Spatial Information Research (2024) 32:119–129

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41324-023-00535-z

Mobile wireless ad-hoc network routing protocols comparison for real-

time military application
Shams Al Ajrawi1 · Bang Tran1

Received: 3 March 2023 / Revised: 18 June 2023 / Accepted: 21 June 2023 / Published online: 14 September 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Mobile wireless Ad-hoc has become more popular because it forms quickly, has an easy setup, and has easy extensibility.
The mobile ad-hoc wireless networks can be further classified according to their applications as follows: Regular user
ad-hoc networks are commercial communication that applies to vehicles to help avoid collisions and accidents and live
connections to transfer data from car to car. Another application is disaster rescue ad-hoc networking, usually used when
a normal infrastructure network is destroyed by storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc. Nowadays, a lot of applications, par-
ticularly those related to the military and emergency situations, rely on mobile ad hoc wireless networks, where security
needs are more challenging to provide than in regular networks. We present the tactical network needs for the military.
This platform attempts to assess the possible advantages of mobile ad hoc networks in tactical military applications. This
work proposes route discovery using reactive (on-demand) routing protocols where nodes need to just transfer data. This
eliminates the requirement for each node to store and maintain any routing tables. This study presents and contrasts the
benefits and drawbacks of two fundamental mobile ad hoc routing systems (AODV and DSR). Both protocols are On-
Demand routing techniques, and when data needs to be sent, the discovery phase begins. The results of the simulation,
the AODV routing approach outperforms the DSV routing method under identical simulated conditions.

Keywords Mobile wireless ad-hoc network · Routing protocols · Military application · Real-time monitoring

1 Introduction quickly, MANETs have attracted a lot of attention recently.

Many different applications, such as emergency response,
Mobile wireless ad hoc networks (MANETs) are autono- military operations, and environmental monitoring systems,
mous, decentralized networks made up of mobile nodes that have made extensive use of MANETs. The procedure for
connect via wireless links. MANETs allow devices to inter- monitoring the environment’s quality is called an environ-
act with one another without the use of a fixed infrastruc- mental monitoring system.
ture, like a centralized router or access point. In MANETs, An interior weather instrument can receive data from
routing protocols oversee determining the most efficient outdoor weather sensors via a Wi-Fi weather station, which
route for data to go between devices. MANETs have gained is a connection between the outdoor sensors and a home
favor as a means of providing real-time environmental mon- Wi-Fi internet signal. Also, a connected website or mobile
itoring systems because of their adaptability and simplic- app receives this information. The goal of Bluetooth wire-
ity of deployment in difficult and isolated places. Because less technology is to replace the wires that connect portable
of its adaptability to contexts that are dynamic and change devices while maintaining high levels of security. Bluetooth
is a short-range communications technology. Ad-hoc tech-
nology is a small area network with relatively little cover-
age. Recently, a lot of research and development efforts have
Shams Al Ajrawi
salajrawi2@sdsu.edu been concentrated on mobile ad-hoc networks. Military
applications, where the network’s distributed design is an
Bang Tran
btran5774@sdsu.edu operational benefit or perhaps a need, have been the major
focus of ad-hoc packet radio networks so far. Ad-hoc net-
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, San Diego State works, which include networks of wireless devices carrying
University, San Diego, CA, USA

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120 S. Al Ajrawi, B. Tran

by individuals as well as networked wireless access points, When a source wants to connect to a destination, the
can be employed in a variety of military applications. On-demand Routing Protocol finds a route each time,
One example of the use of MANETs and context-aware which adds to the delay time. These technologies work
intelligent visual analytics for real-time environmental well together and can help decision-makers react swiftly to
monitoring is in forest fire detection and monitoring. In shifting environmental conditions and take wise decisions.
this application, MANETs are used to collect data from Together, technologies can support decision-makers in mak-
various sensors deployed in the forest. The collected data ing quick decisions in response to changing environmental
is then processed and analyzed using context-aware intel- conditions. It can often be challenging to determine whether
ligent visual analytics to detect and monitor forest fires in a decision has been made because the process of making
real-time. The collected and analyzed data is then used to decisions is so dynamic. Our perspectives on decision-
identify and monitor forest fires in real time using context- making are also influenced by how directly (and in what
aware intelligent visual analytics. Information visualization capacity) we are involved in making decisions, as well as by
analyzes datasets using visual representations of the data how those decisions affect us. Environmental can promote
utilizing cutting-edge tools and techniques. By presenting or prevent human connection (and the subsequent benefits
the information as infographics, tables, and mapping, users of social support). For example, a peaceful environment
can identify trends and derive insightful conclusions. Orga- with comfortable chairs and seclusion can persuade a fam-
nizations can use these insights to improve their data-driven ily to stay and visit with a person. People’s motivations and
decision-making. actions are affected by their surroundings. To fully inves-
Technological complementarity is defined as an overlap tigate this approach’s potential in many applications for
between patents belonging to the same class but a distinct environmental monitoring, more research is required. Some
subclass. When technology complementarity is more valu- examples of routing protocols used in MANETs include:
able than technological similarity, the technologies of the
target and acquiring organizations are complementary, and ● AODV (Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector): A routing
vice versa. Technology-related items come in a variety of protocol that establishes routes on-demand when needed
complimentary forms. Cell phones and phone chargers, for and also maintains them as long as they are required.
instance, make excellent complementary products because ● DSR (Dynamic Source Routing): A routing protocol in
the phone charger is the only one that can serve both pur- which the source device is responsible for determining
poses. Similarly, controllers and video gaming consoles the route that the data will take.
make a great pair. The results of this analysis can be used ● OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing): A routing pro-
to inform firefighting efforts and prevent the spread of fires. tocol that uses link state information to make routing
In conclusion, context-aware intelligent visual analytics decisions.
and MANETs are complementary technologies that can be ● TBRPF (Topology Broadcast based on Reverse-Path
utilized in conjunction to provide real-time environmen- Forwarding): A routing protocol that uses a flooding
tal monitoring systems. When just data needs to be trans- mechanism to broadcast topology information.
ferred between nodes, we shall compel the use of reactive
(on-demand) routing protocols. By doing this, there is no Everyone is aware that security and trust are fundamental
need for each node to store and maintain any routing tables. requirements for military applications. In other words, secu-
Because nodes do not need to spend time and energy main- rity is the most crucial concern for ad hoc networks, espe-
taining the routing table, this routing method has the benefit cially for those applications that require security. On the
of reducing network traffic and allowing nodes to consume other side, it is asserted that the primary uses of MANET
less power. are for emergency and military purposes, all of which have
Since the knowledge regarding routes and topology is security-related requirements. Because MENAT cannot
updated frequently, networks also facilitate mobility. They meet the applications’ security requirements, MANET is a
are thus great choices for military tactical networks, where faulty design.
their capacity to operate quickly and decentralized is cru- The mobile wireless Ad-hoc network protocol includes
cial. Nothing in a wartime scenario can guarantee that every both static and mobile devices. First, all its devices com-
communication node is a single hop distant due to the fun- municate through a wireless medium because it is wireless
damental properties of radio transmission. networking. Second, the letter “ad-hoc” means that this
Ad hoc multiloop architecture is one of the finest meth- network is pre-existing infrastructure or infrastructure. The
ods to address the connection issue in the situation. MANET ad-hoc network does not require any center network sys-
is more relevant compared to the Below of Brigade because tem such as routers or switches. Instead, it constructs the
to military needs and limits. connection directly from device to device (nodes to nodes).

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Mobile wireless ad-hoc network routing protocols comparison for real-time military application 121

In the interests of linking two or more mobile technologies purposes is created by the unmanned aerial vehicle com-
together without utilizing typical communication network munication networks (UAVCN). To complete the task, these
hardware, such as a wifi connection or internet connection, nodes independently fly in ad hoc mode throughout space.
wireless informal networking, or WANET, is a type of local However, UAVs encounter some difficult problems when
area network (LAN) that is created on the spot. collaborating and communicating. Due to the fast speed of
In this paper, we will force Reactive (On- Demand) Rout- these nodes, the communication connections cannot route
ing Protocols, and routing discovery when nodes need to the traffic that interferes with the routing algorithm.
transfer data only. In this way, each node does not need to A wireless network made up of several mobile nodes con-
store and maintain any routing tables. The transportation nected wirelessly and devoid of any infrastructure is called a
strategy’s benefit would be that it reduces network traffic Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET). It can both configure itself
and power-saving for nodes because nodes do not need to and repair itself. Although MANET has many advantages, it
spend time and resources to maintain the routing table. In- also has several problems that must be resolved. Routing pro-
depth analyses of the AODV and DSR routing protocols tocols in MANETs are responsible for finding the best path for
will be performed in this research using Network Simula- data to travel from one device to another [2].
tion 2 (NS2). Twenty nodes will be used in the simulation to Context-aware intelligent visual analytics is one potential
demonstrate communication via UPD and TCP connections. way to address the challenges of processing and analyzing
The simulation’s output will be used to compare the average enormous amounts of data in real-time environmental moni-
throughput, immediate throughput, package delivery ratio, toring systems. A scattered group of environmental sensors
and transmission power of two different transportation algo- monitors and save the surroundings, and they transmit real-
rithms (AODV and DSR) (Go to the destination node first) time information to a computer through an API or bespoke
are all compared. To distinguish each RREQ packet sent to connection. Once data has been transmitted to a data center,
intermediate nodes during the discovery phase from others, techniques are utilized to find possible false data produced
AODV employed sequence numbers. If a node gets several by corrupted remote monitoring. Typically, a broadcast con-
RREQ packets, it will examine the sequence number and verter is used to ingest the information into a database [3].
discard the longer timestamp packet. In this manner, the Due to their flexibility and ease of deployment in challeng-
AODV avoids loops and quickly locates the target node. ing and remote areas, MANETs have grown in popularity
for enabling real-time environmental monitoring systems.
One sort of decentralized wireless network is a wireless ad
2 Literature review hoc network, often known as a WANET or MANET. The
network is ad hoc since it is dependent on no pre-existing
Tanks, ships, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) commu- infrastructure, such as wireless access points or routers. As
nication are a few examples of military applications that use an alternative, each node takes part in routing by sending
ad hoc networks. When a network center device is not there data to other nodes. The field of analytical reasoning known
and a secure connection is necessary, this type of application as “visual analytics” is aided by interactive visual interfaces
is mentioned in fights. Disaster rescue ad-hoc networking is [4]. Ad hoc routing networks operate on the fundamental
another application; it is typically employed when a standard presumption that all nodes are “equal,“ allowing any node
infrastructure network is devastated by storms, earthquakes, to be utilized to route packets between any sources and des-
tsunamis, etc. These programs will be an easy-to-setup tinations. In military (battlefield, search, and rescue) and
network among law enforcement officers or firefighters to civilian emergency scenarios, this supposition is reasonable.
assist in removing hurt persons and preventing fatalities. Data production has increased dramatically during
However, the On-demand Routing Protocol causes increas- the past few decades. Yet, the capacity for gathering and
ing delay time due to finding a route each time a source archiving this data is growing more quickly than that for
needs to create a connection to a destination [1]. analysis. To overcome the difficulties of huge data process-
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), is a military air- ing and analysis in real-time environmental monitoring sys-
craft that is controlled remotely or autonomously and that tems, context-aware intelligent visual analytics is a possible
contains sensors, target designators, offensive weapons, or solution. It is foreseen that such connections will become
electronic transmitters intended to disrupt or destroy enemy more prevalent in both civilian and armed services con-
targets. UAVs may be astonishingly effective, giving far figurations in the future. As a result, several routing proto-
more range and endurance than similar human systems cols for wireless ad hoc networks have been proposed. The
because of their lack of personnel, life-support systems, interaction between MANETs and context-aware intelligent
and design-safety constraints. A network of unmanned visual analytics for real-time environmental monitoring sys-
aerial vehicles (UAVs) that may be utilized for a variety of tems will be discussed in this paper [5].

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122 S. Al Ajrawi, B. Tran

Conceptually, the context-related and middleware- timely and relevant information to decision-makers, this
related aspects of the middleware platform that will allow technique can adapt to changing environmental conditions.
and act upon context awareness in a MANET environ- For real-time environmental monitoring systems, MANETs
ment may be separated. All operations involving context and context-aware intelligent visual analytics hold signifi-
capturing, context processing, and knowledge extraction cant promise. MANET is free to move about and each has
from various sources of contextual information are referred a limited amount of transmitting power, access to the node
to as context-aspect operations. The suggested informa- is only permitted within range of its neighbors, and there
tion system’s middleware features include giving mobile is no such infrastructure, the network topology may alter
nodes a platform for cooperation in an environment of ad dynamically in an unpredictable way. MANETs are essen-
hoc mobile networking. The suggested middleware should tially peer-to-peer, data packets that carry information in a
address these shortcomings. Context representation is a cru- supermarket manner from a source to any destination in non-
cial component since a generic model needs to be modified linear and non-wireless technologies. MANETs can provide
to support information interchange on the one hand and pro- a robust and reliable communication infrastructure for data
vide a mechanism to handle different forms of context in a collection and transmission, while context-aware intelligent
way that is specific to their semantics on the other. It is nec- visual analytics can provide real-time insights into the col-
essary to support interoperability among many contextual lected data. This combination can enable decision-makers
domains, with the usage of ontologies being the most obvi- to quickly respond to changing environmental conditions
ous answer. It has been argued that mobile ad hoc networks and make informed decisions [9]. There are very significant
are the perfect technology to construct in an instant com- demands for multimedia services from the tactical military.
munication infrastructure less for military use or a defective For mission planning reasons, this ranges from low-latency,
design. Security is the most crucial factor for the networks. high-priority tactical data transmissions to digital secure
Due to the military uses of Wireless Ad hoc Networks, it voice apps coupled with applications like “white boards”
is much more significant. The issue of security cannot be and position reporting.
properly resolved by the MANET.
The RMS software enables real-time monitoring of any
necessary parameter. The three primary categories of envi- 3 Methodology
ronmental monitoring are water, soil, and atmospheric. The
army has historically been fueled by technology. Soldiers 3.1 AD-hoc on-demand vector (ADOV) routing
are being aided by mobile applications in the broad exami- protocol
nation of wartime strategy. Connecting ships, planes, tanks,
drones, and soldiers to their military bases and building a Ad hoc devices must have a wireless network adapter or
network for risk assessment are other key uses of IoT in chip and be able to function as a wireless router when con-
the defense sector [6]. MANETs have been extensively nected to function. Each wireless adapter needs to be set
used in a wide range of applications. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or up for ad hoc mode instead of infrastructure mode when
weather stations with data monitoring. Military ad hoc net- creating a wireless ad hoc network. The same service set
works are used for communication between tanks, ships, identification (SSID) and wireless frequency channel num-
and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). A new paradigm for ber must be used by all wireless devices connecting to an
processing and interpreting massive amounts of data in real- ad hoc device. The ad-hoc wireless network can connect
time environmental monitoring systems are called context- multiple neighborhood hops (nodes) and use these neigh-
aware intelligent visual analytics [7]. borhood hops as a link to communication between source
Computer vision combines computerized data analysis and destination. This networking method’s benefit is that
methods with animations making it possible to solve difficult it lessens network traffic and helps nodes conserve power.
analytical problems. This method can adapt to shifting environ- The primary units of the Integrated Rescue System aid those
mental conditions because it is context-aware, and it can give engaged in TA, depending on a variety of variables. This
decision-makers timely and pertinent information [8]. article addresses these elements. When people have been
Context-aware intelligence computer vision is a para- pulled from crashed cars, a traffic accident investigation is a
digm shift for processing and understanding enormous process that involves identifying, disclosing, and document-
volumes of data in real-time environmental monitoring ing any civil or criminal violations of laws that may have led
systems. This approach combines machine learning, data to the accident. Each hop can be either a source or a destina-
visualization, and human-computer interface technologies tion dependently [10–12]. People who believe that Mobile
to provide real-time insights into complex environmental Ad hoc Networks are not a defective design and that we can-
data. Due to its context awareness and ability to provide not utilize them in practice since most of their applications

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Mobile wireless ad-hoc network routing protocols comparison for real-time military application 123

are for military purposes are completely mistaken. It is and residual energy based on the results of the simulation
accurate to say that mobile ad hoc networks originated with (AODV and DSR). The AODV routing has two stages of
the military. However, it’s possible that those people over- setting up the connection from the source to the destina-
looked one of the most crucial factors: security. Now a day, tion. Implementing international and commercial standards
networking engineers develop a variety of routing protocols up to the network layer gives the capacity to support tactical
for different applications of the mobile ad-hoc network. We operations using civil communications if the military com-
can divide the wireless Ad-hoc network protocol based on munications networks sustain extremely extensive damage.
routing methods, as shown in Fig. 1. Multicast is necessary for tactical military communication.
Approaches include the widely used Ad-hoc On-Demand A battle’s outcome may depend on how well information is
Vector Routing (AODV) protocol for mobile communica- disseminated to the many warfighters involved.
tion ad-hoc. The route discovery phase has just started when
the source needs to transfer data. By using AODV network- 3.1.1 Route discovery phase
ing, the connection between the source and the destination
is made in two phases. The On-demand Routing Protocol The source uses broadcast to send Route Request (RREQ)
offers two fundamental forms of routing. These are Dynamic packets to all neighborhood nodes to look for the destina-
source routing and Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector tion node. After a certain time to live (TTL), the source will
(AODV) (DSR). By using Network Simulation 2, this article resend the broadcast RREQ if it does not receive any feed-
will thoroughly assess both types of AODV and DSR rout- back from its neighborhood nodes [13].
ing protocols (NS2). Twenty nodes will communicate with Intermediate nodes continue forwarding the RREQ
each other via UPD and TCP connections in the simulation. packet by adding their IP address to the packet. A route reply
We will evaluate the two types of routing protocols’ average (RREP) packet is sent to the source whenever the Sequence
throughput, immediate throughput, package delivery ratio, number reaches the intended node through the active path

Fig. 1 Types of wireless ad-hoc routing

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124 S. Al Ajrawi, B. Tran

by the unicast method [14]. Making critical decisions 3.1.2 Route maintenance phase
requires the rescue team to exchange information. In this
case, the active path was determined on the path that has After the source receives the RREP packet, the connection
less the number of hops or less time travel [15]. is set up. The data was transferred through the active path
This paper will deeply evaluate both types of AODV and from source to destination. When the source moves, the dis-
DSR routing protocols by Network Simulation 2 (NS2). The covery phase will restart again. While the intermediate node
simulation will demo communication between twenty nodes moves, its neighborhood nodes realize that the link failure
with UPD and TCP connections. Based on the simulation happened. These neighborhood nodes will send a notifica-
result, we will compare the comparison of two types of trans- tion (route reply error_ RRER) upstream and then to the
portation algorithms’ average throughput, instant throughput, source. In this way, the source can maintain the connection
package delivery ratio, and transmission power (AODV and and reinitiate the discovery if needed.
DSR) (Come to the destination node first). During the discov- The AODV handshake and transfer data showed in
ery phase, intermediate nodes may be received more than one Fig. 2. Where:
RREQ packet from other nodes, so AODV used sequence num- Red arrows are broadcast messages RREQ from the
bers to mark each RREQ packet. If a node receives more than source.
one RREQ packet, it will check the sequence number and drop Yellow and purple arrows forward RREQ to neighbor-
the longer timestamp packet. In this way, the AODV is loop- hood nodes.
free and easily finds out where is the destination node. Military Green arrows indicate the active path the RREP was sent
applications and associated research projects both heavily rely back to the source.
on ad hoc networks. People think that MANET will serve as the
primary network architecture in situations where conventional
wireless networks cannot be built, such as during emergencies 4 Results and discussion
or military applications. They believe that the fact that Wireless
Ad-hoc networks are independent of a fixed infrastructure is 4.1 Dynamic source routing (DSR) protocol
what most distinguishes them from cellular networks. Mobile
Ad-hoc networks, in their opinion, are also highly appealing Another on-demand networking technology is Optimized
for tactical communication in the military and in law enforce- Link state Forwarding (DSR). It employs a shortest path
ment. Once more, they are of the opinion that Wireless Ad hoc method in which all nodes must have a cache to store route
Networks will be crucial not only for military and emergency records.
applications, but also for use in public forums like convention
centers, conferences, and virtual classrooms. 4.1.1 Route discovery phase

In the DSR protocol, a source node also starts discovering

the destination by broadcasting a route request (RREQ)
packet to its neighbors, such as in the AODV protocol. The
(RREQ) packet is forwarded from node to node in a net-
work. An intermediate node that received the RREQ packet
will forward the RREQ packet by adding its address if it
could not find any current paths to the destination in its
cache [16–21]. Otherwise, an intermediate node will send
a route reply (RREP) packet back to the source node to
inform the route to the destination. The RREP packet also
is sent by destination to source when intermediate nodes
do not have any information about a destination. By this
method, the source routing technique can develop multiple
paths. The source nodes will find the most efficient routing
to become an active path. The discovery process of the DSR
protocol shows in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2 Discovery phase of AODV routing protocol

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Mobile wireless ad-hoc network routing protocols comparison for real-time military application 125

Fig. 4 Simulation of 20 nodes of Mobile Wireless Ad-hoc

Fig. 3 Route Discovery phase of DSR routing Protocol

4.1.2 Route maintenance phase

The DSR protocol maintains source routing by monitoring

sending packages. If a node could not send a package to a
neighbor, it declares routing related to that neighbor node
was broken. Then it also sends a route relay error (RRER)
packet to the sources to update the route record in the
source’s caches of the associated route.

4.2 Comparison ADOV & DSR routing

A key characteristic of mobile ad-hoc networks is their lack

of physical infrastructure. They are very dynamic networks.
These networks’ nodes perform the role of routers, finding Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of simulation setup for UDP and TCP modes
and maintaining the routes to other nodes in the network.
Nodes in these networks may move and coordinate with cause physical destruction and a devastating loss of life.
other nodes. Mobility allows for dynamic changes to con- They can stun entire villages and sometimes arrive as a sur-
nections in the network and the addition and removal of prise. Those who suffer a catastrophe could feel emotion-
nodes at any moment. A source-initiated routing protocol is ally upset. It is usual to have anxiety before, during, and
AODV. It is a reactive protocol since nodes are not required after catastrophes, as well as ongoing worry, trouble sleep-
to maintain routes to destinations that are not actively uti- ing, and another negative affect. Many people can “bounce
lized in communication and only requests a route when back” after disasters with help from friends, families, and
necessary. The main distinction between AODV and DSR the neighborhood, but some individuals might need ade-
is that while DSR maintains the entire route from source to quate help to manage and remain on the road to recovery.
location, covering all nodes in between, AODV just keeps These nodes move randomly in an area of 1000 × 1000 m
an address of the next hop to the target. The packet’s sender and transfer data through the wireless medium with a simu-
determines the whole path through which to forward the lation time of 20ms (Fig. 4).
packets. To compare the performance of two routing proto- This model simulates both UDP and TCP connections
cols (AODV and DSR). We set up a basic network of mobile simultaneously, as shown in Fig. 5. Node 2 connects to node
ad-hoc network with 20 nodes in the Network Simulation 16 through TCP, and node 17 connects to node 10 through
Program (NS2). Such big bad events have the potential to UDP. In this simulation, we also include an energy model to

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126 S. Al Ajrawi, B. Tran

Table 1 Comparison of different ad-hoc network routing protocol [15]

Parameters AODV DSDV DSR TORA WRP
Routing approaches Demand-Based Routing Table-based Routing Demand-Based Demand-Based Routing Table-based
Routing Routing
Procedure types Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector with Routing Sources Routing Algorithm with Protocol for
Distance Vector Destination Sequencing Dynamically Temporary Order Wireless
Routing
Routing Structure Flat Structure Flat Structure Flat Structure Flat Structure Plane Structure
Routing Maintenance Map-reading Table Map-reading Table Map-reading Table Map-reading Table ------
Routing Transparency High High High High High

Fig. 6 Instant Throughput of both AODV & DSR Routing vs. time

Table 2 Average throughput of both AODV and DSR routing We analyze and compare the AODV and DSR routing
jimmy@jimmy:~/Downloads/ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code_Bang performance by four measured parameters: instant through-
Tran$ awk -f average_throu.awk AODV.tr
Start Time 1 put, average throughput, residual energy, and package deliv-
Stop Time 19 ery ratio. Based on the simulation, the AODV routing gives
Received Packets 262 more advantageous results than the DSV routing method
The throughput in Kbps is ©0.116677 in the same simulation conditions. Comparison of different
jimmy@jimmy:~/Downloads/ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code_Bang
Tran$ awk -f average_throu.awk DSR.tr Ad-Hoc Network Routing Protocol is illustrated in Table 1.
Start Time 1 First, the instant throughput (Fig. 6) shows that the trans-
Stop Tine 19 ferred data of AODV is more stable. Second, the AODV
pecetved Packets 198 routing gives us a higher average throughput (110 bit/s com-
The throughput in kbps is 0.083653
[mmya3temy: /Downloads /ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code_Bang pare to 83 bit/s – Table 2).
Trans$ Moreover, we also observed that the package delivery
rate of AODV is higher than DSR, which means the AODV
check the node’s residual energy [14]. The routing proce- has more success transferred data than DSR (Table 3).
dure is the subject of the most active and creative research The last performance parameter that we make a com-
in the MANET sector due to its difficulties and complexity parison with is residual energy which is the energy left after
as well as the significance of routing protocols. The two pro- nodes transfer data. The chart shows that the AODV rout-
tocols are On-Demand routing techniques, and when data ing method consumes less power than DSR, so its residual
must be sent, the discovery phase begins. Ad hoc networks energy on each node is higher than DSR’s nodes (Fig. 7).
for mobile devices offer mobility, independence, and self- The less consumed power reflects the way that AODV
adaptation. For military purposes, they are essential due of makes routing between nodes. It is hop-by-hop routing and
these traits. MANETs in the military have extra issues with does not need a cache to store routing recodes for future
multicast traffic and security. AODV uses less electricity connections. The pros of AODV also its cons because cache
and performs better while transporting data. On the con- less makes the routing process -finding the active path- take
trary, when the connecting link is down, DSR has quicker more time than DSR. Table 4 shows some advantages and
routing and fewer traffic. disadvantages of both AODV and DSR routing protocols. It

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Mobile wireless ad-hoc network routing protocols comparison for real-time military application 127

Table 3 Packet delivery ratio of AODV and DSR routing the average end-to-end latency gets less. This indicates that
jimmy@jimmy:~/Downloads/ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code Bang the DSR protocol performs well even with smaller packet
Tran$ awk -f pdr.awk AODV.tr
The sent packets are 2859 sizes, except for routing burden.
The received packets are 262
The forwarded packets are 1277
The Packet Delivery Ratio are 0.091640 5 Conclusion
jimmy@jimmy:~/Downloads/ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code_Bang
Tran$ awk -f pdr.awk DSR.tr
The sent packets are 2777 MANET are dynamic, dispersed, complicated, multi-hop,
The received packets are 198 and lack infrastructure. Without a permanent and dedicated
The forwarded packets are 1995 infrastructure, a node can communicate directly or via
The Packet Delivery Ratio are 0.071300
jimmy@jimmy:~/Downloads/ns-allinone-2.35/Project Code_Bang intermediary nodes. Therefore, creating a routing protocol
Trans$ for ad-hoc networks that can effectively handle MANET’s
problems is essential. Routing between mobile nodes is a
concludes that a TCP connection takes less time to establish difficult and complex operation because mobile ad hoc net-
using an Adaptive distance vector (ADV) protocol. Addi- works are so dynamic and the architecture of the network is
tionally, it offers more TCP connections over CBR traffic continually changing in unanticipated ways. Due to its chal-
than DSR and AODV protocols, which results in better lenges and complexity as well as the importance of routing
throughput. Compared to AODV and DSR, the DSDV has protocols, the routing process is the focus of the MANET
a low capacity but a significant routing load. The perfor- industry’s most active and innovative research. This paper
mance of AODV and DSR protocols is excellent. Although quickly reviews and compares the advantages and disadvan-
AODV occasionally beats DSR, DSR consistently performs tages of two basic mobile ad-hoc routing protocols (AODV
the best, particularly when measured using the average end- and DSR). Both protocols are On-Demand routing methods
to-end latency. Additionally, altering the packet size has an in which the discovery phase happens when data need to be
impact on AODV and DSR efficiency but not DSDV effi- transferred. Mobile ad hoc networks provide mobility and
ciency. When protocols are compared based on node mobil- are independent and self-adaptive. They are necessary for
ity, they all perform well. Similar, to the AODV protocol, military applications because of these characteristics. These
DSR is a source initiated/reactive protocol. After analysis, networks must function well if they are to succeed. Overall,
we can conclude that the DSR protocol performs marginally it is possible to draw the conclusion from the tests done on
better than the AODV protocol, which performs much better this platform that OLSR routing appears to be well suited
than the DSDV protocol. The DSR protocol’s throughput to military mobile ad hoc networks. To introduce quality
declines as packet size rises. With an increase in packet size, of service and enable service differentiation in such net-
routing overhead also increases. As packet size increases, works, more effort is required. Multicast traffic and security

Fig. 7 Residual Energy of 20 nodes

Table 4 Pros vs. Cons of AODV and DSR routing protocols

AODV Routing DSR Routing Pros vs. Cons
Hop-by-hop routing (single Source routing (mul- Hop to hop routing is simple, so AODV performs better in higher-mobility scenarios.
active path) tiple active paths) However, AODV easily loses route when connecting link breaks.
Cache-less Cache Cache help DSR less overhead finding route.
Cache also causes more consumption of power.
Hop count for the active path Efficient route for the AODV got an active path by hop count. It is not the shortest and most efficient route.
active path

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons tivity. In 18th international conference on advanced communica-
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, tion technology (ICACT) (pp. 503–509).
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if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this 15. Amiri, E., & Hooshmand, R. (2019). Improving AODV with
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless TOPSIS algorithm and fuzzy logic in VANETs. In 27th Iranian
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not conference on electrical engineering (ICEE) (pp. 1367–1372).
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended 16. Alaparthi, S., Parvataneni, S. R., Vaishnavi, C. S., Sathvika, P.,
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