about one
thousand miles may be received on afour-foot loop pro-
vided a three-stage radio-frequency amplifier, a detector
and a two-stage audio-frequency amplifier, employing in
all six vacuum tubes, is used.
If an outdoor aerial is used instead of aloop, the leads
from the secondary of the tuning device would replace
the leads from the loop aerial.
In connection with an elevated aerial, such aset could
receive signals from enormous distances. Its range,
however, would be limited by local induction and by
atmospheric disturbances. It is well to point out that
satisfactory radiophone reception with a loop aerial, is
impractical without radio-frequency amplification.
Reception of continuous wave telegraph signals with a
loop aerial has been fairly successful without radio-fre-
quency amplification, but in order to receive radiophone
signals, it is necessary to use radio-frequency amplifica-
tion if the transmitting station is more than a few miles
distant. This statement of course does not apply to
accidental or freak ranges, due to exceptionally favorable
conditions.
Tuned radio-frequency amplification.—There are two
other methods of radio-frequency amplification—namely,
the tuned plate method and the resistance coupled
method. The latter, however, is not effective on broad-
casting wave lengths and for that reason will not be

treated in this book.
The tuned plate method is as effective for radio-fre-
quency amplifying as the transformer coupled method
and it has an added advantage in that the plate circuit
of the radio-frequency amplifying tube may actually be
tuned to the frequency of the incoming signals to the
almost entire exclusion of other frequencies. This result
is accomplished by means of a continuously variable
inductance or tuner—such as a variometer—or a fixed
inductance for example, a honeycomb coil shunted by a
variable condenser for tuning.
It should be remembered that this effect is virtually re-
generation. (See page 165.) Likewise, in radio-frequency
amplifying, maximum amplification of a given signal is
accomplished when the grid and plate circuits of the
vacuum tube are tuned to the frequency of the given
signal. However, in tuned plate amplification, trouble
arises from the use of more than one stage in that acon-
siderable number of additional adjustments are required.
On the other hand, excellent results may be obtained by
the use of only one stage of tuned radio-frequency on an
outdoor aerial, and very satisfactory results may even be
obtained with a five or six-foot loop.
In contrast it might be pointed out that the best re-
generative set without radio-frequency amplification
will hardly bring in more than local signals on the same
loop.
A diagram is given herewith for a detector and one
stage of tuned radio-frequency, employing a valiometer
for tuning the plate circuit of the radio-frequency ampli-
fying tube. A honeycomb coil and a variable condenser

may well be employed instead, if desired.
As suggested for preceding circuits, the grid circuit may
be connected to the secondary leads of the aerial tuning
inductance, preferably a variocoupler for selectivity, or
to the leads of aloop aerial with acondenser in shunt to
them. The set is.then operated or tuned by aprocedure
similar to that given for the tuned plate and grid circuit
Shorted or Connected to
a Tuned Plate Inductance
To Secondary or
Grid Circuit
Inductance
224 V
. 45 -90 V.
FIG. 82.-H OOK-UP FOR ONE STAGE OF TUNED RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLI-
FICATION AND A DETECTOR.
on pages 168 and 169. As in the case of the regenerative

set, distant signals will come in loudest on a radio-fre-
quency set when the radio-frequency amplifying tube
or tubes are just below the point of oscillation. How-
ever, instead of being troubled with making the tubes
oscillate in this type of set, the operator will more often
experience difficulty in preventing them from breaking
into oscillation, and it should be evident that with two
or three tubes oscillating at once, it is impossible to
obtain clear reception.
Oscillation of the tubes is controlled, as suggested in

connection with transformer coupled radio-frequency
amplification, by means of the potentiometer, and also
in the case of tuned radio-frequency amplification, by
means of the tuning inductances in the plate circuit of
each stage.
The wiring is avery important factor in preventing the
tubes from oscillating in the radio-frequency set. It
cannot be too strongly impressed upon the beginner in
radio-frequency amplification that the leads between the
grid and the plate circuits of the different stages must be
kept as short as possible.
Furthermore, as suggested for transformer coupled
radio-frequency (see page 191), a hard tube for the
detector will be found less critical than a soft tube
and will aid in reducing the number of critical adjust-
ments in a set of this type. The fixed or stopping
condenser shown in the circuit is not of critical value
and may be the usual grid cohdenser used with any
detector. The grid leak, however, may not be con-
nected in shunt to the grid condenser as shown in all
preceding diagrams, but must be connected from the
grid of the detector tube to the filament lead of the
same tube, so that the positive potential of the "B"
battery will not be impressed on the grid through the
variometer or other tuning inductance.
—Multi-stage tuned radio-frequency amplification.—For
greater radio-frequency amplification by means of the
tuned plate method, additional stages may be hooked up
exactly as shown for the one stage. A diagram for three
stages appears below.
Again the necessity of the stopping condensers between

the stages is pointed out, but as previously suggested,
they are not critical and may be of the value of .0005 to
.005 mfd.; probably .001 or .002 mfd. will be found to
operate as satisfactorily as any.
It is evident that with three stages, the number of
tuning elements have been increased by three, in addition
to the potentiometer and the aerial tuning device with
its controls for the primary and secondary circuits, of the
complete receiving set.
Shorted or Connected to
a Tuned Plate Inductance'.
To Seconda ry or
Grid Circuit
Induct once
+-1
11q 1=41
)
11
1e
1 pleMer
FIG. 83.—HOOK-UP FOR THREE STAGES OF TUNED RADIO-FREQUENCY

AMPLIFICATION AND A DETECTOR.
It will be found in operating this set that the first

stage is the most critical one. That is to say, the second
and third stages may be set approximately for a given
wavelength and the fine tuning accomplished by means of
the aerial circuit and secondary circuit tuning inductances
(or tuning condenser, if a, loop aerial is being used), and
the plate variometer of the first radio-frequency stage,
with occasional adjustments of the tuning inductances
of the second and third stages.
It should be pointed out that the use of a coupled
circuit tuning device, such as a variocoupler or loose
coupler, in the aerial circuit with the above hook-up
entails the separate tuning of the aerial circuit and the

secondary circuit of the first tube. Tuning can be more
readily accomplished by a single circuit tuner, which will
approximately tune the aerial circuit and the secondary
circuit of the first tube in asingle operation, as indicated
in connection with the hook-up in Fig. 73.
Size of aerial with radio-frequency amplification.—
With the last suggestion in mind, it is well to point out
that difficulty may be experienced in operating more than
one stage of either the transformer coupled or the tuned
radio-frequency amplification on an outdoor aerial if the
aerial be too long. In the first place, the detector tube will
handle only a certain amount of radio-frequency energy
and if too much energy is picked up by the aerial, from local
broad-casting stations, and then amplified by the two or
three stages of radio-frequency amplification, distortion
and difficulty in tuning will result. Likewise considerable
difficulty will be experienced in tuning in one station from
another, either local or distant, with along aerial. Very
often this difficulty may be overcome by inserting one or
two fixed condensers of from .00025 to .001 mfd. in series
with each other in the lead-in or by connecting avariable
resistance, such as a potentiometer, between the lead-in
and the aerial tuning device.
In most cases, however, far more satisfactory results
will be obtained from an aerial 50 to 75 feet long, or a
single wire 50 or 75 feet long strung inside the building
along the ceiling or under the carpets on the second or
third floor.
Tuned and transformer coupled radio-frequency ampli-
fication in combination.—For those who may not care to
attempt the somewhat difficult tuning of the last set, it

is suggested that one stage of tuned radio-frequency for
the first stage and two stages of transformer coupled
radio-frequency for the second and third stages be tried out.
Such aset provides some of the selectivity of tuned radio-
frequency and eliminates the more critical adjustments
for the second and third stages. A diagram for such aset
is given in Fig. 84.
Shorted or Connected fo
a Tuned Plate Induciape,
To Secondaryor
Grid Circuit
Inductance
+11 111=4 1111111 PM' 41 11.1 1+

ZeS5 OS - SOY
FIG. 84. HOOIC-UP FOR ONE STAGE OF TUNED AND TWO STAGES OF TRANS-
FORMER COUPLED RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION AND A DETECTOR.
REFLEX AMPLIFICATION
Contrary to popular opinion, the reflex circuit is not a
new idea. It has recently, however, come into such
prominence that wide interest in it has been aroused. A
few facts concerning the reflex circuits should be con-
sidered before the reader decides upon such aset in pref-
erence to a set using straight radio-frequency and audio-
frequency amplification.
A reflex set at best is not as efficient for agiven number
of stages as aset employing aseparate tube for each stage.
It is more difficult to construct because of the fact that
combinations of various makes of instruments do not
always work out well in the circuit. This condition
necessitates considerable experimenting and the trying

of different types of instruments in order to make the
set operate properly as awhole.
The reader should not forget that any particular set
on the market which seems to work highly satisfactorily
is the result of much similar experimenting on the part of
the manufacturer.
The main advantages of a reflex circuit seem to be the
lower cost of making it up and the lower cost of main-
To Secondary
or Grid Circuit
Inductance
FIG. 85.-4100K-11P FOR A ONE-TUBE REFLEX SET WITH A CRYSTAL

DETECTOR.
tenance, particularly in regard to renewing burned out

tubes, for with the present low current consumption
tubes, two or three additional tubes make very little
difference in the drain on the "A" battery.
A one-tube reflex set.—Fig. 85 shows what may be
considered a standard hook-up for a one-tube reflex
set with acrystal detector:
As suggested in connection with preceding circuits, the
tuning instrument may be any of the number of tuning
devices described in Chapter IV,—preferably the vario-
coupler, or the loose coupler with a secondary tuning
condenser. Or a variometer may be used as a single

circuit tuner as suggested on page 197.
The by-pass condensers in this circuit are not especially
critical and may be of the value of .001 to .002 rnfd.
Their purpose has already been explained in Chapter
V, page 109.
In the reception of signals, the tube first acts as an
amplifier of the radio-frequency oscillations coming in
from the aerial circuit, in the following manner: The
signals in the radio-frequency state pass right through the
condenser C1 and the potentiometer to the grid and the
filament of the tube. The attendant radio-frequency
variations in the plate current (see page 129) pass
through the primary of the radio-frequency transformer
and the by-pass condenser C2, without affecting the
telephone receivers at this point. Corresponding radio-
frequency current is transferred to the secondary of the
radio-frequency transformer and thence to the crystal
detector, where it is rectified and changed into audio-
frequency pulsations.
The condenser C3 acts as a radio-frequency by-pass
condenser, or at this point, as aphone condenser, as de-
scribed in Chapter IV.
In series with the crystal detector is the primary of the
audio-frequency amplifying transformer which transfers
the audio-frequency current to the secondary winding of
the transformer; from the secondary of this transformer,
the audio-frequency pulses are led back into the grid
circuit of the tube and impressed on the grid and the fila-
ment to be amplified as in audio-frequency amplification.
The resuitant audio-frequency pulses are of too low fre-
quency to pass through condenser C2 readily, and now

operate the telephone receivers.
A three tube reflex set.—Below is given a hook-up of
the De Forest type for astandard three tube reflex crystal
detector set, which gives very satisfactory results with
either aloop aerial or an outdoor aerial, when coupled to
the aerial by means of aloose coupler or avariocoupler.
The action of this set is similar to that of the one tube
reflex set except in one or two minor details. In this case,
4
To Secondary or
,swel
Grid Circuit
Inductance
1.1
fl-
002
001
3 111e-
f_ziees
.002
45-90V.
FIG. 86.-1100K-11P FOR THE DEFOREST THREE-TUBE REFLEX BET.
all three tubes are utilized to amplify the incoming radio-

frequency currents; a crystal detector then rectifies or
detects the radio-frequency oscillations, changing them
into audio-frequency pulsations. This audio-frequency
current is then fed back to the second tube and amplified
by that tube and the third tube before being fed to the
telephones or to the loud speaker. This arrangement
provides three stages of radio-frequency amplification, a
crystal detector, and two stages of audio-frequency
amplification, the latter being sufficient for all ordinary
purposes.
The values for the by-pass condensers in the De Forest

circuit are given in the diagram. In the usual amateur
hook-up various capacities—.001, .0015, and .002—
should be tried out.
The chief difficulty in assembling aset of this type will
be experienced in selecting radio-frequency and audio-
frequency transformers which will work well together. It
is suggested, therefore, that the amateur try out anum-
ber of different makes of each in various combinations
until best results are secured.
INVERSE DUPLEX AMPLIFICATION
The inverse duplex system of amplification is an adap-

tation of a circuit developed by the French engineer
Latour from which many reflex circuits also derive their
origin. The inverse duplex has been so named by its
inventor, Mr. David Grimes, because of the manner in
which the tubes are used and in order to indicate more
clearly the double function of the valves.
Disadvantages of reflex circuits.—In the foregoing
systems of reflexing there are certain inherent disadvan-
tages. Chief among them is the limitation which results
from overloading the last amplifier tube with powerful
radio-frequency and powerful audio-frequency currents.
For example, in a three tube set such as that shown in
Fig. 86, the total amplification of the arrangement is
limited to the output of the third tube which must handle
maximum radio-frequency and maximum audio-frequency
energy. (See Fig. 87B.) It is evident, too, that there are
three stages of secondary radio-frequency leakage ampli-
fication between the output and the input of the detector.
That is to say, asmall amount of radio-frequency energy

leaks through the detector and the associated apparatus
by capacity paths and is put back on the input of the
three-stage radio-frequency amplifier, causing the circuit
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0- , ---4---*---
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11. e
LEGEND RADIO FREQUENCY--

AUDIO it
FICL 87.—GRAPHIC COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION OF REFLEX CIRCUITS AND THE INVERSE
DUPLEX CIRCUITS.
to be very unstable and making it almost impossible to

stop oscillation without greatly reducing the amplification
efficiency of the set.
A third drawback exists in that the phones are in the
plate circuit of the third amplifying tube, thus placing
three stages of audio-frequency amplification between the
loop and the phones. Under ordinary conditions this

means that the circuit often cannot be operated satis-
factorily because of the proximity of sixty-cycle house
current circuits, or because of induction from nearby
electrical apparatus, which is greatly amplified by the
three audio-frequency stages in succession. (In the
ordinary set this does not occur because the detector is
placed between the loop or the outdoor aerial and the
audio-frequency stages.) The last mentioned objection
may be overcome by using the first tube for radio-
frequency amplification only. (See Fig. 87A.) When a
tube detector, however, is used in place of acrystal, as
in Fig. 86, there is still atendency to overload the third
tube, which now constitutes the third radio stage and the
second audio stage; and although the tendency to oscillate
is reduced, there still remain two stages of radio-fre-
quency leakage amplification between the output and
the input of the detector. The use of acrystal detector,
as indicated in Fig. 87A, in place of a tube detector
would make the circuit much more stable, as the crystal
rectifies only the radio-frequency oscillations. On the
other hand, a tube detector performs an amplifying
function which acrystal cannot accomplish. The crystal
detector, however, would reduce the initial amount of
audio-frequency currents going into the first audio stage,
and as a result, there would be less crowding of the
third tube.
Advantages of the inverse duplex system.---The system
developed by Mr. Grimes is the result of a great deal of
experimentation, with the following objectives in view:
(1) to increase stability of the tubes; (2) to reduce over-
loading; (3) to minimize audio-frequent noises; and (4)

to enable the duplexing of all tubes, if desired. The
inverse duplex set accomplishes these results.
Principles of inverse duplexing.—In Fig. 88, the
radio-frequency energy passes through the tubes in the
ordinary sequence. The difference appears beyond the
detector tube, where the audio-frequent current, instead
of going through the tubes in the same order as the
radio-frequent energy, passes first into the third tube.
(See Fig. 87C.) This makes the third stage of radio
function as the first stage of audio-frequency amplifica-
tion. From there the audio-frequency current is led
through the second tube so that this tube acts as the
second stage of audio-frequency and the second stage of
radio-frequency amplification. Finally, the third stage
of audio is achieved through the first tube, which is
carrying the first stage of radio-frequency amplification.
The phones are placed in the plate circuit of the first
tube.
By this arrangement, all of the tubes are loaded uni-
formly and may be used to the maximum limit of all
instead of being limited to the crowded output of the third
tube.
The first tube carries weak radio-frequency and strong
audio-frequency currents; the second tube carries medium
values of each; while the third tube carries strong radio
and weak audio current. Furthermore, no matter how
many tubes are used, there is never more than one stage
of radio leakage amplification between the input and the
output of the detector tube and there is never more than
one tube of audio-frequency amplification between the
loop or the outdoor aerial and the phones, as the phones

are on the output circuit of the first tube.
The Grimes inverse duplex set.—Fig. 88 shows in
detail the connections employed in an inverse duplex set
using three tubes. This arrangement is recommended for
all ordinary purposes, and satisfactory amplification is
usually obtained. It is rarely necessary to add the third
amplifying tube, which of course would give three stages
Shorted or Connected toe
Tuned Plate inductance--.t
To Secondary
orGrid Circuit
Inductance
,1 11j1 i
1iiil,
i
+ _1111;1 2
1
11
111 +
FIG. 88.—HooK-uP FOR A GRIMES DivER« DUPLEX BET EMPLOYING

THREE TUBES.
of radio and three stages of audio-frequency amplification.

However, if desired, a third amplifying tube may easily
be inserted by following the general scheme presented in
the diagram.
With a loose coupler substituted in place of the loop,
the set may readily be operated on an aerial in any
locality where shielding conditions,* prohibit the use of
a loop.
The by-pass condensers in the Grimes circuit carry the
radio-frequency currents, which have passed through the
radio-frequency transformers, directly back to the fila-
*5e page 26.
merits instead of merely by-passing them around the

audio-frequency transformers and then allowing them to
pass through the common B battery where they would
"cross-fire" with the radio energy from the other tubes.
This condition of course places the full B battery potential
across the condensers continually and necessitates their
being of mica construction, as, for example, the small
square "raicadons." Paper condensers here will become
overheated and will puncture after only afew hours use.
All of these condensers should be of .001 microfarads
capacity except the one connecting the loop circuit to the
filament of the first tube; this one should be .0025 mfd.,
so that the maximum amount of energy from weak signals,
picked up by asmall loop, can be supplied to and utilized
by the tube if it is needed. Increasing the others to
.0025 will not materially aid the radio-frequency ampli-
fication, but on the other hand, will by-pass the higher
frequencies of the audio currents, thereby causing
distortion.
Distinctive features of the Grimes circuit.—In order to
rregulate the amount of radio-frequency energy passing
through the amplifiers, a400-ohm non-inductive rheostat
is connected between the fixed condenser and the loop.
This arrangement places avariable resistance in the grid
circuit which may be used to reduce the energy of strong
signals from nearby stations. Excessive radio-frequency
energy, if not reduced, may easily crowd the tubes to
capacity, allowing no opportunity for audio-frequency
amplification. In view of the fact that a tube detector
will handle only a certain maximum of radio-frequency
energy it would be foolish to sacrifice the audio capacity
14
of the tube by excess radio amplification. The 400 ohms

will be found sufficient to reduce even the strongest sta-
tions to reasonable intensity. On weak signals this
resistance may be decreased, sometimes even to zero.
This system of regulating the radio-frequency energy
has several distinct advantages over the common practice
of preventing the tubes from oscillating by means of a
potentiometer connected across the A battery, and
may be used to advantage in other radio-frequency
circuits. In the first place, although the use of a
potentiometer accomplishes the reduction of the radio
energy and stabilizes the circuit, it also causes dis-
tortion and reduces the audio volume. In the second
place, it broadens tuning, as may be witnessed in the
broad tuning of most radio frequency sets. In the
Grimes circuit, the grids of all the tubes run directly back
to the negative side of their respective filaments. The
audio-frequency amplification is entirely undisturbed by
this system of controlling radio-frequency energy, and the
tuning remains very sharp.
An interesting feature of the inverse duplex set is its
simplicity of adjustment. One knob does all the tuning
(unless aplate variometer is added), while the others are
used to operate the filament rheostats, and the 400-ohm
radio-frequency potentiometer previously described.
Another important feature of the Grimes arrangement
is that the audio-frequency currents are so arranged on
the grids of the amplifying tubes as to aid the radio
energy when it is increasing and diminish it when it is
decreasing. This effect is accomplished through proper
connection of the primary leads of the transformers. With
the set in operation, the correct connection may be deter-

mined by interchanging the primary leads and noting the
result. The secondary leads, however, should remain
fixed, with the lead from the outside layer of the winding
connected to the grid circuit of the succeeding tube.
A variometer in the plate circuit of the detector may
be used for the reception of C. W. signals. (See
page 190.)
The inverse duplex set should be attractive to the
amateur who desires to accomplish distance reception and
cannot afford to buy and operate alarge number of tubes.
It is a very desirable hook-up for a portable or vaca-
tion set on account of its compactness and adaptability
to operation with a loop aerial.
THE NEUTRODYNE RECEIVER
The neutrodyne receiver is essentially a tuned radio-

frequency set, with one or more stages of tuned radio-
frequency amplification and adetector, resembling those
sets described on pages 192 to 198.
It has already been pointed out that it is somewhat
difficult to prevent the tubes in the radio-frequency—
especially tuned radio-frequency—amplifying circuits
from oscillating. And as previously suggested, with two
or more tubes oscillating in such a circuit, it is almost
impossible to obtain undistorted speech or music. With
tuned radio-frequency, oscillations occur when the plate
circuits of the amplifying tubes have been tuned to
resonance with a given wave length and the resultant
radio-frequency current in these circuits is fed back to the
grid circuits through the tube. This feed-back effect
takes place through the plate and grid elements in the

tubes, wnich act as small condensers, and is exactly like
the* regenerative effect obtained in the detector tuned
plate method of regeneration described on page 160.
The feeding back may also take place through the
capacities which exist between the wires or between the
different units of the stages, or in the case of transformer
coupling, between the sets of windings in the trans-
formers. These capacity effects may be illustrated
graphically as in Fig. 89.
Capacity Effect Between Stages
¡I
rii-,Capaaty Effect Between the
:Elements of the rubes
22 45-90Y.
PIG. 89.--CrRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CAPACITY EFFECTS WHICH

RESULT FROM COUPLING TOGETHER STAGES OF RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLI-
FICATION.
In the ordinary tuned radio-frequency amplifier and in

the transformer coupled radio-frequency amplifier, the
oscillations must be controlled, or prevented from occur-
ring, by means of a potentiometer, which allows great
amplification, and yet limits the full amplification possi-
bilities of the tubes and makes the tuning more critical.
It can be seen therefore that aradio-frequency amplifier,
either tuned or transformer coupled, does not utilize the
full amplifying effect of the tube, as in the case of audio-
frequency amplification, since we reduce the amplifying
effect of the tube usually by means of the potentiometer

in order to prevent oscillation, and depend on regeneration
to increase the strength of the signal.
Neutralizing undesirable capacity effects.—Professor
L. A. Hazeltine, the inventor of the —eutrodyne receiver,
has succeeded in neutralizing the internal capacity of the
tubes and also the capacity effects existing between the
windings of the radio-frequency transformers in the dif-
ferent stages of a radio-frequency set. He accomplishes
this neutralization by connecting very small condensers
( Neutralizing Condenser \ Shorted or
Connected to a Tuned
II II Plate Inductance,
_ 1
1111
11 1
11411*
24 45-90V.
Fm. W.—HOOK-1:7 FOR A TFIREE-TITBE NEUTRODYNE RECEIVER.
between the grids of the tubes and by connecting one

end of the primary and one end of the secondary wind-
ing of each radio-frequency transformer to a common
point in a particular manner which will be described
later. This method of connection suppresses any feed-
back action from one stage to another, or from the plate
of one tube to the grid of the same tube, and prevents
oscillations from occurring in the tubes, while it retains
the radio-frequency amplification and the sharp tuning of
atuned radio-frequency amplifier.
Fig. 90 shows the hook-up for a neutrodyne receiver
212 RADIO'- SIMPLIFIED
employing two stages of tuned radio-frequency and a

detector.
Neutrodyne transformers.—The transformers are not
the usual type of radio-frequency transformer since the
ordinary type will not function properly in this circuit.
The transformer developed by Hazeltine for this set
consists of two coils, specially wound, with the primary
fitting tightly inside of the secondary coil. The former
coil consists of 13 turns of Not,24 double silk covered
wire wound on a tube 24 inches in diameter; the latter
consists of 55 turns of No. 24 double silk covered wire
wound on a 3 inch tube, providing a coupling trans-
former with a ratio of 1 to 4. For best results, both
coils should be wound in the same direction. Further-
more, the plate winding—that is, the 13 turns of No. 24
—should be placed inside the end of the grid winding
—the 55 turns—which is connected to the filament.
The relative positions of the windings are indicated in
Fig. 91. Each of the three tuning condensers should have
a capacity of .0003 mfd. (.0005 mfd. condensers may
be employed, bat their use will make tuning more
critical.) They are used in conjunction with the coils
for tuning the circuits of the amplifier to resonance.
A complete unit, ready for mounting, consisting of a
neutrodyne transformer and its condenser, known as a
"neutroformer," may be purchased.
As suggested in preceding pages, the wave length range
of the usual type of radio-frequency transformer is some-
what limited; but with the above type of tuned radio-
frequency coil, or transformer, a greater wave length
range may be covered, depending upon the size of the
coils and the tuning condensers employed. With the

combination of coils and condensers described above, the
range of wave lengths will be from about 180 to 500
meters with practically equal amplification over the
entire range.
Inclining the coils.—The two sets of coupling coils
between the tubes, and the set of coils used for the aerial
and first grid tuning inductance are all made in the same
way and mounted in astraight line, but with the axis of
FIG. 91.-DIAGRAM INDICATING HOW COILS IN ANEITTRODYNE RECEIVER ARE

INCLINED IN ORDER TO REDUCE INDUCTIVE COUPLING, WITH THE FIRST COIL
CUT AWAY TO SHOW THE POSITION OF THE PRIMARY WINDING.
each set of coils inclined in the same direction to an

angle of about 30° from the vertical, as shown in Fig. 91.
With the coils so mounted, induction between them will
be reduced to aminimum.* The coils should be spaced
about 7inches from center to center.
How to make the neutralizing condensers.—The three
neutralizing condensers connected between the grids are
of very low value, 1.5 micro-microfarads or .0000015 mfd.
They may be purchased under the trade name "neutro-
dons" ormaybe constructed in the following manner:Three
*This feature of inclining the coils can be used to advantage in other
sets of similar type.
pieces of No. 12 or No. 14 rubber insulated wire are con-

nected each to the grid lead of one tube, the middle piece
of wire being soldered to another length in order to form
a T, after the manner illustrated in Fig. 90, and the
four free ends are placed in line with each other with
about lA inch separation between the ends of the wires.
Two pieces of metal tubing about 1/ 14 inches long are
slipped each over two of the four free ends of wire.

The condensers are adjusted in amanner to be described
later.
Assembling the neutrodyne set.—In wiring up this set
care should be taken, as pointed out for all tube sets, to
make the connecting wires as short and as direct as pos-
sible. Furthermore, particular care should be exercised
in having the polarity of the coils in each set, correct
with respect to each other. This connection will be
accomplished when the coils are all wound in the same
direction and the ends connected as shown in the dia-
gram. This means that for the coils between the vacuum
tubes, one end of the primary coil will be connected to
the plate of one tube and the opposite end of the sec-
ondary coil will be connected to the grid of another tube.
The coils are utilized in this manner to neutralize the
capacity set up by their windings, which was indicated
in Fig. 89. This method of neutralization of transformer
capacities does away with the necessity for employing
additional coils to attain that end since, as indicated in
the diagram, the lower end of the grid coil is connected
directly to the negative wire of the "A" battery and
thence to the ground, and the opposite end of the plate
coil to the same point through the "B" battery.
When the set is in operation and signals are being

received, the neutralizing condensers are adjusted for the
first time. The adjustments are made by tuning in some
strong signal and then turning off the filament of either
amplifying tube without removing the tube from the
socket. If the neutralizing capacity, i. e., the metal tube
over the ends of the wire for that particular tube, is not
adjusted properly, the signal will be carried through the
vacuum tube by its capacity coupling, to the circuits on
either side of it. The metal tube is then adjusted until
the signal disappears, indicating that the capacity of the
tube has been neutralized. This operation may require
considerable care at first, but once adjusted, the metal
tube condensers may remain fixed for agiven type of tube.
They may even be sealed in place, as it is doubtful
if they will require adjusting again unless a different
type of vacuum tube is substituted in the sockets.
The tubes used in this set may all be hard tubes, but if
desired, the detector tube may be a soft tube. In the
former case, about 90 volts may be used on the plates of
the tubes, and in the latter 90 volts on all the tubes except
the detector tube, which will require the usual 22% volts.
As indicated in the diagram, and noted in connection
with preceding radio-frequency sets, a variometer may
be placed in the plate circuit of the detector tube in
order to employ regeneration for the reception of C. W.
signals or for picking up carrier waves from distant
broadcasting stations, the tuning condensers serve only
to increase or decrease the signal strength by placing
the entire set in resonance or out of resonance with a
given wave length.
Tuning a neutrodyne receiver.—It might be said at

this point that tuning with any one of the three variable
condensers does not greatly affect the other circuits.
It will be remembered that the first coupling trans-
former—that is, the one which serves to couple the aerial
circuit to the grid circuit of the first tube—is constructed
in the same manner as the other two transformers. This
transformer takes the place of a variocoupler or other
tuning device commonly used to transfer the incoming
energy from the aerial circuit to the local or grid circuit;
and for the reason that the two coils of this transformer
are tightly coupled, tuning the local or grid circuit serves
to tune the aerial circuit at the same time. The aerial
acts simply as a collector of the energy and the primary
of this first transformer transfers the energy to the local
circuit.
For the above reason, this set does not follow the
characteristics of the usual receiving set in which the
aerial and local circuits are tuned entirely independently
and without any similarity in the adjustments. In the
neutrodyne receiver, tuning is simplified to a great
degree, since in the three circuits to be tuned, the second
and third condensers are set at nearly the same positions,
while the setting of the first will vary with the aerial
being used. With the relative positions of the condensers
once determined, the circuits will be found to follow
almost the same relative adjustments or settings on the
dials. A change of three or four degrees in one dial will
necessitate asimilar change in the others. That is to say,
the dials will very closely follow one another in tuning.
For example, if it is found that the third circuit responds
te 360 meters when its tuning condenser is set at 60°,

then the second circuit will be tuned to 360 meters, or
very nearly so, when its tuning condenser is set at 60°.
Or, if the third dial is set at 70° for a 400 meter wave
length, it will be found that the second circuit will be
tuned to resonance when the condenser dial of this circuit
is set at 70° or within one or two points of 70'; for ex-
ample, 68° or 71°.
After the desired signals have been tuned in, as sug-
gested above, then each dial may be adjusted slightly for
maximum signal strength. The adjustments are not so
critical as with straight tuned radio-frequency. An idea
of the relative positions of the dials may quickly be
gained; then the settings may be recorded for a given
wave length; and thereafter, that wave length will always
be found at those settings.
As suggested for transformer coupled and for tuned
radio-frequency on page 197, a short aerial of from 50 to
75 feet in length should be used with the neutrodyne
receiver.
Variations in the neutrodyne set.—One or two stages of
audio-frequency amplification of the type described earlier
in this chapter may be connected to this receiver by sim-
ply connecting the input leads of the first stage of audio-
frequency in place of the telephone receivers shown in
the plate circuit of the detector tube.
Perhaps the most popular type of neutrodyne receiver
yet placed upon the market is the 4-tube reflex neutrodyne
amplifier, for which ahook-up is given in Fig. 92.
In this set, the first tube serves as a radio-frequency
and audio-frequency amplifier, the second tube as aradio-
frequency amplifier, the third tube as the detector and the

fourth tube only as an audio-frequency amplifier. This
method follows to some extent that of the inverse duplex
system described in pages 202 to 209 in that the first
radio-frequency tube, carrying the least amount of
radio-frequency current, is therefore used as the reflex
tube for the audio-frequency current.
The reader should be able to trace this circuit through
Neutralizing Condensers
Shorted or Connected toa
il r II Tuned Plate Inductance
F71F
L.
3
_i_11111
L
.002
.002
3.1t- 11
1
1,14 11
1:
, .1414.
os» 45.50V.
FIG. 92.-HOOK-up FOR A THREE-TUBE REFLEX NEUTRODYNE RECEIVER

WITH AN ADDITIONAL STAGE OF AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION AND
JACKS.
after having become familiar with the various reflex cir-

cuits and the inverse duplex system described in preceding
pages. There are, however, in this circuit, one or two
marked variations from preceding diagrams. The first
three tubes constitute the neutrodyne circuit including
the neutralizing condensers. If the receivers are plugged
into the middle jack, only the two stages of radio fre-
quency and the detector are placed in operation; but if
the receivers a.re plugged into the first jack from the left,
the signals in the plate circuit of the detector are returned
to the first tube to be amplified again as audio-frequent
signals. If still further amplification is desired for aloud

speaker, the telephone plug is inserted in the third jack
from the left and the audio-frequent signals, after being
reflexed through the first tube, are again amplified by the
fourth tube, which functions only as an audio-frequency
amplifier. A little study of the diagram will make this
clear.
The usual by-pass condensers for passing the radio-
frequency current around the audio-frequency trans-
formers are indicated for this set.
A variometer may be used in the plate circuit of
the detector tube as indicated in this last circuit,
but if oscillation is not desired for the detection of
C. W. signals or carrier waves, this instrument may
be either omitted, or set at zero so that no regeneration
will result.*
Other circuits than the foregoing have been tried with
the neutrodyne receiver but it has been found that if a
third stage of radio frequency is added, trouble will result
from magnetic coupling effects and the third stage will
have to be thoroughly shielded. Furthermore, it is difficult
to neutralize the capacity coupling of the third tube. The
reflexing of two stages of audio-frequency through the
first two tubes is also possible, but the set will be found
to be quite noisy.
The reader should not assume from the foregoing description of the
neutrodyne receiver that all the necessary details have been given for the
construction of aset. It has been the aim, as in the case of the reflex and
the inverted duplex receivers, to describe the principle of its operation,
and to discuss its advantages and its limitations in operation. However,
the experienced radio enthusiast will find herein sufficient information to
enable himself to choose and build the set which best meets his requirements.
\ 220 RADIO SIMPLIFIED
\ PREVENTION OF INTERFERENCE DUE TO RADIATION FROM

RECEIVING SET
Attention should be called to the fact that any set

which employs one or more stages of radio-frequency
amplification will not interfere with other receivers
in the neighborhood by radiating energy.
LOOP AERIALS
The indoor loop aerial as areceiving aerial, has several

decided advantages over the outdoor types of antenna.
It may be constructed both
cheaply and easily. It
occupies very small space
and may be installed in an
office or in a city apart-
ment. It may be moved
readily from place to place.
It collects no static. And
it has directional charac-
teristics, which make it
useful as a radio compass,
as well as in tuning out
undesired signals. Its dis-
FIG. 93.-A LOOP AERIAL.
advantage is its limitation
in the amount of energy which it can collect.
A loop aerial can not be used satisfactorily with a
simple crystal detector set. As previously suggested,
sensitive apparatus is required in connection with aloop.
The loop aerial is illustrated in Fig. 93. It may be of
any size. Usually it is wound on a frame not less than
two feet square nor more than eight feet square. As the
size of the frame is increased, fewer turns of wire are re-
quired for a given wave length. Increasing the size of
the frame, within certain limits, increases the capability of
the loop for collection of energy. That is to say, agiven
length of wire wound on an eight-foot frame will collect
more energy than will the same length of wire wound on
atwo-foot frame.
For receiving broadcasts, the following sizes of loops
and turns of wire are suggested: a frame 2 feet square
with 20 turns of wire; aframe 4feet square with 10 turns
of wire; aframe 8feet square with 6turns of wire.
The size of the wire has been found to have little in-
fluence on the efficiency of small loop aerials. It should,
however, be heavy enough that it will not stretch or
break under moderate tension or after continued handling
Best results are to be obtained when the turns are spaced
about V Ito 1
A inch apart on the frame. A design for the
frame itself is shown in Fig. 93. The construction should
be sturdy enough that the wire is not required to brace it.
It makes little difference whether this type of frame is
suspended from acorner or from one of its sides. Whether
suspended or mounted on apedestal, it should swing on
a vertical axis and its mounting should be such that it
will remain stationary in any position to which it may be
rotated.
Any light wood will do for the frame, and the wires
may be held in place by means of matting tacks. If tacks
are used, they should be driven into the end pieces before
the end pieces are fastened to the cross pieces. The wire
should be threaded through the staples after the frame is
finished. Care should be taken that turns of wire are
not mounted in contact with one another, either in them-
selves or through the tacks and screws, nails or other
metal parts used in making the frame or in mounting it.
A condenser is used in shunt to the loop aerial for
tuning the set.
The loop aerial is not grounded, but is connected to
the set in the manner shown in Fig. 81. An indoor aerial
requires no lightning protective device.
In its operation, as previously stated, the loop aerial
may be used as adirection finder. It will receive signals
at maximum strength from the directions of its plane,
and at minimum strength from the directions at right
angles to its plane. That is to say, with the loop turned
so that its plane lies in the direction of the station from
which it is desired to receive, signals from that statior
will come in at maximum strength. Signals from other
directions may be largely or entirely eliminated, even
though they are being transmitted on the same wave
length.
CHAPTER IX
THE SPARK SENDING SET
Principles of the spark transmitter.—In Chapter Iwe

learned that the radio telephone sending outfit is essen-
tially an assembly of apparatus for collecting audible
sound waves, converting them into electrical vibrations
of very high frequency, and impressing these radio-fre-
quent vibrations upon an aerial. The spark sending
outfit is used to transmit only dots and dashes. It is
therefore much more simple in construction and in
operation. It is essentially a collection of apparatus
for generating radio-frequent vibrations, and includes a
device called a key, with which we can interrupt these
vibrations at will, causing them to pass to the sending
aerial in short or long series of vibrations forming dots or
dashes. In other words, in telephone transmitting, the
oscillations in the aerial circuit are continuous, and are
moulded by sound waves impressed upon a transmitter.
In the telegraph transmitting set, oscillations in the
aerial circuit occur only when we press the telegraph key.
A short pressure on the key transmits a dot, a long
pressure, adash.
In order to understand how the spark transmitter
works, we may consider the action of the spark gap, the
condenser, the transformer, the telegraph key, and the
generator indicated in Fig. 94.
15 (223)
In Chapter IV we learned that the current which is

directed into the sending aerial circuit to produce radio
waves, whether telephone or telegraph, is always alter-
nating current. In this case, our source of current is the
alternating current (A. C.) generator at the extreme right
in the diagram. The transformer indicated is similar
in its action to the amplifying transformer described on
page 180, in that the current from the generator passing
FIG. 94.-APPARATUS POR THE PRODUCTION OF DAMPED

OSCILLATIONS.
through the primary winding, induces current in the

secondary circuit, without actual electrical contact between
the two coils.
Damped oscillations and damped waves.—With the
generator working, if the key is closed, electrical current
will flow through the primary circuit, first in one direction,
then in the other, changing its direction 120 times asecond
in the case of a60-cycle generator. Each pulse of current
in the primary circuit induces a pulse of high voltage
current in the secondary circuit. The first pulse of
alternating current from one end of the secondary coil
enters one side of the condenser and stores itself between
the plates. As this pulse dies out and before the next
pulse can come from the other end of the secondary
winding, the charge stored in the condenser surges back
into the circuit, jumps across the spark gap at the extreme
left in the figure, charges the other side of the condenser,
THE SPARK SENDING SET 225
instantaneously surges back through the circuit, jumps

the gap again, asecond time charges up the condenser on
the first side, and continues to surge back and forth in
this manner until it completely dies out. In this manner,
while the key is closed, each pulse of the alternating
current causes aseries of sparks or a spark train across
the gap.
Difficult as it may seem, the passage of this train of
sparks takes place instantaneously between alternations
of the generator. The second pulse of current from the
generator, coming in the opposite direction, likewise
induces apulse of current in the opposite direction in the
secondary circuit, which goes through aprocedure exactly
similar to that described above. So long as the key which
closes the primary circuit is held down, the foregoing
process continues and the trains cf sparks—one train for
each alternation or pulse of current—occur so rapidly that
each appears to the eye as a single spark. In the case
of a60-cycle generator, 120 trains per second would jump
the gap; and adot, for example, might be made up of a
dozen or more spark trains, a dash, of a still greater
number.
The oscillations of current which are set up across the
spark gap and produce the spark train are spoken of ai
95.-GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF WAVE TRAINS OR DAMPED WAVES.
damped oscillations, since they become weaker and weaker

until they are finally "damped out." When sent into an
aerial, their resulting waves are called damped waves.
The use of alternating house current for spark trans-

mitting.—In the case of ordinary house current, the
alternations occur at the rate of 120 times per second (60
in one wire and 60 in the other) and as aflow in one wire
and then aflow in the other is said to complete acycle,
this current is called 60-cycle A. C.
We can now see that if the primary of the transformer
is connected to alternating house current, rie will have
120 pulses of current per second in the primary winding
of the transformer which will induce 120 pulses in the
secondary winding. These 120 pulses from the secondary
will charge each side of the condenser 60 times per second.
Each of these 120 charges will then discharge or oscillate
across the gap causing several sparks to occur for each
discharge.
Spark frequency and spark train frequency.—In the
foregoing cases, the 120 discharges of the condenser are
called the spark frequency and the number of sparks
which go to make up each discharge is called the spark
train frequency. The rate of the spark frequency (120)
is governed by the alternations of the charging source,
while the rate of sparks occurring for each discharge (the
spark train) is governed by the capacity and inductance
of the condenser circuit and may be at the speed of several
hundred thousand or several million per second. This
does not mean that this large number of sparks occur in
the spark train, but that afew sparks occur in the train
at that rate or frequency.
Elements of a spark transmitter.--Substituting an
aerial and ground, which we found in Chapter IV to
form the plates of a"natural" condenser, for the condenser
shown in Fig. 94, will give us, in principle, aspark trans-

mitting set. Fig. 96 shows one side of the spark gap
connected to the aerial and the other side connected to
the ground.
Now, when apulse of current first comes from the end
of the secondary winding which is connected to the
o
o
I
t......
:**",...........e.......7______e
FM. 96-ELEMENTS OP A SPARK TRANSMITTER.
aerial, it will flow up into the aerial, charging it as it did

one side of the condenser shown in the preceding illustra-
tion, and the aerial, acting as one plate of the condenser,
will instantaneously diecharge across the gap. This dis-
charge or flow of current across the gap will then flow
down the ground wire and charge up the earth around
the earth connection which is acting as the other plate of
the condenser. Back across the gap and up into the
aerial, will come the surge of current from the earth
connection, and so on until the energy has expended itself
and the oscillations are damped out as in the preceding case.
It follows, therefore, that the electromagnetic waves
radiated from the aerial by these damped oscillations,
dependent as they are upon the energy of the oscillations,
will likewise be damped or of dying amplitude. Since
their speed, however, is constant-186,000 miles per
second—the waves in a train do not grow shorter in
length, but die down from awave to aripple and then to

smoothness, as arough pond might come to acalm.
Waves of this kind are spoken of as damped, or dis-
continuous waves. They differ from undamped or con-
tinuous waves produced by a tube transmitter in that
the latter are produced by pulsations of current which are
all of the same strength and do not die out as do the
pulsations of current which produce the spark train.
The necessity for coupling the transmitter to the aerial.
—A transmitting set having the spark gap connected in
series with the aerial circuit would have certain inherent
undesirable characteristics which have made it necessary
for the Government to prohibit its use. In the case of a
gap connected in series with an aerial having a natural
wave length of 200 meters, for example, the emitted
signals would not be confined to that wave length but
would be heard by a receiving station over a wide or
broad range of wave lengths, probably from 150 to 250
or 300 meters. It can readily be seen that if several
stations in any locality were all sending with transmitters
of this type, they would cause so much interference that
it would be almost impossible to separate with areceiving
set, the signals of any one of them from those of another.
In order to eliminate this objectionable feature, govern-
ment regulations have been made which provide that all
transmitting sets must be coupled to the aerial circuit
through an oscillation transformer, which is somewhat
similar to aloose coupler, or by some other form of tuning
inductance. By means of such an instrument, waves
above and below the main wave in length, are eliminated
to a great extent, and the energy radiated from the
transmitting aerial circuit is largely confined to waves of

one length. This coupling arrangement is shown in
Fig. 100.
The oscillation transformen—The oscillation trans-
former is made up of two coils of heavy copper ribbon
about AI inch wide and inch thick or of two coils of %-
inch copper tubing. The coils may be made up in aform
very much resembling a loose coupler or a variocoupler,
except on alarger scale, or resembling spiderweb coils, as
shown in the accompanying illustra-
tion, in which case they are called a
pancake oscillation transformer. The
secondary is so supported that it may
be drawn away from the primary coil
as in the case of a loose coupler; or
revolved to aposition at right angles FIG. 97.-A PANCAKE
to the primary coil as in the case of a OSCILLATION TRANS-
FORMER.
variocoupler; the secondary coil of a
pancake transformer may be swung on ahinge effect at
an angle to the primary coil, as explained for spider-
web coils in Chapter IV.
Only two or three turns (10 to 15 inches in diameter)
of the copper ribbon or tubing are used for the primary
winding and a similar number of turns of the same
size for the secondary winding, in the case of an amateur
transmitting set.
High frequency currents travel on the surface of a
conductor in what is known as a skin effect; the heavy
copper ribbon or tubing, having a large surface, is used
in the oscillation transformer for that reason. Copper
ribbon or tubing is also used in connecting up the various
pieces of apparatus in the circuit in which the primary

of the oscillation transformer is included, as well as
in the circuit including the secondary of the oscillation
transformer. The connecting leads in both of these
circuits should be as short and as direct as possible.
The need for a transmitting condenser.—With the
aerial and the ground, which we have considered as
the plates of a condenser, removed from direct contact
with the high voltage of the secondary
circuit in which the spark gap is placed,
it becomes necessary to replace the
Flo. 98.—A GLASS
PLATE TRANSMIT- "natural condenser" which we have re-
TING CONDENSER, moved, with acondenser in the second-

ary circuit, as indicated in Fig. 100, in order to provide
astoring and discharging place for the high voltage pul-
sations. This condenser is shown in Fig. 98.
The action more in detail is as follows: Each pulse of
high voltage current coming from the secondary of the
spark coil now charges the condenser, in the usual manner;
the condenser then discharges through the primary
coil or winding of the oscillation transformer, setting
up a magnetic field around the primary winding which
induces, in the secondary of the oscillation transformer
and in the aerial and ground circuit in which it is con-
nected, oscillations of current of precisely the same nature
as those in the condenser circuit which caused the trans-
formation. These oscillations of current induced in the
secondary coil or winding of the oscillation transformer
and hence in the aerial and ground circuit, propagate the
electromagnetic waves.
Transmitting condensers.—The transmitting condenser
is termed a high potential condenser because it is de-

signed to withstand the high voltage of the secondary
circuit of the spark coil or the transformer.
In aspark coil transmitting set, this condenser is usually
made up of anumber of sheets of thick tin foil, separated
by sheets of window glass. Directions for the construction
of acondenser of this type are given on page 254. For use
with a transmitting set employing a 110-volt A. C.
transformer of Yi to 1K.W. capacity, plate glass sepa-
rators should be used.
Sheets of mica are very often used instead of glass in
transmitting condensers, but in any of the foregoing
types, if one of the insulating sheets is punctured by the
high voltage, considerable incon-
venience is caused by having to
take apart the condenser (which
is very often immersed in oil or
paraffin) to replace the punctured
sheet.
A better arrangement is that of FIG. 99.-A
... A TRANWITTING
using either trangrnitting con- CONDENSER MADE UP OF JAB&
denser jars, or some other form of transmitting con-
denser made up in separate units. Then if one of the units
is punctured, it is asimple matter to replace it.
THE SPARK COIL TRANSMITTING SET
In thesimpletransmittingset shown in Fig. 100, we may

utilize 4dry cells (6 volts) or a6-volt storage battery as
the source of current, in conjunction with an ordinary
A
1-inch spark coil such as is used with automobile or motor
boat engines.
The spark coil.—The spark coil is what is known as an

open-core transformer; the core consists of a bundle of
iron wire about % inch in diameter and 3 or 4 inches
FIG. 100.-HOOK-UP FOR A COMPLETE SPARK COIL TRANSMITTING SET.
long; the primary winding is made up of two or three

layers of No. 16 to No. 20 insulated wire wound around
the iron wire core; the secondary winding consists of ,
,
agreater number of layers of fine insulated wire (No. 36

to No.40) wound on top of the primary winding, with some
insulating material such as specially treated paper or cloth
placed between the two windings, to prevent the high
voltage (about 10,000 to 15,000 volts) induced in the
secondary winding from jumping through to the primary
winding.
Since the dry cells furnish direct cum* some means
is necessary for making the current reverse or pulsate
when it flows from the battery into the primary winding.
This pulsating effect is accomplished by means of a
vibrator. The vibrator arm is of iron composition or has
asmall disk of iron fastened to it, and is mounted on the
coil case so that the iron strip or disk is opposite one end
of the iron core. A connection from one end of the
primary winding is made to the vibrating strip and the
circuit is continued through the adjustable screw which
makes contact with the vibrating strip. All of these
details are shown in Fig. 100.
The action of the spark coil.—When the key is pressed,
current instantly flows through the primary winding of
the coil and magnetizes the iron core. The magnetism
in the core instantly attracts the composition iron strip
or disk and pulls the vibrator armature towards the core.
As soon as the vibrator moves, the circuit through the
primary winding is broken at the point of contact of the
vibrator arm and the adjustable screw. With this circuit
broken, the current flowing through the primary winding
ceases, and the iron core loses its magnetism, allowing the
vibrator arm or armature to spring back.
Once again the armature is in contact with the screw,
and current again flows through the primary winding,

attracting the armature. This operation is repeated again
and again.
The making and breaking of the primary circuit at the
vibrator cause pulses of current to flow through the
primary winding. These pulses momentarily magnetize
the iron core and thereby induce pulses of high voltage
current in the secondary winding.
The pulses induced in the secondary winding flow out
of the winding, first from one end and then from the other,
thereby furnishing alternating current which may be
utilized to charge the aerial and ground as in the preceding
case.
In practice, contact points of very hard metal (platinum
or platinum alloy) are used on the vibrator armature and
on•the end of the adjustable screw, since the arcs produced
at that point by the making and breaking of the primary
circuit are sufficient to burn up softer metal with alower
melting point.
The speed at which the armature vibrates is governed
by the tension of the armature and the adjustment of the
screw. It is possible to adjust the vibrator of most spark
coils so that alternating current up to 300 or 400 cycles
can be produced in the secondary circuit. In the diagram,
a fixed low voltage condenser is shown connected across
the contact points. This condenser is always mounted
inside the spark coil case. Its function is to reduce
arcing at the contacts, thereby causing aquicker make
and break of the circuit.
Spark coils are classified in size, by the distance the
secondary voltage will ;ump between needle points, as,
for example, a 1-inch coil, etc. Approximately 20,000

volts are required to cause a spark across a 1-inch gap
in air.
The secondary terminals of aspark coil may usually be
Ito v. A.C.
L.,
&ow»!
FIG. 101.—HOOK-UP FOR AROTARY SPARK GAP TRANSMITTER OPERATING ON
110-VOLT ALTERNATING CURRENT.
distinguished from the primary terminals in that the latter

are usually placed at one end near the vibrator and the
former on top of the case; also, the secondary terminals
are widely separated and, in most cases, more carefully
insulated.
The key.—For aspark coil set, this instrument may be

an ordinary telegraph key. Its function is that of regulat-
ing the length of time over which the sparks flow in the
secondary circuit, ashort flow of sparks producing adot
and alonger flow producing adash.
The spark gap.—The spark gap shown in the diagram
is known as afixed gap as distinguished from arotary gap.
The sparking points are called the electrodes. They may
be of brass or zinc and are made adjustable in respect to
the distance separating them.
THE SPARK TRANSMITTER OPERATING ON 110-VOLT A. C.
The spark coil transmitting set is limited in power to

the amount of current which the vibrator of the spark
coil can control. To permit the use of greater power in
transmitting, it is necessary to employ a transformer
operating on alternating current.
Fig. 101 shows acomplete amateur spark transmitting
set coupled to an aerial circuit and consisting of the fol-
lowing instruments. From left to right:
Oscillation transformer
Hot wire ammeter
Rotary spark gap
Transmitting condenser
Safety spark gap
High voltage transformer
Protective condensers (grounded)
Transmitting key
Fuses
Some of these instruments have already been explained
in connection with the preceding sets.
The hot wire ammeter.—This instrument is used to

indicate the amount of current transferred from the set to
the aerial and ground circuit. It consists fundamentally
of a fine wire and its accompanying mechanism enclosed
in acase. The ammeter is connected in series with the
aerial and ground circuit. This connection places the
fine wire, enclosed in the ammeter case, directly in the
path of the energy flowing in the aerial circuit. In trans-
mitting, the passage of current in the aerial circuit and
through the fine wire heats the wire which in its expansion
deflects an indicating needle.
The greater the amount of energy flowing in the aerial
circuit, the more will the wire expand and the farther
will the needle be deflected. In an amateur transmitting
set utilizing not more than 4 1 K.W. of current in the
primary of the transformer, the current flow in the aerial
circuit would be very small and an ammeter calibrated
in thousandths of an ampere, ie, milliammeters, would
be necessary to register the small flow of current. With
transmitting sets using more than Yi K.W., an ammeter
reading from 1to 5amperes or even from 1to 10 amperes
might be used. However, the larger the range of the
ammeter, the coarser are the divisions of the scale and it
is very probable that aset with an input of 1K.W. might
send only three or four amperes into the aerial circuit,
in which case the smaller size would be more desirable,
since its needle would deflect over awider path, permitting
closer reading.
Hot wire ammeters will be given further consideration
in connection with tuning the transmitting set.
The rotary spark gap.—In many transmitting sets, a
rotary spark gap such as that shown in Fig. 101, is used

in place of the fixed spark gap, for the following reason:
When 60-cycle alternating house current is used as a
source of power, 120 pulsations of current are produced
in the secondary circuit and 120 spark trains result across
the gap. These 120 spark trains per second produce a
very low and unmusical tone in the head telephones of
the receiving set. Furthermore, this low note spark is
very hard to read through other signals and especially
through static. If, on the other hand, we insert between
the two stationary studs of the fixed gap, a rotor with
studs attached to it, each one of the 120 spark trains will
be broken up into several spark trains, the number
depending upon the speed of the rotor and the number of
studs on it.
As arule, best results will be obtained if the 120 spark
discharges are broken up into not more than about 240
spark discharges per second.
A rotor making 1800 revolutions per minute or 30
revolutions per second and having 8studs would give this
effect. The stationary studs of the gap should be set
very close to the moving studs. Best results are to be
obtained only by experimentation with afellow amateur
listening to the tone produced from different adjustments.
The rotor is usually fastened on the shalt of a small
motor, such as a fan motor, which is operated from the
house current. There is no advantage in using arotary
spark gap with a spark coil transmitting set, since the
frequency of the sparks in such an outfit is regulated by
the vibrator as previously stated.
The safety spark gap.—A safety gap is connected across
the secondary leads of the high voltage transformer so

that if the voltage becomes too high it will jump the gap
before puncturing the condensers.
If the safety gap repeatedly "flashes over" when the
transformer is in operation, it should not be widened to a
gap voltage distance of more than the condensers will
stand, as this would defeat its purpose. The secondary
voltage should be cut down by reducing the power input
to the primary of the transformer. Transformers are
usually sold with the safety gap attached.
The power transformer.—The transformer core is
made up of anumber of pieces of thin sheet iron, specially
prepared, in ahollow square or rectangular form several
inches square and having atotal thickness of one or two
inches, depending on the design and size of the trans-
former. On one side of this core, several layers of in-
sulated wire (No. 18 to No. 12 or No. 10) are wound,
making up the primary winding. On the opposite side of
the iron core, the secondary winding consisting of a
great number of turns of fine insulated wire (No. 40 to
No. 30) is placed. The greater the number of turns of
wire on the secondary coil, the higher will be the voltage
of the current in the secondary circuit. When apulse of
current of 110 volts is sent in one direction through the
primary winding of the transformer, it magnetizes the
iron core, setting up magnetic lines of force which flow
around the core to the part over which the secondary
winding is wound; these lines of force induce in the
secondary winding of the transformer amomentary pulse
of current of many thousands of volts. This is due to the
fact that there are thousands of turns of wire in the
16
secondary winding upon which the magnetic lines of force

act. This pulse of high voltage current flows out the
wire leading from one end of the secondary winding and
in trying to make its way to the wire connected to the
other end of the secondary, charges up the condenser.
The condenser then discharges across the gap, in the
manner previously explained.
The next pulse of current, flowing in the opposite direc-
tion in the primary winding, induces a second pulse of
current in the secondary winding which comes out the
other terminal of the secondary winding and charges up
the other side of the condenser. The condenser then
discharges again in the same manner as before.
Selecting a transformer.—The amateur should not
attempt to construct atransformer for the foregoing use,
as considerable knowledge of electricity and electrical
apparatus is required in order to design and construct an
efficient transformer. Amateurs should bear in mind in
purchasing a transformer that they are limited by U. S.
Government Regulations to K.W. of power input, if
located within five miles of acommercial or naval station;
and in all other instances, to 1 K.W. input, except by
special concession in the case of experimental or special
amateur stations.
The power or input of the primary and the output of
the secondary are always regulated by the amount of
current flowing through the primary circuit. Purchased
transformers are usually provided with taps taken from
the primary circuit, which vary, in steps, the amount of
current which can flow through the primary winding. If
no such provisions are made, a variable reactance coil,
whieh is acoil of wire wound on an iron core, may be in-

serted in series with the primary winding to accomplish
the same result. Each pulse of current passing through the
reactance coil sets up acounter electromotive force which
opposes the current passing through the coil and cuts
down its voltage. The effect of the reactance coil is varied
either by means of taps taken from the turns of wire or
by moving the core in or out of the coil.
The kick-back preventer.—A protective device or kick-
back preventer is necessary in a spark transmitting set, to
prevent the high voltage in the secondary circuit from re-
acting on the primary circuit and causing a surge back
into the current supply lines which are feeding the primary
circuit. Such a surge might cause considerable damage
to the lighting circuit and fixtures. The usual protective
device consists of two .5 mfd. condensers capable of with-
standing 600 volts, connected in series across the line at
the primary terminals of the transformer, and having the
connection between the two condensers grounded. The
ground wire for the condensers may be connected to the
metal conduit which must be used in wiring up the
primary of the power transformer.
The key.—The key for A. C. transformer sets should be
aheavy current key, and should have contacts capable
of withstanding the heat produced by interrupting the
current drawn by the particular transformer with which
the key is used.
Fuses.—Separate fuses should be used in the primary
circuit. They should be of acapacity capable of carrying
the amount of current used in the primary circuit of the
transformer and no more than that amount.
Underwriters' requirements.—The ground wire for

the transmitting set must be of copper strip or ribbon not
less than fr of an inch wide and - 6
1iof an inch thick, or
else of a copper wire or approved copper-clad steel wire
having an outside measurement of V I of an inch; for
example, No. 2copper wire. The transmitting set ground
wire must be protected from mechanical injury and firmly
supported on insulators throughout its length, keeping
at least 5 inches creepage distance from any extraneous
material. It must be connected to a good, permanent
ground which may be the water pipe system, or aground
similar to the lightning ground, but connection must not
be made to agas pipe or to the lightning ground.
All 110-volt wiring for atransmitting set must conform
to the rules and regulations for house wiring laid down by
the National Board of Fire Underwriters.
TUNING THE SPARK TRANSMITTER
The transmitter must be tuned in order that it may

radiate energy on awave length which will comply with
the requirements of the law for the amateur transmitting
station.
Theoretically, in tuning atransmitter, the primary cir-
cuit should first be tuned to the desired wave length, with
awave meter coupled to the circuit; then the secondary
circuit should be tuned in the same manner. After these
two circuits of the transmitter have been tuned separately,
they should be coupled together and the emitted wave
from the primary or aerial circuit then measured; for
when the two circuits are tuned separately and then
coupled to each other, a reaction takes place between
the primary and the secondary of the oscillation trans-

former, which will result in a wave length slightly off
tune, or different from the wave length to which the two
circuits were first tuned. In practice, however, especially
with an amateur set, this method is seldom followed. In
the case of a spark transmitter, it is more common to
use a wave meter in tuning the secondary circuit only,
and then to adjust the primary or aerial circuit to
Waremeter
Priof O. T.
FIG. 102.—M ETHOD OF

ox5
COUPLING THE WAVE METER TO THE PRIMARY
THE OSCILLATION TRANSFORMER.
OF
resonance with the secondary circuit. In order to tune a

transmitting set accurately, a wave meter is always
necessary.
The wave meten—The wave meter is made up of a
coil of wire, a variable condenser, a pair of head tele-
phones and adetector. The inductance and the variable
condenser are calibrated together in alaboratory. The
arrangement for tuning the secondary circuit by coupling
the wave meter coil to the primary of the oscillation
transformer is shown in Fig. 102. It can be seen from the
diagram that the circuit for the wave meter is precisely
similar to the secondary circuit of a crystal detector set
in which the tuning of the circuit is accomplished by
means of the variable condenser. In the usual method
of tuning atransmitter, the aerial and the ground wire of
the transmitting set are disconnected from the secondary
of the oscillation transformer and the transmitter is

placed in operation. Next, the inductance coil of the
wave meter is placed in inductive relation to the primary
of the oscillation transformer, so that current may be
induced in the coil, and hence in the wave meter circuit,
and detected by the crystal detector and head telephones.
The coil of wire of the wave meter may be placed in
inductive relation to the primary of the oscillation trans-
former by placing the wave meter coil above or below or
to one side of the primary in such away that its turns of
wire are in the same relative position (not at right angles)
as the turns of wire in the primary of the oscillation
transformer. Care should be taken not to place the
inductance coil too near the primary coil of the oscillation
transformer, as such high voltage may be induced in the
wave meter coil that the insulation of the coil will be
punctured or the telephone receivers burned out. By
rotating the variable condenser of the wave meter, an ad-
justment may be found at which maximum response will
eobtained in the head telephones. This response will
indicate that the wave meter is in resonance with the
transmitting circuit, and therefore is tuned to the same
wave length. A reading is then taken directly from the
scale on the condenser which will indicate the wave length
of the transmitter secondary circuit. If readings are not
to be obtained directly from the scale on the condenser,
they will be supplied on a chart which is sold with the
wave meter set. If the reading indicates that the wave
length is below or above 200 meters (in the case of an
amateur transmitting station) the tap on the primary of
the oscillation transformer is then varied to include more
turns of wire or fewer. Remember that adding induct-

ance, or turns of wire, in the primary of the oscillation
transformer increases the wave length and decreasing
inductance decreases the wave length.
After the secondary circuit of the transmitter (which
includes the primary of the oscillation transformer) has
been tuned to the desired wave, the ground wire and the
lead-in are connected to the secondary coil of the os-
cillation transformer and the secondary coil is coupled to
the primary coil.
A hot wire ammeter or asmall flash-light bulb may be
utilized in the following manner to assist in placing the
aerial circuit in tune with the secondary circuit of the
transmitter. With the hot-wire ammeter or the flash-
light bulb connected in series with the ground wire, the
transmitting set is again placed in operation. The
current flowing up and down the aerial circuit will deflect
the needle of the hot-wire ammeter (as explained on page
209) or light the filament of the flash-light bulb. The
maximum amount of current will be induced in the aerial
circuit, and hence the hot wire ammeter will deflect to a
maximum or the flash-light bulb will light up most brightly
when the aerial circuit is in resonance or in tune with the
secondary circuit of the transmitter. The tuning of the
aerial circuit is accomplished by varying the number of
turns of wire in the secondary of the oscillation trans-
former. Resonance of these two circuits of the trans-
mitter indicates that they are tuned to the same wave
length.
Care should be exercised in using a flash-light bulb
in series with the aerial circuit for indicating resonance,
particularly if the transmitting set is of one kilowatt

size, as the current induced in the aerial circuit may
be more than sufficient to burn out the filament of the
bulb. A shunt may be placed around the flash-light
bulb to carry the greater portion of the current and
thereby reduce the current which flows through the bulb.
In practice it will be found that with atransmitter of M
to 1kilowatt input, a 110-volt mazda bulb may be sub-
stituted for the flash-light bulb. The hot wire ammeter
is more desirable as an indicator of resonance than the
bulb, as resonance can be registered more accurately with
it than with alamp, and can then be recorded; but the
latter device is easy to obtain, while not every amateur
possesses ahot wire ammeter.
Even though the transmitting aerial has been tuned to
emit awave length of 200 meters, it may be radiating a
considerable portion of its energy on wave lengths either
above or below 200 meters. This feature in a set con-
stitutes what is known as broad tuning of the transmitter.
Broad tuning is prohibited by law. Specifically, the
energy on any wave length either above or below the
wave length to which the transmitter is tuned, must not
exceed 10 per cent. of the energy of the wave length to
which the transmitter is supposed to be adjusted. This
undesirable effect may be removed by reducing the
coupling between the primary and the secondary of the
oscillation transformer, or by withdrawing or revolving
the secondary coil to such a degree that only the major
wave gets across. The exact degree to which the coup-
ling must be adjusted in order to accomplish this result
cannot be told without the use of adecremeter which is
seldom possessed by an amateur. The radio inspector for

the district in which the transmitter is located usually
takes care of this measurement at the time of inspection
of the station.
It might be suggested that agreat number of amateurs
tune their transmitters by selecting at random, apoint on
the primary of the oscillation transformer and then placing
the aerial circuit in resonance with the secondary circuit
of the transmitter after the manner just described. They
then have some fellow amateur listen in and compare
their wave length with that of other amateurs or stations
which are known to be transmitting on a certain wave
length. If they are then informed by the fellow amateur
that they seem to be above or below 200 meters, they
alter the adjustment of the primary of the oscillation
transformer and again place the aerial circuit in resonance,
and so on until they arrive at the desired wave length.
This method, however, is bad practice, and if carried out
by inexperienced amateurs, is very apt to result in inter-
ference with other stations within range.
THE COUNTERPOISE
In localities where the ground is very dry, making it

impossible to obtain agood connection to moist earth, or
in case sending or receiving sets are located on the upper
floors of tall buildings where the distance to ground by
way of water or steam pipes is very great, better results
can usually be obtained by substituting a counterpoise
for the usual ground connection for the set.
The counterpoise.—A system of wires mounted a few
feet above the ground or roof, directly under the aerial
and approximately duplicating it, is called a counter-

poise. It replaces the lower half of the aerial-and-earth
condenser discussed in Chapter IV.
The counterpoise should extend beyond the aerial in all
directions. It should be equidistant from the earth and
from vegetation at all points, or raised high enough so
that the effect of any unevenness or of vegetation may be
disregarded because of its slight relation to the total
height.
For best results, the counterpoise should be circular, or
nearly so, in shape, with alarge number of radial wires—
all connected by wire jumpers—the whole resembling a
huge spiderweb. The greater the number of radial and
circular wires used, the higher will be the efficiency of
the counterpoise.
Good results may be obtained from a counterpoise
extending in fan-shape from apoint below the end of the
aerial nearest the set.
Just as great care should be taken in supporting and
insulating the counterpoise as in the case of the aerial
itself. Strong wooden posts should be used for the sup-
ports and these should be placed at a distance from the
counterpoise equal to or greater than the height of the
wires from the ground or roof. The wires should be sus-
pended from the supports by strong rope with a good
insulator, several inches long, between each rope and the
wire it supports.
In every case, the counterpoise must be protected from
lightning in the same manner as the aerial itself; that is,
it must be connected to the earth through an approved
lightning arrester or alightning switch or both.
CHAPTER X
THE VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER
As stated in Chapter V, the three-element vacuum

tube may be employed as agenerator of radio-frequency
oscillations which may be used in sending. As an oscilla-
tion generator, it operates upon the so-called "feed back"
principle which we have already discussed in Chapter VII.
That is to say, the grid and the plate circuits are so
coupled that they react on each other. Successive pulses
in each circuit persist in building up succeeding pulses in
the other, until both circuits are in astate of continuous
oscillation. These oscillations may then be impressed
upon an aerial and made to propagate continuous wave
signals.
Both the transmitter and the receiver utilize the prop-
trty of the vacuum tube to generate energy in the
form of oscillations. In receiving, the generated power
is used to reinforce the received impulses, as we have
already seen. In transmitting, the plate circuit is so
coupled to the aerial circuit that energy from the oscilla-
tions in the plate circuit is transferred to the aerial
circuit and radiated into space in the form of continuous
waves.
Most amateurs are familiar with the fact that the
regenerative receiver makes up the simplest vacuum tube
transmitting set.
(249)
REGENERATIVE RECEIVING SETS AS TRANSMITTERS
The simplest vacuum tube transmitter.—The following

diagram shows a simple method of transmitting either
telegraph or radiophone signals with a common type of
regenerative receiver.
The receiver shown will be recognized at once as the
single circuit receiver with atickler coil, of Fig. 63. The
regenerative type
of receiver not only
reinforces received
e;•:: signals, but also acts
as a transmitter of
very low power pro-
vided that the plate
circuit control is so
' adjusted that the
tube will oscillate.
1
11
11
111111h1111 G By connecting akey
1
in the lead-in or in
-e the ground wire, the
FIG. 103.-TilE REGENERATIVE RECEIVING SET outgoing energy (or
HOOKED UP AS A TRANSMITTER.
oscillations) may
then be broken up to form continuous wave (C.W.) dots
and dashes.
It is well to point out that the operator of such appa-
ratus must be licensed to transmit. The Government also
requires a transmitting station to be licensed regardless
of how little power it employs. Furthermore, the wave
length must be kept down to two hundred meters or lower.
This result is more easily accomplished than it may at
first seem. The receiving set should be tuned in on some
THE VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER 251
station which is known to be transmitting on 200 meters.

Maximum strength of signals will indicate that the receiv-
ing set is tuned to 200 meters. If the receiver is then set
into oscillation, its energy will be radiated on approxi-
mately 200 meters, or the wave length to which the
receiving set has been tuned.
Actual radiophone communication has been accom-
plished by speaking into the head telephones of the usual
regenerative receiver with the set oscillating, but be-
cause of the critical adjustments necessary, the novice
would probably have difficulty in transmitting by this
method.
In using the receiving set as a transmitter, amicro-
phone may be substituted for the key; in that case, a
simple radiophone is the result.
The microphone.—This instrument is exactly similar
in appearance and in operation to the microphone or trans-
mitter of the ordinary wire telephone. It consists funda-
mentally of two conducting surfaces, one of them a dia-
phragm, attached to amouthpiece into which sounds may
be directed; between the two surfaces, fine grains of
carbon are packed. As words are spoken into the micro-
phone, causing the diaphragm to vibrate, the carbon
grains between the diaphragm and the other conducting
surface are alternately compressed and loosened by the
varying pressure of the sound waves. When loosened, the
grains of carbon offer a very high resistance to current
being passed through them, owing to poor contact of the
grains with one another. When they are compressed,
better contacts are made, and the flow of current increases
accordingly.
Each word, therefore, which is spoken into the trans-

mitter will cause agreat number of increases and decreases
in the current flowing through the carbon grains. These
fluctuations follow the vibrations produced by the voice.
In the case of wire telephony, if the current passing
through the microphone is connected to a receiver, the
variations in the current will produce vibrations of the
receiver diaphragm which will reproduce the voice directed
into the transmitter. The current passing through the
microphone is said to be modulated by the voice. In wire-
less telephony, when the microphone is connected in series
in the aerial circuit, the continuous oscillations of current
flowing in that circuit are modulated as in the case of the
current passing through the microphone in wire telephony.
These variations caused in the oscillations of current
traveling in the aerial circuit, change the uniformity of the
continuous waves radiated from the transmitter aerial
circuit. From such "moulded" waves striking the receiv-
ing aerial circuit, the voice or music is reproduced in the
receiving set.
Increasing the power of the simple set.—If the user
desires to cover adistance greater than afew blocks, the
only changes necessary in the equipment are the substi-
tution of an amplifier tube for the detector tube and the
addition of more "B" batteries. With apressure of 100
volts in the plate circuit of this receiving set, continuous
wave telegraphy is successful up to two or three miles.
If the set is used as a radiophone, the distance will be
much shorter and may be limited to perhaps one mile,
depending on the size of the aerial, its location, and local
conditions.
THE
- VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER 253
Interrupted continuous wave (I. C. W.) communication

for even greater distances may be accomplished with this
receiver transmitter by using aspark coil such as that de-
scribed on page 204, to furnish the required plate voltage.
The only changes necessary for such an addition are, the
substitution of the secondary voltage of a 1 -inch spark
coil for the usual "B" battery voltage, and the insertion
of agood sized glass
plate condenser
across the secondary
circuit of the spark
coil. The hook-up
with all the connec-
tions, is shown in
`e.
Fig. 104. ee:
In this circuit the lit111111111111111111
spark coil and the
"B" battery are
to-
connected to atwo- 908601
point switch in such
FIG. 104.-USE OF A SPARK COIL TO INCREASE
a manner that it is THE POWER OF THE RECEIVER TYPE OF TRANS-
MITTER.
necessary only to
move the switch arm to the right in order to receive and
to the left in order to send. The switch is used to dis-
connect the phones from the circuit during transmission
so that they will not be injured by the high voltage
from the coil.
In the operation of this set, ahard tube should be used
in place of the usual detector tube, as the latter will not
withstand the high voltage from the secondary of the
spark coil. A safety gap of h of an inch should be placed
across the secondary of the spark coil to protect the tube

from the high voltage. Sparks do not occur across the
gap when the tube is oscillating properly, but they begin
to occur when the set is out of tune or when the filament
is too dim. Such a set has been heard at a distance of
more than one hundred miles when utilizing only one-
fifth of the capacity of the tube. Although this is not the
normal range of the set, it demonstrates the remarkable
carrying power of the energy generated by the vacuum
tube under favorable conditions.
A home-made condenser for aspark coil set.—A suit-
able glass plate condenser may be made up of 14 sheets
of tin foil 3x5inches in size and 8sheets of glass 5x 7
inches in size. Photographic plates with the film removed
are most satisfactory for this purpose, as this glass is of
much better grade, is much thinner, and is more uniform
in thickness than ordinary window glass. The tin foil
may be of almost any thickness, but it should be tin foil
and not lead foil. The method of construction is as
follows:
Slightly heat each photographic plate over agas stove
burner and when each is warm enough, smear alight film
of beeswax on both sides of six of the plates and on one
side of each of the other two. A gas light burner should
not be used for heating the plates as the heat will be too
greatly concentrated and may crack the glass. When a
light film of beeswax has been smeared on all of the plates
as suggested, slightly heat each plate in turn and then
spread out asheet of tin foil in the center of each sheet of
glass, on each side to which the beeswax has been applied,
making six plates of glass with asheet of tin foil on each
side and two plates of glass with asheet of tin foil on only
one side each. As each sheet of tin foil is spread out in
melted beeswax, smooth it out so that no air bubbles
will remain between the tin foil and the glass. The
clean surfaces of the two plates of glass will form the out-
side surfaces of the condenser after it has been assembled.
The condenser is assembled in the following manner:
One plate of glass which has only one surface covered with
beeswax and tin foil is laid on atable with the clean surface
downward. A thin copper strip is now laid on the
sheet of tin foil so that it extends beyond the sheet of glass
at one end. A sheet of glass which has both surfaces cov-
ered is now laid on top of the first plate. A second copper
strip is laid on this plate and allowed to extend over the
end of the glass which is opposite to that from which the
first strip of copper extends. The third plate is laid on
top of the second sheet and another strip of copper placed
on it so that it extends out over the first strip, and so on.
The other sheet of glass which has only one surface cov-
ered, is placed on the pile last of all with its clean surface
upward. The plates may be bound together with tire tape.
The strips of copper extending out one end may be clipped
together so that contact is made with all of them, or ahole
may be drilled through all of the strips and the binding
post inserted as shown in Fig. 98. The other set of
strips may be similarly fastened together.
HOW TO BUILD A VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER
Where it is desired to cover adistance exceeding afew

miles, aradiophone transmitter, which will employ higher
plate voltages and vacuum tubes specially designed for
transmitting, must be built.
17
Contrary to general opinion, avacuum tube transmitter

is as easy to build as aregenerative receiver. Where the
novice usually falls short is in the failure to include indi-
cating instruments such as ammeters and voltmeters to
tell him just what he is doing. We shall endeavor, there-
I
S 18
I=
P1-11111
7
FIG. 105.—COMPLETE HOOK-UP POR A VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER.
1. Aerial ammeter. 2. Aerial circuit condenser. 3. Aerial circuit
inductance. 4. Magnetic modulator. 5. Microphone battery switch.
6. Microphone. 7. Microphone battery. 8. Grid circuit inductance.
9. Blocking condenser. 10. Grid circuit condenser. 11. Grid condenser.
12. Grid leak. 13. Transmitting tube. 14. Filament voltmeter. 15.
Radio-frequency choke coil. 16. Elactrolytic filter condensers. 17.
Plate circuit ammeter. 18. Filter reactor. 19. "S" rectifying tubes.
20. Transformer high voltage winding. 21. Unused winding. 22.
Transmitting tube filament winding. 23. By-pass condensers. 24.
Primary winding. 25. Fuses.
fore, to point out the materials which are essential and

the general rules of construction. We shall leave to the
builder the decision as to whether he will mount the
apparatus on apanel and enclose it in acabinet, or spread
it out on a table. The set to be described has proved
itself to be the most simple and at the same time one of

the most efficient sets which can be used satisfactorily in
short-wave transmission. It is designed for awave length
of 200 to 275 meters. Fig. 105 shows the wiring diagram
for this transmitting set.
Materials required.—The assortment of material listed
below comprises a combination which has been proved
by results to be superior to the usual collection of material
selected at random.
It is best for the novice to purchase one vacuum tube
and obtain operating experience before attempting trans-
mission on a larger scale; the assembly here suggested
will allow the addition of one to three tubes and the use of
more power without other instruments than the additional
tubes and their sockets being purchased.
15-watt transmitting tube, Radiotron UV-202.
1Porcelain or Bakelite socket for tube, Remler.
1Power transformer (variable), Radio Corp. UP-1368.
2S-tube rectifiers, Amrad No. 3000.
2 Porcelain electric light sockets (wall type) for S tubes.
23-ampere fuses.
1Porcelain fuse block.
1Filter reactor, Radio Corp. UP-1653.
2Filter condensers, Amrad No. 2747.
1Radio-frequency choke coil, Radio Corp. UL-1655.
1Transmitting grid leak, Radio Corp. IT-1719.
(The secondary of aFord spark coil may be substituted
for the grid leak.)
1Transmitting grid condenser, Radio Corp. UC-1015.
1Variable condenser, .0005 mfd.
1Variable condenser, .001 mfd.
1Blocking condenser, Radio Corp. UC-1014.

2 Filament by-pass condensers, Western Electric 21-R.
1Magnetic modulator, Radio Corp. UP-1346.
1Microphone, Western Electric 284-W.
16-volt battery.
1Single pole, single throw battery switch.
1Telegraph key.
1Thermo-couple ammeter, scale 0to 2amps., Jewell.
1Voltmeter, scale 0to 10 volts, Jewell.
1Milliammeter, scale 0to 200 milliamps., Jewell.
Material for aerial and grid tuning inductance:
1Cardboard or Bakelite tube, 10" x5" clia,m.
1Cardboard or Bakelite tube, 2" x3A' 1 diam.
17" Brass rod, threaded (A thread).
4 Dry-cell binding post nuts (-3e2- thread).
1Knurled composition knob (-seg- thread).
50 feet No. 10 solid copper bare wire.
50 feet heavy cord (same size as No. 10 wire).
30 feet No. 24 double cotton covered (d. c. c.) wire.
The transmitting or power tube.—The tube suggested
for this set is of the 5-watt size. It is exactly similar to
a detecting or amplifying tube except that the power
tube is built proportionately larger. The tube requires
approximately 2amperes at 7.5 volts for lighting the fila-
ment, and will stand up to 500 or 600 volts on the plate
although it is rated at 350 volts normal plate potential.
If tubes are added to the set, the plates, the filaments
and the grids of the additional tubes should be connected
to the same wires respectively to which the plate, the
filament and the grid of the single tube are connected in
the diagram.
THE VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTER 259'
The socket.—A socket of porcelain, or of other insulat-

ing composition throughout, may be used instead of the
porcelain or the Bakelite type suggested. However, a
socket with ametal base or receptacle should not be used,
because if more tubes are added in parallel in the set,
necessitating anumber of sockets in arow, there would be
danger of acapacity effect between the sockets; and in at-
tempting to transmit on 200 meters, it is necepeary to elimi-
nateas much capacity from the circuits as possible. If capa-
city effect is obtained in atransmitting or areceiving set,
the wave length of the local circuit in the set is likely to be
increased, reducing the effective wave length which could
be used in the aerial. This effect would correspond to
that obtained from cutting off part of the aerial and mak-
ing up in the circuits of the transmitter for that reduction
of wave length. In selecting asocket, care should also be
taken to procure one which will stand up under the con-
siderable heat developed by the tube.
The power transformer.—The power transformer in-
dicated in the diagram is used to supply low voltage
filament current and high voltage plate current to the
sending tube. It is similar in construction and operation
to the closed core transformer described in Chapter IX.
It differs, however, in that there are two low voltage
secondary windings placed upon the iron core, in addi-
tion to the high voltage secondary winding. The primary
winding is connected to the 110-volt alternating house
current supply. The opposite winding, as shown in the
diagram, is used for supplying the high voltage to the
plate circuit. One of the low voltage windings is used
for lighting the filament of the transmitting tube. The
other low voltage winding is intended to supply current

to the filaments of rectifying tubes; but in this trans-
mitting set "S" tubes, which do not have filaments, are
used for rectifying, and in this case the last winding is
not made use of. The transformer suggested for use with
this set is the Radio Corporation type UP-1368. This
type is suggested because provision is made on the primary
winding for adjustment in steps of 2% volts from 102.5
volts to 115 volts. The variation in voltage is accom-
plished by means of taps brought out from the primary
winding of the transformer to studs on a dial switch.
This feature eliminates the need of filament rheostats,
and the necessity of balancing each side of the filament
circuit if rheostats were used; filament voltage adjustment
is provided for in small amounts by virtue of the fact that
the variation of voltage in the primary windings effects a
variation of voltage in the secondary windings.
The UP-1368 type will supply sufficient current to oper-
ate four 5-watt tubes, permitting the addition of more
transmitting tubes, in parallel with the one transmitting
tube shown in the set. The high voltage plate winding
provides for apotential difference of 1100 volts between
the two outside wires of the winding or 550 volts between
each outside terminal and the center tap of the winding.
The tap in the center of this winding is connected, as
shown, to the grid circuit. The connection of the outside
wires, each through an "S" tube, provides for the utiliza-
tion of both pulses of each oscillation of the alternating
current. Kenotron tubes might be used in place of the
"S" tubes, in which case the additional winding would be
used to supply current to the filaments of those tubes.
The winding for supplying current to the filaments of the

transmitting tubes, provides for apotential of 7.5 volts,
and has a mid tap at 3.75 volts. As suggested above,
this winding will supply current to the filaments of four
5-watt transmitting tubes. As shown in the diagram, the
two outside wires of the filament current winding are
'connected to the terminals of the filament. The grid cir-
cuit and also the plate circuit are connected to the mid
tap or neutral point of the filament winding.
"S" tubes.—The "S" tube is adevice for rectifying the
high voltage alternating current from the power trans-
former for use in the plate circuit of the transmitting
tubes. In size and shape, it somewhat resembles an
ordinary seventy-five-watt tungsten lamp used in house
lighting. It has a screw base, which is exactly like the
base of an incandescent lamp and will fit an ordinary
socket. This rectifying tube differs from the usual recti-
fying tube used in radio work and discussed in Chapter V
in that it does not include afilament in its make up. In-
stead, certain gases, which have a peculiar conduction
property are introduced into it during manufacture and
after the bulb has been partially exhausted. These gases
act as one-way conductors, eliminating the need for the
filament with its attendant possibility of burning out.
It is because of this last mentioned feature, that the
authors suggest "S" tubes for use as rectifiers in this
transmitting set.
As indicated in the diagram, two "S" tubes are em-
ployed to rectify the alternating current which comes
from both ends of the secondary or high voltage winding
of the power transformer,
As previously suggested, two standard porcelain re-

ceptacles or sockets, such as those used with ordinary
incandescent bulbs, may be used for mounting the tubes.
Each of the outer taps from the transformer winding
should be connected to the center contact of a socket.
The ferrule or screw contacts of the receptacles should be
connected together, and in turn connected through the
filter reactor and the radio-frequency choke coil to the
plate or plates of the transmitting tube or tubes depending
on whether one or more five-watt tubes are used.
Because the "S" tubes function without light or other
visible indication, the only means of telling when they
are being operated properly is by the amount of heat
given off by them. At full load, the heating effect should
not be greater than that of afifty-watt mazda bulb. The
capacity of each "S" tube is fifty milliamperes, making
the capacity of the two tubes (connected to rectify both
halves of the A. C.) one hundred milliamperes.
It is claimed by the manufacturers that these tubes
will stand an overload of 100 per cent for short intervals
of time. If, however, it is desired to rectify more than
100 milliamperes at 550 volts, in order to utilize the full
output of more than two five-watt tubes and up to four
five-watt tubes, two "S" tubes may be connected in
parallel where each "S" tube is shown in the diagram.
If it is desired to rectify alternating current of voltage
greater than 600 volts, "S" tubes may be connected in
series, one tube being used for each 600 volts.
No device is included between the "S" tubes and the
secondary winding of the power transformer to limit the
amount of current which may be drawn by the trans-
mitting tubes. Care should be taken, therefore, not to

overload the "S" tubes by attempting to supply current
to too many power tubes. Furthermore, two 3-ampere
fuses should be connected in series with the primary of
the transformer as shown in the diagram. If these fuses
are omitted, an oveload on the "S" tubes, or an accidental
short circuit might destroy the tubes and burn out the
windings of the power transformer.
The filter reactor and filter condensers.—In the oper-
ation of the set, some means are necessary for filtering or
smoothing out the ripples or low frequency pulsations of
rectified current coming from the "S" tubes, into asmooth
current for use in the plate circuit of the transmitting
tube. The filter reactor and the two electrolytic con-
densers satisfactorily serve this purpose.
The filter reactor is a coil of wire wound on an iron
core and surrounded by layers of thin sheet iron. By
reason of its form of construction, it has ahigh inductance
value. When pulsating direct current is sent through a
coil of this type, self induction occurs in the coil, alter-
nately opposing the incoming pulse and sustaining the
current as the pulse dies out.
The smoothing effect is still further brought about by
the two electrolytic condensers. These condensers are
connected in series between the wire to which the two
end terminals of the high voltage winding are connected
and the wire to which the center of the winding is con-
nected. For best results, the filter reactor should have a
high value of inductance as noted above, and the filter
condenser should have alarge capacity. For that reason,
the Amrad electrolytic condensers are suggested. Each
condenser has a capacity of 38 mfd. and the two con-

nected in series provide a capacity of 19 mfd. These
two condensers obviate the necessity of having a large
capacity mica condenser, which is much more expensive.
The radio-frequency choke coil.—The choke consists of
a coil of wire also wound on an iron core. Due to the
properties of a coil of this type, the radio-frequent fluc-
tuating current in the plate circuit is prevented from
flowing back into the filter circuit; at the same time it
allows the high voltage direct current to flow from the
filter circuit to the transmitting tube. The particular
coil suggested will permit the use of several additional
tubes.
The grid leak.—The purpose of the grid leak in the
transmitting set is that of limiting the potential which
may accumulate on the grid of an oscillating tube. The
function is the same as that of the grid leak used with the
detector tube in areceiving set. That is to say, it allows
the gradual leaking off of negative potential from the grid
after this potential has reached acertain value. In that
way it governs the output of the transmitting set and also
determines the character of the oscillations. A trans-
mitting grid leak differs from areceiving grid leak in that
the former must be made up so that it will resist sudden
heating or changing of temperature. It consists of a
resistance wire wound around a small, cylindrical, heat-
resisting form. Metal clips or contacts are provided at
each end of the form to which the ends of the resistance
coil are connected. In this set a grid leak of not more
than 5,000 ohms should be used. One should be purchased
which has amiddle tap taken from it, providing a 2500-
ohm resistance or a 5000-ohm resistance. Both values

should be tried when the set is placed in operation in order
to determine which gives the best results with the par-
ticular tube or tubes used.
The transmitting grid condenser.—The grid condenser
has the same function in transmitting as in receiving.
The reasons for its use are suggested in Chapter V. This
condenser should be of the fixed mica-dielectric type, but
should be variable in two or three steps in order to obtain
best results with different tubes. The type UC-1015 is
suggested.
Aerial circuit and grid circuit tuning condensers.—Both
the aerial circuit tuning condenser and the grid circuit
tuning condenser are variable condensers of the type
ordinarily used in receiving sets and described on page 59.
The use of this type instead of the types used in the spark
sending sets discussed in Chapter IX is possible because
of the low voltages in these two circuits as compared with
the voltages in the circuits of aspark transmitter.
By-pass and blocking condensers.—Two fixed by-pass
condensers of .005 rafd. size are connected, one from each
outside terminal to the mid tap of the filament winding.
This connection of the condensers allows the passage of
the radio-frequent currents flowing in the grid and plate
circuits to the filament, but does not pass the low-fre-
quency alternating current from one terminal of the fila-
ment winding to the other terminal.
Another condenser similar to the two by-pass condensers
and known as the blocking condenser, is connected in
series with the plate circuit between the plate of the
transmitting tube and the aerial tuning inductance. This
condenser prevents the charging of the grid tuning in-

ductance and the aerial circuit, by the high voltage direct
current in the plate circuit, yet passes the radio-frequent
fluctuations flowing in the plate circuit. The use of the
blocking condenser effectually insulates most of the set
from the high voltage direct current and reduces the
possibilities of a shock or a burn resulting from contact
with those parts of the set while the set is in operation.
All three of the above condensers should be of the mica
dielectric type so that their values will remain constant
during operation of the set.
The magnetic modulator.—In this transmitting set, the
continuous oscillations generated by the transmitting
tube are modulated in the aerial circuit. There are other
methods of modulation which can be employed in aradio
telephone transmitter but this system, which makes use
of the magnetic modulator, is perhaps the best method for
controlling the output of asingle tube without distortion.
Furthermore, it permits the use of several tubes in parallel
as oscillators and in that way averts the use of additional
tubes for modulation, with their additional accessories
and adjustments.
The magnetic modulator, as indicated in the diagram,
is connected preferably in series with the ground wire of a
transmitting set. This connection, as can be seen, re-
moves the high resistance microphone from the aerial
circuit to alocal circuit in which a6-volt battery is con-
nected in series with the microphone. The removal of
the microphone from the aerial circuit permits aless ob-
structed flow of the oscillating current in the aerial circuit.
The magnetic modulator is simple both in its comer
tion and in its operation. The ground wire is broken and

connected to the two binding posts marked A and A; the
connections of the microphone circuit are made to the
other two binding posts, marked P and P. Once con-
nected in the above manner, the modulator requires no
further adjustment or attention.
The principle of its operation is that of utilizing the
peculiar properties of iron when acted upon by radio-fre-
quency currents. Its action is that of avariable resistance
which is controlled by the variations of current in the
6-volt microphone circuit acting through the modulator.
The current for the microphone circuit may be supplied
from four dry cells or from the 6-volt storage battery used
in heating the filaments of the vacuum tubes in the re-
ceiving set. If one tube is to be used, as suggested for this
transmitter, the %- to 1h-ampere size modulator should
he purchased. This size will also control the output of
two 5-watt tubes. If two to four tubes are to be employed,
the 1 to 3%-ampere size should be used.
The microphone.—The microphone has already been
described in connection with Fig. 103. It may be of the
ordinary desk telephone type or of the hand microphone
type. In either case, it is connected, by means of atele-
phone cord, in series with the primary of the magnetic
modulator, the six-volt storage battery and asingle pole,
single throw switch. The switch is for the purpose of
turning off the battery current when the set is not in
operation.
Indicating instruments.—The aerial or radiation am-
meter may be of the hot wire type described on page 237,
Chapter IX. However, better results will be obtained
268 RADIO -SIMPLIFIED
with a thermo-couple radiation ammeter, especially in

the case of alow power tube transmitter, since the amount
of current flowing in the aerial circuit of such aset is very
small, and accurate adjustment therefore is highly im-
portant.
The thermo-couple is a device consisting of a heating
wire, similar to that in the hot wire ammeter, to which
two dissimilar metals are attached. The meter is con-
nected to the two metals and calibrated at the factory.
When the current in the aerial circuit passes through the
heating wire, a local current is generated by the two
metals and is recorded on the meter.
A filament voltmeter should be used instead of an am-
meter to indicate the flow of current through the filament.
In any case, flow of current depends upon voltage, and
in the case of a vacuum tube it is important that the
voltage rather than the amperage of the filament cur-
rent be kept constant. Care should be taken that the
filament is in no case overloaded. The voltmeter should
be connected across the terminals of the filament, as
shown.
The plate milliammeter is connected in series with the
plate circuit of the transmitting tube, as shown in the
diagram, to indicate the amount of current flowing in that
circuit. A 5-watt transmitting tube will stand about
of an ampere (50 milliamperes) on its plate without
overheating and care should be taken that the tube
is not overloaded. A milliammeter with a range of
from 0to 200 milliamperes should be selected in order
to allow for the possible addition of three or more tubes
to this set.
The aerial and the grid tuning inductance.—The aerial

inductance and the grid inductance may easily be made
up at home in the following manner: Obtain acardboard
or Bakelite tube 5inches in diameter by ten inches long
and shellac it to exclude moisture.
Obtain 50 feet of No. 10 bare copper wire and 50 feet
of cord of the same size. Wind both the cord and the
wire on the tube at the same time, in
such amanner that the cord will separate
the turns of wire. In winding the coil,
fasten one end of the wire and one end
of the cord to the tube. Then fasten
the other end of each to asupport at a
distance of 50 feet. Next, grasp the tube
firmly and walk toward the support, at
the same time winding the cord and the
wire on the tube. When wound, shellac 106.-ABRIAL
the winding well in order to exclude AND GRID TUNING
moisture from the string and to help INDUCTANCE.
keep the windings in place. Two coats will be sufficient.

The grid inductance may be wound on a 3%-inch
cylindrical tube of cardboard or Bakelite, and should
consist of 25 turns of No. 24 D. C. C. wire. It should be
given one coat of shellac. The accompanying illustration
(Fig. 106) shows how the winding should be connected
(in series) and placed in relation to each other. The grid
coil should be mounted on a shaft so that the coupling
can be varied slightly.
The four nuts are run on the brass rod, two inside the
grid inductance coil and two outside. They are for the
purpose of clamping the coil tightly to the rod.
HOW TO OPERATE THE SET
After checking up all connections to make sure that

they are correct, place the vacuum tube in the socket
and turn on the filament current and increase to the
proper brilliancy, that is, to the point of tube oscillation
as suggested for the operation of the regenerative receiver.
By revolving the variable condenser which is connected
across the grid coil, apoint will be found where the radia-
tion ammeter indicates aerial current. Continued exper-
imentation will soon acquaint the operator with the
proper setting of each instrument. When the aerial
series condenser is changed, it is also necessary to read-
just the grid coil condenser. Care should be taken to see
that the millia.mmeter does not show more than 50 milli-
amperes for one tube. The plate will become red hot
and the filament will be in danger of burning out if more
than 50 milliamperes of current is sent through one five-
watt Racliotron.
If the set is used for continuous wave (C. W.) teleg-
raphy the key should be connected, as shown, in series
with the wire which connects the electrolytic condensers
to the filter reactor. If it is so placed, the high voltage is
disconnected from the tube when the key is open and the
vacuum tube operates at a much lower temperature.
When it is desired to telephone, the key must be closed,
and the microphone used in connection with the magnetic
modulator placed in the ground circuit.
Do not try to operate the telephone on full radiation,
as the carrier wave tends to be more noisy on peak
radiation.
Modulation or quality of the reproduction of the
speech may be tested by listening on the usual receiver

or even on acrystal set.
In tuning this set, a wave meter with an aerial or
radiation milliamraeter substituted for the crystal de-
tector and phones, is used. The wave meter inductance
is placed in inductive relation to the aerial circuit. The
set is then placed in operation and the wave meter ad-
justed to the point of maximum deflection of the ammeter
needle. A reading is then taken for wave length, and the
set is adjusted in accordance with the reading in the
manner explained on page 245.
A transmitter similar to the one described, operated
in the eastern part of the United States, was recently
heard in England, although operating on only 5 watts.
In a few years, receiving apparatus may conceivably
have advanced in sensitivity to a point where one five-
watt transmitter will girdle the earth, perhaps not in
commercial signaling, but at amateur wave lengths under
exceptionally favorable conditions.
Underwriters' requirements.—Underwriters' specifica-
tions for the ground wire and supply lines from house
current for vacuum tube transmitting sets are the same
as those noted on page 242 for spark transmitting sets.
Additional requirements which apply to vacuum tube
transmitters employing storage batteries are the same as
those given on page 128 for receiving sets.
18
CHAPTER XI
LEARNING THE CODE
Advantages of knowing the code.—Sooner or later there

comes to every radio amateur the desire to know and to
be able to handle the signal code. This desire grows as
the amateur with his receiving set picks up telegraph
station after station and hears each one call and sign off,
without being able to tell whether the signals are coming
from the next town, from aship at sea, or from aforeign
country. Later he begins to realize that a wealth of
information is broadcasted daily in dots and dashes, as
well as by telephone. And finally, or simultaneously,
comes the aspiration to be able to send as well as to
receive radio messages.
We have already seen what a simple matter it is to
transmit with avacuum tube receiving set or to construct
a' simple sending set for dot-and-dash signaling. For-
tunately for amateurs in this country, the United States
Government is more indulgent toward the radio amateur
than are other governments. Few foreign countries per-
mit the operation of amateur sending stations. Many
of them even limit the amateur receiving aerial to certain
sizes and heights. Only recently have amateurs in Eng-
land and in France been permitted to transmit, and even
now they are much more narrowly restricted in the
(272)
LEARNING THE CODE 273
amount of power which they may use with their sets, than
are
, amateurs in the United States.
I In Canada, amateurs enjoy pretty much the same
privileges as we do in this country, except that they are
restricted to a greater degree in the wave lengths which
they may use.
In this country, there is no reason why any citizen who
so desires should not own and operate atransmitting set,
and secure a great deal of enjoyment from it, through
communication with others. Nightly, amateurs in New
York City talk with amateurs in Chicago; those in
Chicago talk with others in Denver, San Francisco, and
other distant points in this country and in Canada.
When direct communication is impossible, messages are
often relayed over enormous distances by fellow amateurs.
In this connection, the American Radio Relay League
(A. R. R. L.) plays its part. This league is a band of
amateurs scattered throughout the country who relay
amateur messages and conversations from one boundary
of the country to the other for the pure joy of doing so.
And every amateur who possesses atransmitting set and
has aknowledge of the code is welcome in the League.
Every operator of a transmitting station, however,
must hold alicense. To secure such license, the applicant
must pass a written examination covering adjustment
and tuning of a transmitting set, and must also pass a
code test of ten words a minute. These requirements
are not at all unreasonable. It does not require great
imagination to conceive how badly a novice without
proper knowledge might "jam up the air" ;and if he does
not know the code, government, commercial, or amateur
stations with which he might be interfering, would be

unable to communicate with him, and request that he
stop sending or make some change in his set.
The code.—The code now in general use throughout,
the world is the International Morse Code.
In the early days of radio, practically all land and ship
stations of the United States, including commercial and
amateur stations, used the Morse telegraph code, which
was then and still is used in land wire telegraphy. As a
matter of fact in this country for anumber of years, prac-
tically all radio operators were recruited from the ranks
of wire telegraphy.
Almost all foreign countries, however, were using a
different code called the Continental Code. Due largely
to aserious disaster at sea, in which much confusion and
delay resulted from the inability of the operators con-
cerned to communicate readily with one another, the
Continental Code, or International Morse Code, was
adopted some years ago for all radio stations of the world.
Means of learning the code.—There are many ways of
learning the code. In any of the methods which are sug-
gested in the following pages, the most important requisite
is patience. In any case, the code will be mastered only
by continued drilling on it.
To begin with, the novice should not set out by com-
mitting the number and order of the dots and dashes in
the various letters and figures in the code, as for example,
that dash—dot—dash—dot equals c. Much of the energy
so spent will be wasted. The radio operator does not
recognize letters as so many dots and so many dashes nor
does he translate signals in that fashion, The operator
hears and learns to recognize each letter as acombination

of sounds—clah--de—dah—de as the letter c, de—d,ah—de
as r, dah—de—dah as k, etc., in much the same manner as
children in primary school learn to read words by sounds
instead of by learning to spell them.
For the same reason the code should be learned and
practiced with the use of an instrument which will simulate
the sounds produced by the sparks of atransmitting set
and not by using an electric lamp, apencil or atick-tack.
The best aid toward learning the code is atest buzzer
hooked up to a crystal detector set in the manner de-
scribed on page 57, with akey substituted for the switch
used to start and stop the buzzer. The head receivers are
worn during practice, and exact reproductions of spark
signals are obtained just as though they are actually being
received over the set.
If the amateur does not possess atest buzzer, abuzzer,
abattery and akey may easily be obtained to make up
acode practice set, which may be wired up in the manner
suggested above and used either independently or in con-
junction with acrystal detector set. A buzzer having a
high pitch or musical note should be selected as most
transmitting sets in use at the present time have a high
whistling note or asomewhat lower musical note. Further-
more, the high pitch or musical note will be more pleasing
to the ear and the dot and dash sounds will be more intel-
ligible. The note or tone of the buzzer may be adjusted
to a considerable extent by varying the tension of the
contact screw against the movable part or armature.
If the sound of the buzzer is not sufficiently loud to be
clearly audible, the telephone cord terminals of a cheap
75-ohm receiver may be connected across the contact

screw and the armature of the buzzer. The sound in the
receiver connected to the buzzer may, if too loud, be
reduced by placing a few layers of paper under the
receiver diaphragm.
As suggested above, the best method for learning the
code is that of using an instrument which simulates the
actual sounds produced in the head telephones in the
reception of dots and dashes from a spark transmitting
station.
The beginner is not advised to attempt learning the
code with aflashlight bulb arrangement for making short
and long flashes, to represent dots and dashes. Sooner
or later he will have to change from reading the dots and
dashes by sight to reading them from sounds, at con-
siderable waste of time and energy. However, a com-
bination of both the flashlight arrangement and the buzzer
set may afford some diversion in practicing.
Automatic transmitters may be purchased, but entirely
satisfactory results should not be expected from any of
the moderate priced automatic transmitters which are
on the market. The type of automatic practice set
referred to usually includes a high-pitched buzzer con-
trolled or operated by a contact rubbing on plates on
which impressions have been made to form dots and
dashes. If with such a type of practice set, only a few
records or plates are used, one soon unconsciously memo-
rizes the sequence of the characters on the records or
plates. If a great number of plates or records are em-
ployed to furnish agreat variety of letters, numbers, and
parts of sentences, the device becomes quite expensive.
Furthermore, such procedure does not provide practice

in sending.
With the key buzzer and head telephone arrangement,
the beginner might successfully learn the code by sending
dots and dashes without any practice in slow receiving.
After he has become quite familiar with the code from
constant sending, he would eventually be able to copy
some of the commercial or amateur messages which might
be picked up with areceiving set. The beginner might
also practice sending and receiving with afellow amateur,
using the buzzer outfit.
It is also possible to memorize each letter as acombina-
tion of sounds, as suggested on page 275. Then by listening
over the receiving set to code messages, the amateur might
at first be able to pick out a letter here and there; but
after constant application he would be able to pick out a
greater number of letters, and finally to receive whole
words and messages. This latter method, however, would
not afford any practice in sending, which is just as im-
portant as receiving in handling the code, unless the
amateur never expects to do any sending
After two or more amateurs practicing together have
gained sufficient speed to pick up letters and words from
messages, they should familiarize themselves with accepted
radio abbreviations before expecting to receive entire
messages from commercial or amateur stations.
Commercial stations use many trade forms and abbre-
viations in messages. Unless the beginner becomes
fAmiliar with these forms it may be difficult for him to tell
whether he is getting messages correctly or simply getting
some of the letters of the words. For instance, commer-
cial operators use P to mean a paid message, the letter

w for words, sig. for signature, etc.; and at the end of
a sentence they may repeat numbers and difficult words
to insure their correct reception. These abbreviations,
symbols and repetitions mean nothing to one who is just
learning the code, unless he first gets their interpretation
from an experienced operator.
Even the amateurs use many abbreviations in talking
to one another by dots and dashes. For example, they
use hv for have, gv for give, wkg for working, dx for dis-
tance, etc. Some amateurs further confuse the beginner
by using the Morse code instead of the Continental
code when talking with one another. Then again, there
are the QR and the QS abbreviations to confuse the
beginner. These are listed on page 296. The novice
should become familiar with them so that he may suc-
cessfully read signals or messages from other transmitting
stations.
Other sources of practice which should not be overlooked
are the government commercial stations which send out
weather reports and press items. Numerous government
stations send weather reports at various times during the
day, especially at 12 noon and at 10 P. M. The weather
reports at 10 P. M. from some stations are followed by
press items which are, as arule, sent at aspeed of less than
20 words per minute.
An order has recently been issued to certain naval sta-
tions to transmit items of interest slowly on certain even-
ings, to provide practice for amateurs in receiving.
After the amateur has attained aspeed of 10 words per
minute, he should make application for and procure a
license, so that he may begin practicing the code for

greater speed by sending on the air. The rights of other
amateurs, however, should be considered and the air, free
as it may seem, should not be filled up with jumble and
jargon. Furthermore, in conversing with other amateurs,
the rules given on page 288 for calling and answering should
be strictly followed. The amateur should thoroughly
familiarize himself with these and other government
regulations summarized in Chapter XII, before placing
his transmitting set in operation.
CHAPTER XII
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS FOR AMATEURS
Government regulations provide that every radio trans-

mitting station, either telephone or telegraph, and whether
commercial, amateur, or experimental, must be inspected
by a government agent and properly licensed. Stations
equipped only to receive are not required to be licensed.
Entirely apart from the station license requirement,
no person may operate a radio transmitting set without
obtaining an operator's license. Operators' licenses—
both amateur and commercial—are granted only after the
applicant has satisfactorily passed the government exami-
nation for the grade license which he desires to obtain.
The United States Department of Commerce recognizes
the fact that radio communication offers a wholesome
form of instructive recreation for amateurs. At the
same time, it takes precaution that the users of radio
for this purpose must strictly observe the rights of others
to the uninterrupted use of apparatus for important
public and commercial purposes. The Department of
Commerce will not knowingly issue a license to an
amateur who does not recognize and will not obey this
principle. To this end, the intelligent reading of the
International Convention and the Radio Communica-
tion Laws of the United States is prescribed as the first
step to be taken by amateurs toward securing a license.
(280)
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 2S1
A summary of those rules and regulations applying to

amateurs, laid down by the Convention and adopted by
an Act of Congress, is given herewith.
SECURING A STATION LICENSE
Station licenses for the use and operation of apparatus

for radio communication may be issued only to citizens
of the United States. Foreign-born applicants for station
licenses must submit satisfactory evidence of their citizen-
ship.
Licenses can be issued to clubs if they are incorporated
or if amember will accept the responsibility for the opera-
tion of the apparatus, carrying with it the possibility of
being penalized for infraction of the laws.
Applications for station licenses of all classes should be
addressed to the United States Radio Inspector for the
district in which the station is located, who will forward
the necessary blank forms and information. The limits
of the districts and the addresses of the radio inspectors
in charge of the districts, are given on page 291.
Upon receipt of the forms, properly completed, the
radio inspector will make a thorough inspection of the
station, if practicable.
The owner of an amateur station may operate his
station in accordance with the laws if his application
for a license has been properly filed but has not been
acted upon. An application for an operator's license, how-
ever, must also bave been filed and every effort made to
obtain the license, before the station may be operated.
"Provisional" station licenses are issued to amateurs
remote from the headquarters of the radio inspector
of the district in which the station is located. These

licenses are issued as amatter of convenience and record.
If, upon inspection, the station is found to comply with
the law, the inspector will strike out the word "Pro-
visional" and insert the date of inspection and his signa-
ture at the bottom of the license.
If such a station is found not to comply with the law,
the provisional license may be cancelled until such time
as the apparatus is readjusted to meet the requirements
of the law: Provided, however, That consideration will be
given to any reports of interference filed against such a
station.
All persons are warned in the regulations, that it is
unlawful to operate stations after licenses have expired
unless application for renewal has been properly made.
Expired station licenses of all classes, commercial and
amateur, need not be returned to the radio inspectors
with applications for renewals. Owners desiring a
renewal license must complete new forms, as prescribed
for original applications. New licenses are issued in
every case of renewal.
Any person applying for a duplicate license to replace
an original which has been lost, mutilated, or destroyed
is required to submit an affidavit to the Bureau of Navi-
gation through the radio inspector of the district, attesting
the facts regarding the manner in which the original was
lost. The Commissioner of Navigation will consider the
facts in the case and advise the radio inspector in regard
to the issue of a duplicate license, or a duplicate will be
forwarded through the inspector's office.
A duplicate license is issued under the same serial
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 283
number as the original and is marked "Duplicate" in red

across the face.
Licensed stations must be operated by or under the
direct supervision of properly licensed operators.
SECURING AN OPERATOR'S LICENSE
An operator's license may be granted to any person'

without regard to sex, nationality, or age, if the applicant
can fulfill the requirements for the class of license desired.
Amateurs should write to the nearest examining officer
in their vicinity for Form 756 "Application for operator's
license", and to the radio inspector in their vicinity for
Form 762 "Amateur applicant's description of apparatus."
Amateur operators at points remote from examining
officers and radio inspectors may be issued second-grade
amateur licenses without personal examination. Exam-
inations for first-grade licenses will be given by the radio
inspector when he is in that vicinity, but special trips can
not be made for this purpose.
Persons holding radio operators' licenses, amateur
second-grade, should make every effort to appear at one
of the examination points to take the examination for
amateur first-grade license or higher.
Amateur first-grade.—The applicant must have a suffi-
cient knowledge of the adjustment and operation of
the apparatus which he wishes to operate and of the
regulations of the International Convention and Acts of
Congress in so far as they relate to interference with
other radio communication and impose certain duties on
all grades of operators. The applicant must be able to
transmit and receive in Continental Morse at a speed
sufficient to enable him to recognize distress calls and the

official "keep-out" signals. A speed of at least 10 words
per minute (five letters to the word) must be attained.
Amateur second-grade.—The requirements for the sec-
ond grade are the same as for the first grade. The
second-grade license is issued only where an applicant
can not be personally examined, or until he can be exam-
ined. An examining officer or radio inspector is author-
ized in his discretion to waive an actual examination of
an applicant for an amateur license, if the amateur for
adequate reasons can not present himself for examination
but in writing can satisfy the examining officer or radio
inspector that he is qualified to hold a license and will
conform to its obligations.
The code test consists of messages with call letters and
regular preambles, conventional signals and abbrevia-
tions and odd phrases, and in no case consists of simple,
connected reading matter. The test is conducted by
means of the omnigraph or other automatic instrument
wherever possible.
The practical and theoretical examination consists of
seven questions under the following headings and values:
Pointe, maxi-
mum value.
(a) Experience 20
(b) Diagram of receiving and transmitting apparatus 10
(c) Knowledge of transmitting apparatus 20
(d) Knowledge of receiving apparatus 20
(e) Knowledge of operation and care of storage batteries 10
(r) Knowledge of motors and generators 10
(g) Knowledge of international regulations governing radio
communication and the United States radio laws and
regulations 10
100
«GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 285
No applicant who fails to qualify can be re-examined

at any examining office within three months from date
of the previous examination.
Operators' licenses are not valid until the oath for the
preservation of the secrecy of messages is properly exe-
cuted before anotary publie or other officer duly author-
ized to administer oaths. Licenses must indicate on
their faces that the oath has been taken and the officer
administering the oath on the back of the license should
sign also in the blank provided on the face.
Licenses will not be signed by examining officers until
the oath of secrecy has been properly executed.
Operators' licenses should be framed and posted in the
radio room, and licenses for stations should be accessible
at all times to inspectors.
Persons holding radio operators' licenses of any grade
should, before their licenses expire, apply to the nearest
radio inspector or examining officer for renewal and
submit Form 756 in duplicate.
Any operator applying for aduplicate license to replace
an original which has been lost, mutilated, or destroyed
must go through the same procedure as noted on page 282
for securing aduplicate station license.
Fees.—No fees are charged for any station or operator's
license.
RECEIVING STATIONS
Stations equipped to receive only do not require

licenses.
Operators of receiving stations do not require licenses,
but all persons are required to maintain secrecy in regard
to messages.
TRANSMITTING STATION REGULATIONS
No private or commercial station not engaged in the

transaction of bona fide commercial business by radio
communication or in experimentation in connection with
the development and manufacture of radio apparatus
for comm,ercial purposes, may use a transmitting wave
length exceeding two hundred meters, or a transformer
in-put exceeding one kilowatt, except by special authority
of the Secretary of Commerce contained in the license of
the stations.
No station of the character mentioned in the foregoing
regulation situated within five nautical miles of a naval
or military station may use a transmitting wave length
exceeding two hundred meters or a transformer in-put
exceeding one-half kilowatt.
Experiment stations.—The Secretary of Commerce is
authorized by section 4 of the act to grant special tem-
porary licenses "to stations actually engaged in conduct-
ing experiments for the development of the science of
radio communication, or the apparatus pertaining thereto,
to carry on special tests, using any amount of power or
any wave lengths, at such hours and under such conditions
as will insure the least interference with the sending or
receipt of commercial or Government radiograms, of
distress signals and radiograms, or with the work of other
stations." Applicants for such licenses should state any
technical result they have already produced, their tech-
nical attainments, etc. The fact that an applicant desires
to experiment with his equipment does not justify the
issue of alicense of this class. Most experiments can be
made within the limitations of general and restricted
amateur station licenses or by the use of an artificial an-

tenna to prevent radiation.
Special amateur stations may be licensed by the
Secretary of Commerce to use a longer wave length and
a higher power on special application. Applications for
this class from amateurs with less than two years' experi-
ence in actual radio communication will not be approved.
The application must state the experience and purpose of
the applicant, the local conditions of radio communica-
tion, especially of maritime radio communication in the
vicinity of the station, and aspecial license will be granted
only if some substantial benefit to the art or to commerce
apart from individual amusement seems probable.
General amateur stations are restricted to a transmit-
ting wave length not exceeding 200 meters and a trans-
former in-put not exceeding 1kilowatt.
Restricted amateur stations, within 5 nautical miles
of a naval or military station, are restricted to a wave
length not exceeding 200 meters and to a transformer
in-put not exceeding one-half kilowatt.
Amateur first- or second-grade operators or higher are
required for general and restricted amateur stations.
At all stations, if the sending apparatus is of such a
character that the energy is radiated in two or more wave
lengths, more or less sharply defined, as indicated by a
sensitive wave meter, the energy in no one of the lesser
waves may exceed ten per centum of that in the greatest.
At all stations, the logarithmic decrement per complete
oscillation in the wave trains emitted by the transmitter
must not exceed two-tenths, except when sending distress
signals or signals and messages relating thereto.
19
Calling —The call shall comprise the signal

me •MIMI •
the call letters of the station called, transmitted three

times, the word "de" (from) followed by the call letters
of the sending station transmitted three times.
The called station shall answer by making the signal
mu •am •mu
followed by the call letters of the corresponding station
transmitted three times, the word "de", its own call
letters, and the signal
mo• •am
Stations desiring to enter into communication with
other stations, without, however, knowing the names of
the stations within their radius of action, may employ the
signal mu•am • mg am •am (signal of 'inquiry).
The provisions of the preceding two paragraphs are like-
wise applicable to the transmission of a signal of inquiry
and to the answer to such signal.
The distress call in use is the international signal of
distress ••• MIR =II •••
All amateur stations are required to give absolute pri-

ority to signals and radiograms relating to ships in distress;
to cease all sending on hearing a distress signal; and to
refrain from sending until all signals and radiograms re-
lating thereto are completed.
REGULATIONS GOVERNING MESSAGES
Any person guilty of divulging or publishing any

message, unlawfully, shall, on conviction thereof, be
punished by a fine of not more than two hundred and
fifty dollars or imprisonment for aperiod of not exceeding

three months, or both fine and imprisonment, in the
discretion of the court.
Every license granted under the provisions of the Act
of Congress for the operation or use of apparatus for radio
communication shall prescribe that the operator thereof
shall not willfully or maliciously interfere with any other
radio communication. Such interference shall be deemed
a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof the owner
or operator, or both, shall be punishable by afine of not
to exceed five hundred dollars or imprisonment for not
to exceed one year, or both.
A person, company, or corporation within the jurisdic-
tion of the United States shall not knowingly utter or
transmit, or cause to be uttered or transmitted, any false
or fraudulent distress signal or call or false or fraudulent
signal, call, or other radiogram of any kind. The penalty
for so uttering or transmitting a false or fraudulent dis-
tress signal or call shall be a fine of not more than two
thousand five hundred dollars or imprisonment for not
more than five years, or both, in the discretion of the
court, for each and every such offense, and the penalty
for so uttering or transmitting, or causing to be uttered
or transmitted, any other false or fraudulent signal, call,
or other radiogram shall be a fine of not more than one
thousand dollars or imprisonment for not more than two
years, or both, in the discretion of the court, for each and
every such offense.
No person shall transmit or make a signal containing
profane or obscene words or language.
Stations desiring to conduct tests should communicate
290 RADIO SIMPLIFIED •
with the radio inspector by letter or telephone, stating

the probable length of time that will be required. Sta-
tions conducting such tests or temporary experiments
should "listen in," to determine that no interference is
being caused, and during the tests should "listen in"
frequently for the interference signal, "Q R M." Stations
conducting tests should transmit their official call signal
nt13 19Attention
ly.
frequently. A1t2tentito. 5 to the Act of Congress of
on
"That every license granted under the provisions of this act for the
operation or use of apparatus for radio communication shall prescribe
that the operator thereof shall not wilfully or maliciously interfere
with any other radio communication. Such interference shall be
deemed a misdemeanor, and upon a conviction thereof the owner or
operator, or both, shall be punishable by a fine not to exceed five
hundred dollars or imprisonment for not to exceed one year, or both."
The Department holds that interference caused by
tests of the character described above is "willful" when
no "listening in" precautions are taken and the call signal
of the station sending is not repeated at intervals.
Time signals and meteorological radiograms are trans-
mitted one after the other in such a way that the total
time occupied in their transmission does not exceed ten
minutes. As ageneral rule, all radio stations whose trans-
missions might interfere with the reception of such signals
and radiograms, must remain silent during their trans-
mission in order that all stations desiring it may be able
to receive the same. Exception is made only in cases
of distress calls and of state telegrams.
Radio districts.—The Department has established, for
the purpose of enforcing, through radio inspectors and
others, the acts relating to radio communication and the
International Convention, the following districts, with

the principal office for each district at the customhouse
of the port named.
Communications for radio inspectors should be
addressed as follows, and not to individuals: Radio
Inspector, Customhouse, (city), (State).
Communications for the Bureau of Navigation should
be addressed as follows, and not to individuals: Com-
missioner of Navigation, Department of Commerce,
Washington, D. C.
1. Boston, Mass.: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut.
2. New York, N. Y.: New York (county of New
York, Staten Island, Long Island, and counties
on the Hudson River to and including Schenectady,
Albany, and Rensselaer) and New Jersey (counties
of Bergen, Passaic, Essex, Union, Middlesex, Mon-
mouth, Hudson, and Ocean).
3. Baltimore, Md.: New Jersey (all counties not in-
cluded in second district), Pennsylvania (counties
of Philadelphia, Delaware, all counties south of the
Blue Mountains, and Franklin County), Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia.
4. Savannah, Ga.: North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Porto Rico.
5. New Orleans, La.: Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Texas,Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico.
6. San Francisco, Calif.: California, Hawaii, Nevada,
Utah, Arizona.
7. Seattle, Wash.: Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Idaho,
Montana, Wyoming.
8. Detroit, Mich.: New York (all counties not included

in second district), Pennsylvania (all counties not
included in third district), West Virginia, Ohio,
Michigan (Lower Peninsula)
9. Chicago, Ill.: Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan
(Upper Peninsula), Minnesota, Kentucky, Missouri,
Kansas, Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota,
North Dakota.
Radio stations and call letters.—The list of land and
ship stations of the United States, including amateurs,
giving call letters, wave lengths, nature of service, etc.,
can be procured from the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at a
nominal price.
Supplements to this list are issued monthly under the
title "Radio Service Bulletin", and the list is revised
annually as of July 1. Amendments to or changes in the
Radio Laws and Regulations of the United States are
printed in this bulletin in such a manner that they may
be clipped and pasted in their proper places in that pub-
lication. Items of general interest concerning the enforce-
ment of the radio laws are printed, in the bulletin from
time to time, as occasion warrants.
The introduction to the list of "Radio Stations of the
United States" contains information concerning the
nssignment of international and amateur call letters.
ABBREVIATIONS TO BE USED IN RADIO COMMUNICATION
For the purpose of giving or requesting information

concerning the radio service, stations must make use of
the signals contained in the list shown on page 296.
INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE AND CONVENTIONAL•
SIGNALS
TO BE USED FOR ALL GENERAL PUBLIC Brawl= RADIO COMMUNICATION
I. A daah is equal to three dots.

2. The apace between parts of the same letter is equal to one dot.
3. The apace between two letters is equal to three dots.
4. The space between two words à equal to five dots.
▪ A •— R. . Ñ (Spanish)
B — ••• S . — — •
C • . T (German) —
D — •• U •• — •
E. V .. . tY (German)
F •• • W . ••—
G — • X —
Y . 1.
I.. Z — — .. 2••...— — —
.1 •—. — —, 3•••— —
K — .— A (German) .— .— 4.. ..—
L •— •• A or A (Spanish- 5
M — Scandinavian) 6 — ••••
N— . .— .— 7 — — •••
0— CH (German-Spanish) 8— ..
P .— — .
É (French) .. — .. 0
Period
7'Semicolon. 111,•••••••
,
/Comma. fy
lon
nterrogation....a • •• .
•
Exclamation point
Apostrophe • •
Hyphen
>Bar indicating fraction.. t) /1/ • •I •
....Parenthesis
Inverted commas A ' • r• • •
Underline
Double dash •••
Distress Call. •••— — •••

Attention call to precede every transmission..
General inquiry call • • ••••,...•
\From (de) •• •
Invitation to transmit (go ahead) •—

Warning—high power — ••—
Question (please repeat after] )—interrupt-
ing long messages ••—. — ••
8r ••
•
_
'Wait
,Bre,ak (Bk.) (double dash).
Understand •r • •
Error
Received (O. K.) •
Position
End of each
report
message
(to precede
(cross). p
all poetioitglessages) •
--' , . .
Transmission finished (end cf work) (conclusion
of correspondence) ' • • 6/ •
*Continued on Page 236. (293)

1294 CONVENTIONAL RADIO SYMBOLS
Aerial Loop Ground Cry tal Telephones

Aerial Detector
LJ
Fixed
Ccodenser
Variable
Condenser
Single Slide
Tuning Coil
t
Double Slide
Tuning Coil
Triple Slide
Tuning Coil
Topped Coil Tapped Coil Fixed Variable Spider Web

with multiple with units Inductance Inductance Coil
turns st.itch and multiple
turns switch
Honeycomb Variometes Variable Variozonpler

Cod Coupling
Variabl e
Resistance
Grid Condenser
and Grid Leak --/WwVVVVs— Potentiometer
Vacuum Fixed
Tube Resist ant-e
CONVENTIONAL RADIO SYMBOLS 295
SE 1
Air Core
Open ron Core
Transformer
Closed Iron Core
Transformer
Transmitting
Key
Transformer
—0 0—
II il
Spark Gap Rotary S7ark Gap Transmitting

Spark Coil Condenser
--oteSierar-
Direct Reactance Coil

Altermting
Current Current or
Generator R. F. Choke Coil

Generator
Voltmeter Milliarruneter Microphone Connected Wires

Ammeter
o-- --o
---0 —o /0— o— —(5
Double Pole Double Pole

Wire not Single Pole Single Pole
Single Throw Double Throw
Connected Single Throw Double Throw
Switch Switch
Switch Switch
Abbre-
viation. Question. Answer or Notice.
CQ ••••• • ,••• • Mi•M• Signal or enquiry made by a station de-
siring to communicate.
TR • • Signal announcing the sending of particulars
concerning a station on shipboard (Art„.
XXII).
(1) .
•- Signal indicating that a station is about to
send at high power.
PRB Do you wish to communicate by means of the I wish to communicate by means of the
International Signal Code? International Signal Code.
@RA What ship or coast station is that? This is
@RB What is your distance? My distance is
QRC What is your true bearing? My true bearing is _ degrees.
Where are you bound for? Iam bound for ._._
Where are you bound from? Iam bound from ._...
What âne do you belong to? Ibelong to the Line.
QftH What is your wave length in meters? My wave length is meters.
QR.? How many words have you to send? Ihave _... words to send.
QRK How do you receive me? Iam receiving well.
QRL Are you receiving badly? Shall Isend 20? Iam receiving badly. Please send 20.
•••— • •••— •
for adjustment? for adjustment.
QRM Are you being interfered with? Iam being interfered with.
QRN Are the atmospherics strong? Atmospherics are very strong.
QRO Shall Iincrease power? Increase power.
QRP Shall Idecrease newer? Decrease power.
e t2 Shall Isend faster? Send faster.
Shall Isend slower? Send slower.
QRT Shall Istop sending? Stop sending.
ORU Have you anything for me? Ihave nothing for you.
QRV Are you ready? Iam ready. All right now.
QRW Are you busy? Iam busy (or, Iam busy with _). Please
do not interfere.
Ef
Shall Istand by? Stand by. Iwill call you when required.
When will be my turn? Your turn will be No.
Are my signals weak? Your signals are weak.
QSA Are my signals strong? Your signals are strong.
QSR Is my tone bad? The tone is bad.
Is my spark bad? The spark is bad.
QSO Is my spacing bad? Your spacing is bad.
QSD What is your time? My time is
QSF Is transmission to be in alternate order or in Transmission will be in alternate order.
series?
QSG Transmission will be in series of 5messages.
QSH Transmission will be in series of 10 messages.
QS.1 What rate shall Icollect for _._? Collect
QSK Is the last radiogram canceled? The last radiogram is canceled.
QSL Did you get my receipt? Please acknowledge.
QSM What is your true course? My true course is __ degrees.
QSN Are you in communication with land? Iam not in communication with land.
QS0 Are you in communication with any ship or Iam in communication with _ (through
station (or: with —)?
QSP Shall Iinform __. that you are calling him? Inform ._... that Iam calling him.
QSQ Is calling me? You are being called by _
QS11 Will you forward the radiogram? Iwill forward the radiogram.
QST Have you received the general call? General call to all stations.
QSU Please call me when you have finished (or: at Will call when Ihave finished.
_ o'clock)?
QSV• Is public correspondence being handled? Public correspondence is being handled.
Please do not interfere.
QSW Shall Iincrease my spark frequency? Increase your spark frequency.
QSX Shall Idecrease my spark frequency? Decrease your spark frequency.
QSY Shall Isend on awave length of — meters? Let us change to the wave length of —
meters.
QSZ Send each word twice. Ihave difficulty in
receiving you.
QTA Repeat the last radiogram.
QTE What is my true bearing? Your true bearing is ___ degrees from ___
QTF What is my position? Your position is ___ latitude ___ longitude.
•Public correspondence is any radio work, official or private, handled on commercial wave lengths.
(296)
vt/ 9CC,
INDEX
"A" BATTERY, 102, 118 Amplifiers, loud speakers and loop aerials,
"A" battery hook-up, variations in, 142 178
Abbreviations (code), 29 2.296 Amplifiers with loud speakers, plate voltage
Acknowledgments, ii for, 187
Action of spark coil, 233 Amplifying effect of the vacuum tube, 109
Action of vacuum tube, 105 Amplifying transformers: audio-frequency,
Advantages of double-slide and double- 180; radio-frequency, 188
tapped coils, 70 Antenna (see aerials)
Advantages of inverse duplex amplifica- Application for operator's license, 283
tion, 204 Application for station license, 281
Advantages of knowing the code, 272 Armstrong, Major Edwin H., 176
Aerial(s): aprotection against lightning, 39; Armstrong super-regenerative receiver, 176
best type for receiving, 17; calculating Audio frequency, 13
the size, 20; choosing a site for, 26; con- Audio-frequency amplification, 179; multi-
ditions to avoid in erecting, 26; erecting stage or cascade, 182; principles of, 181
the, 24; indoor, no protection required Autodyne reception, 135
for, 39; insulation factor, 32; kinds of
wire to use, 24, 40; loop, 17, 191, 192; "BALDWIN" !Wei ,.DI, 188
making up the, 31; materials required, Batteries for the %acuurn tube, 102
24; protecting the outdoor, 39; raising Battery chargers for home use, 120
the, 37; size of the receiving, 23; size of "B" battery, 102, 118, 127; adding "A"
the sending, 21; size of, with radio-fre- battery voltage to, 142, 146
quency amplification, 197; size of wire Beat reception, 134
required, 40; splices in wires, 40; Blocking condensers for vacuum tube
supports for the, 27; suspension from a transmitter, 265
tree, 28, 38; transmitting, 19; T type Blue glow, 113
versus L type, 22; types of, 18, 19; Un- Broad tuning, 246; not permitted, 287
derwriters requirements, 33, 38; varia- Broad tuning with couplers, 80
tions in form and size, 17 Building a regenerative receiver with a
Aerial ammeter, 267 tickler coil, 150
Aerial and good tuning inductance for By-pass condenser, 109; for vacuum tube
vacuum tube transmitter, 269 transmitter, 285
Aerial circuit, the, 20, 54, 103
Aerial circuit tuning condensers for vacuum CALLING, 288
tube transmitter, 265 Call letters, 292
Aerial insulation, 31 Capacitance, 85
Aerial rope, 30, 34 Capacity, 51
Aerial spreaders, types of, 30, 31, 32 Capacity and inductance, tuning by, 81
Aerial wire, kinds and sizes to use, 24, 40, Capacity, distributed, 90
221 Capacity effects, 60, 210
Alternating house current, heating the Care of the storage battery, 121
(v, t.) filament from, 122 Carrier wave, 170, 270
Alternating house current: use of, for spark Cascade amplification: audio-frequency,
transmitting, 226; use of, for vacuum 182; radio-frequency, 191
tube transmitting, 256, 259 Charging the storage battery, 120, 122
Amateur first-grade license, 283 Choke coil, radio-frequency, 264
Amateur second-grade license, 284 Circuits of the crystal detector set, 54
American Radio Relay League. ii. 273 Circuits of the vacuum tube detector, 104
Ammeter, hot wire, 237 Code, the, 274, 293; advantages of know-
Ammeter, plate circuit, 268 ing, 272
Amplification: audio-frequency, 179; cas- Code, International Morse, 293; how to
cade or multi-stage, 182, 191; inverse learn, 274
duplex, 202; leakage, 2'12; radio-fre- Code test, 284
quency, 187; reflex, 198; wiring of Condenser(s): blocking, for vacuum tube
stages of, 184 transmitter, 265; by-pass for receiver.
(2 97)
298 INDEX
109; by-pass for vacuum tube trans- Elements of a radio telephone system, 12
mitter, 265; electrolytic, 263: filter, 263: Elements of aspark transmitter, 226
fixed, 50; grid, 104; grid, selection of, E. M. F., 89
for detector, 114; grid, transmitting, 265; Erecting amast, 34
home-made for a spark coil transmitting Erecting the aerial, 25
set, 254; neutralizing, 213; purpose of
Essential units of aradio telephone system :,
fixed, 51; selecting a variable, 64; shunt 108
and series, 64; sizes of, 65; stopping, Examination for license, 284
195; transmitting, need for, 230; tuning, Experiment station regulations, 286
for vacuum tube transmitting aerial cir-
cuit and grid circuit, 265; varying the FARM lighting plant, heating the (v. t.)
wave length by means of, 61 filament from, 123
Conductive coupling for regeneration, 137, "Feed-back" circuits, 129
139
Continuous waves, 107 Filament circuit of the vacuum tube de-
tector, 103
Control jacks and plugs, 183
Filament current, regulation of, 111
Conventional symbols, 294, 295
Filament, of a vacuum tube, 98
Counter E. M. F., 89, 160 Filament rheostat, 104
Counterpoise, 19, 247; protection against Filament voltmeter, 268
lightning, 248
Filter condensers, 283
Couplers, operating sets having, 79 Filter reactor, 263
Coupling effects in tuning, 78 Fire underwiiters' requirements, 3S
Coupling the transmitter to the aerial, Fixed condenser, 50; purpose of, 52
necessity for, 228 Fixed spark gap, 236
Crystal detector, 49; setting the, 55; with Fleming, Dr. J. A., 99
reflex sets, 199, 201
Flexibility of control with variometers. 96.
Current supply for vacuum tubes, 118 170
Fraudulent distress signals, 289
DAMPED oscillations, 224 Frequency, 13
Damped waves, 224, 228
D. C. generator, heating the (v. t.) filament Fusee: for A. C. spark transmitter, 241:
from a, 122 for vacuum tube transmitter, 257, 283
Decremeter, use of, 246
GAS pipe not to be used as aground, 97
De Forest, Dr. Lee, 99; reflex circuit, 201
"Degeneration" with a tickler coil, 131 General amateur station regulations, 287
Government regulations for amateurs, 280
Detector: the crystal, 49; the vacuum Grid condenser, 104; selection of, for de-
tubes, 101 tector, 114; transmitting, 265
Detector, purpose of the, 47
Dielectric loss, 90 Grid leak, the, 104; selection of, for de-
tector, 114; transmitting, 264; variable,
Direction of flow of electric current, 101 115
Disadvantages of reflex circuits. 202 Grid circuit of the vacuum tube detector,
Distortion, causes of, 136 103
Distortion in regeneration, 131, 173 Grid circuit tuning condensers for vacuum
Distortion with loud speakers, 186 tube transmitter, 265
Distress call, 288 Grid: of avacuum tube, 98
Distributed capacity, 90 Grimes, David, ii, 202
Double slide tuning coil(s), 71; advantages Grimes inverse duplex set, 206 distinctive
of, 70; in a crystal detector hook-up, 72; features of, 208
in aregenerative hook-up, 141 Ground connection for receiving, 53, 97:
Double-tapped coils, 72; advantages of, 70; gas pipe not to be used as, 97
in crystal detector hook-up, 73 Guy wires, 10
Dry cells as a source of "A" current, 116, Guy wire insulators, 31
118
Guy wire supports, 31
Duplex, inverse, amplification, 202; ad-
vantages of, 204; principles of, 205 HARD and soft tubes, 115
Duplicate operators' license, 285 Hazeltine, Professor L. A., li, 211
Duplicate station license, 254, 282 Head telephones, 52
Heterodyne reception, 135
ELECTRIC current, direction of flow, 101
Electrolytic condensers, 263 Hissing point, the, or the blue glow, 113
"Homedharger," the, 120
Electrolytic rectifier, 120
Home-made condenser for a spark coil
Electromotive force, 89
transmitting set, 254
Electrons, 99, 105; rate of emission from Home-made tuning inductors for aerial and
filament, 110
grid of vacuum tube transmitter, 269
Electrostatic coupling for regeneration, 137 Home-made tuning inductance for a re-
139
generative set, 152
INDEX 299
Honeycomb coils, 87: advantages of, 89; Low amperage tubes, 116
in a crystal detector set, 91; in a regen- Low voltage tubes, 116
erative set, 156, 157
Hooking up the audio-frequency amplifier, M AGNETIC modulator, 266
179 Magnetic rectifier, 120
Hooking up radio-frequency amplifiers, 189 Making a mast, 28
Hook-upe. (See illustrations, p. vii) Making a variometer at home, 94
Hot wire ammeter, 237; use with a wave Making sure of pulleys and guy wires, 33
meter, 245 Mast: how to erect, 34; how to construct,
How radio works, 12 28
How to build a vacuum tube transmitter, Materials required for an amateur sending
256 aerial, 24
How to erect ameat, 34 Materials required for avacuum tube trans-
How to learn the code, 274 mitter, 257
How to make neutralizing condensers, 213 Means of learning the code, 274
How to operate the vacuum tube trans- Memorizing code letters as combinations of
mitter, 270 sounds, 275
Microphone, 251, 267
Milliammeter, plate, 268
ILLusrasnœts, List of, vii
Increasing the power of the simplest Modulated waves, 107
vacuum tube transmitter, 252 Modulation, 100, 107, 252, 270
Indicating instruments for the vacuum tube Modulator, magnetic, 256
Multi-stage or cascade amplification: audio-
transmitter, 267
frequency, 182; transformer coupled
Inductance. 47, 89
Inductance and capacity, tuning by, 61 radio-fiequency, 191; tuned radio-fre-
Induction, 17, 77 quency, 195
Inductive coupling: for regeneration, 137;
inclining coils to avoid, 213 NECESSITY for coupling the transmitter to
Insulators: for guy wires, 31; for receiving the aerial, 228
Necessity for radio-frequency amplifica-
aerial, 25; for sending aerial, 25
Interference, 228; prevention of by radio- tion, 187
frequency amplification, 220 Necessity for tuning, 14, 45
Need for a transmitting condenser, 230
Interference regulations. 289, 290 Neutralizing condensers, 213
International convention, 280
Neutralizing undesirable capacity effects,
International Morse Code. 293
Inverse duplex amplification, 202; advan- 211
Neutrodyne receiver, 209; assembling a,
tages of, 204; principles of, 205
214; tuning a, 216; variations in, 217
Neutrodyne transformers, 212
KICK-BACK preventer, 241 No license required for receiving, 285
No protection for indoor aerial, 39
LAMINATED mast, 28
Latour, 202 OATH of secrecy, 285
Lead-in, 19, 30, 33; eased-off bends in, 30 One-tube reflex set, 199
Lead-in wires, Underwriters' requirements, Operation of audio-frequency amplifier, 187
41 Operation of radio-frequency amplifier, 190
Leakage amplification, 202 Operation of receiving sets (given in con-
Learning the code, 272 • nection with individual sets)
License: amateur first-grade, 283; amateur Operation of vacuum tube detector, Ill
second grade, 284 •Operation of vacuum tube transmitter, 270
License examination, 284 Operator's license: duplicate, 286; method
License fees, 285 of securing, 255; to whom granted, 283
Lightning arresters. 41 Oscillation generator, 107,131, 224,234,249
Lightning grounds, 42 Oscillations, 47, 106; continuous, 107;
Lightning switches, 41 damped, 224, 227, 234; for best recep-
Loading coil, the. 58 tion, 131; for transmission of C. W. 249;
Local circuits, 54, 103 how generated, 107, 131, 249; local or
Local oscillations in the vacuum tube re- forced, 131
ceiving set, 134 Oscillations and waves, 107
Logarithmic decrement regulation, 287 Oscillation transformer, 228, 229
Loose coupler, 75; in a regenerative set,
144; short wave, 84: specifications for PARALLEL and shunt connections, 51
making, 80; tapped, 81 Peanut tubes, 117
Loose coupling, 79 Phelps, Boyd, ii
Loop aerial, 17, 191, 192, 220 Plate ammeter, 288
Loud speakers, 183 Plate circuit of vacuum tube detector, 103
300 INDEX
Plate milliammeter, 288
Regenerative receiver, 129; home-made
Plate, of vacuum tube, 99 with tapped coil, tickler type, 150;
Plate voltage, 102; for amplifiers, 187; simplified set using two variometers, 170;
regulation of, 102, 111; use of A. C. for, with a double-slide tuning coil, 141;
128
with a loose coupler, 145; with a loose
Polarity of the tickler coil, 131
coupler and two variometers, 167; with
Potentiometer: for critical adjustment of a single-slide tuning coil, 138; with a
plate voltage, 146; use with A. C. as three-slide tuning coil, 143; with a
source of current, 125 tuning coil and two variometers, 165:
Power transformer: for spark transmitting with a variocoupler, 147; with a vario-
set, 239; for vacuum tube set, 259
coupler and two variometers, 170; with
Power tubes, 258; as amplifiers, 186 tapped coils, 138; with eiree honeycomb
Power tube sockets, 259 cods, 157; with three spiderweb coils,
Prevention of interference by radio-fre- 159; with two honeycomb coils, 156;
quency amplification, 220
with two spiderweb coils, 157; with
Primary circuits, 54, 103 variometer tuned plate and grid cir-
Principles of audio-frequency amplification, cuits, 165; with variometer tuned plate
181 circuit, 160, 164
Principles of inverse duplexing. 205 Regenerative receiving sets as transmitters.
Principles of radio-frequency amplification, 250
188
Regulating filament current and plate
Principles of regenerative reception, 129 voltage, Ill
Principles of spark transmitter, 223 Regulations governing messages, 288
Principles of the vacuum tube transmitter, Reinartz, John L., 174
249 Reinartz tuner, 174
Protecting the outdoor aerial, 39
Resistance coupled radio-frequency amplifi-
Provisional station licensee, 281 cation, 192
Restricted amateur station regulations. 287
"Q. S. T"., il Rheostat, the filament, 104
Rope. aerial, 30
RADIATION ammeter, 267 Rotary spark gap, 237
Radio Club of America, ii
Radio districts, 290 Ssrzery spark gap, 238
Radio-frequency, 13 Saturation point, Ill '
Radio-frequency amplification, 187; ne- Secondary circuit, 54
cessity for, 187; prevention of inter- Securing an operator's license, 283
ference by, 220; regeneration with, 190, Securing a station license, 281
209, 219; resistance coupled, 192; trans- Selecting a power transformer, 240
former coupled, 189, 191; tuned, 192; Selecting a variable condenser, 64
tuned and transformer coupled in com- Selection of detector grid leak and grid
bination, 197 condenser, 114
Radio-frequency amplifiers: hooking up, Self-induction, 89
-189; operation of, 190 Setting the crystal detector, 55
radio-frequency choke coil, 264 Sharp tuning, 246, 271, 287
Radio-frequency amplifying transformers, Sharp tuning with couplers, 80
188 Short wave loose coupler, the, 84
"Radio Service Bulletin," 292 Short wave regenerative equipment, 137
Radio stations and call letters, 292 Shunt and parallel connections, 51
Radio symbols, 294, 295 Shunt and series condensers, 64
Radio waves, 107 Simplest receiving set, the, 45
Raising the aerial, 37 Simplest vacuum tube transmitter, 250:
Receivers, .52; construction of, 53. increasing power of the, 252
Receiving aerial, size of, 23 Simplified regenerative set using two
Receiving set: purpose of, 13; simplest, 45 variometers. 170
Receiving station, essentials of, 45 Single-slide tuning coil in a regenerative
"Rectigon," the, 120 set, 138
Re-examination for license. 285 Single-slide tuning coil in a tuned plate
Refinements necessary in a simple receiv er regenerative set, 161
hook-up, 53 Size of ambit with radio-frequency ampli-
Reflex amplification, 198; disadvantages of, fication, 197
198, 202 Sockets for power tubes, 259
Regeneration, 129; by means of condensers, Soft tubes, 115
137; with a tickler coil, 130, 150; with "S. O. S.", 289
radio-frequency amplification, 190; with Sound waves and electrical vibrations, 13
various types of tuning inductance, 164 Sound waves, used to modulate electro-
Regenerative equipment, abort wave, 137 magnetic waves, 106, 107

Kendall Koehler - Radio Simplified - 1923

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ee• p7-

LEWIS F. KENDALL, JR.

ROBERT PHILIP KOEHLER

THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

All rights reserved

It has been the purpose of the authors in the preparation

what equipment to select in order to receive what the operator

FOREWORD TO THE REVISED EDITION

Amateur home-made vacuum tube transmitter Frontispiece

Many theories about radio.—Few scientists, engineers

Our vocal cords vibrate when we speak, and the sound

TRANSMIT TER RECEIVER

1.-ELEMENTS OF A RADIO TELEPHONE SYSTEM.

the sending aerial. The vibrations in the aerial cause

Sound waves and electrical vibrations.—The modern

300 trillions of vibrations per second; light waves, of 430

length of the aerial—must be identical4 for both stations.

In the first place, waves sent out by awireless station

tions per second.*

THE ANTENNA OR AERIAL

Variations in form and size.—The antenna or aerial

FIG. 3.-TYPES OF AERIALS.

to its small size and its limited capability for collecting

trical vibrations precisely similar to those in the aerial

MAKING THE CALCULATIONS

The aerial circuit.—Generally speaking, the natural

tions,* allocated by the U. S. Department of Commerce

FIG. 4.—M ETHOD OF CALCULATING THE PHYSICAL LENGTH OF AN AERIAL

receiving those stations which broadcast on awave length

sary corrections for such variations may be made with

extends as high above the earth as possible, and with a

ERECTING THE AERIAL

Materials required.—The materials necessary for the

Phosphor-bronze wire is not so efficient on accounflef

FIG. 5.—TYPES OP INSULATORS SUITABLE FOR A RECEIVING AERIAL.

Owing to the high voltage employed in transmitting,

current, such as aspark coil transmitter, the ball type of

eig. 5. The glazed porcelain cleat is inexpensive and

cedure will reduce induction from the current-c

base in a glass or porcelain insulator. If it is not

Five 16-foot pieces, two 12-foot pieces and two 8-foi4

Notch For Fastening Goy Wires

Ors so Screws Method 01 Joining Sections

7.-METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING A 40-FOOT LAMINATED MAST.

lbon pole made from pipes of reduced sizes fastened to-

FIG. 8.-AERIAL WITH METAL SPREADERS REQUIRING ONLY A SINGLE

should be used for either a40-foot or a60-foot pole. All

in Fig. 8. Or, the pulley might simply be wired to t

outside diameter make excellent spreaders for an aerial of

current leaking to the pole or other support would be

FIG. 9.-AERIAL WITH WOODEN SPREADERS REQUIRING INSULATORS FOR

The lead-in.---Keeping in mind that the circuit of a

is to support the aerial is run through the pulley. This

FIG. 10.—A SIMPLE METHOD OF ERECTING A suer.

telephone companies and others in erecting poles, is not

will permit, is to pull up one end of the pole to the, roof

one end on the eaves at aheight of, let us say, twenty-

building to the point where it makes connection witii the

FIG. 11.-COMPLETE IN.3TALLATION OF AN INVERTED L SINGLE WIRE