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Central Andean Ore Deposits Linked to Evolving Shallow Subduction Systems and
Thickening Crust

Article in GSA Today · January 2001

DOI: 10.1130/1052-5173(2001)011<0004:CAODLT>2.0.CO;2

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Suzanne Mahlburg Kay Constantino Mpodozis

Cornell University University of Chile
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 ABSTRACT
Major Miocene central Andean (lat 22°–34°S) ore districts share
Central Andean Ore common tectonic and magmatic features that point to a model for
their formation over a shallowing subduction zone or during the
initial steepening of a formerly flat subduction zone. A key ingredient
Deposits Linked to for magmatism and ore formation is release of fluids linked to
hydration of the mantle and lower crust above a progressively
shallower and cooler subducting oceanic slab. Another is stress from

Evolving Shallow South American–Nazca plate convergence that results in crustal

thickening and shortening in association with magma accumulation in
the crust. Fluids for mineralization are released as the crust thickens,

Subduction Systems and hydrous, lower crustal, amphibole-bearing mineral assemblages

that were stable during earlier stages of crustal thickening break
down to dryer, more garnet-bearing ones. Evidence for this process

and Thickening Crust comes from trace-element signatures of pre- to postmineralization

magmas that show a progression from equilibration with intermediate
pressure amphibole-bearing residual mineral assemblages to higher
pressure garnet-bearing ones. Mineralization over the shallowing
Suzanne Mahlburg Kay, Department of Geological Sciences,
subduction zone in central Chile (28°–33°S) is followed by cessation
Snee Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA, of arc volcanism or migration of the arc front away from the trench.
smk16@cornell.edu Mineralization in the central Altiplano-Puna region (21°–24°S) formed
Constantino Mpodozis, Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, above a formerly flat subduction zone as volcanism was reinitiating.
Thus, hydration and crustal thickening associated with transitions in
Avenida Santa Maria 0104, Santiago, Chile, and out of flat-slab subduction conditions are fundamental controls
cmpodozi@sernageomin.cl on formation of these major ore deposits.

INTRODUCTION

S
ome of the world’s richest and largest copper and gold
deposits are associated with Miocene magmatism in the central
Andes. This paper reviews how the formation of major ore
deposits between 22° and 34°S can be linked to the late
Cenozoic magmatic and tectonic response of the mantle and lower
crust to the formation and subsequent steepening of shallow
subduction zones (Figs. 1 and 2). Mineral districts discussed are the El

Figure 1: Central Andean map showing major Miocene mineralized areas

(white boxes, yellow labels) relative to: (a) depth contours in km to Wadati-
Benioff seismic zone of subducting Nazca plate (from Cahill and Isacks,
1992), (b) southern (SVZ) and central (CVZ) volcanic zones and Chilean and
Peruvian flat-slab regions, (c) regions >3000 m in elevation (in red), and (d)
foreland fold-thrust belts: Precordillera and Subandean–Eastern Cordillera
thin-skinned belts (green), Santa Bárbara thick-skinned belt (black), and
Pampean block uplifts (gray).

4 MARCH 2001, GSA TODAY

 structural and topographic constraints and
modified by Kay et al. (1999) on magmatic
considerations. The basic premise is that the
slab beneath the modern shallow subduction
zone has shallowed as the slab below the
central Puna-Altiplano has steepened. Figure
2 compares the end-member early Miocene
and modern situations, and Figures 3 and 4
show reconstructed lithospheric sections
depicting the temporal evolution of transects
through the Chilean flat slab and the
Puna-Altiplano.

CHEMICAL CLUES TO TEMPORAL

CHANGES IN MAGMATIC AND
TECTONIC PROCESSES ASSOCIATED
WITH MINERALIZATION
Important clues to processes occurring
over a shallowing subduction zone come
from magmas containing chemical com-
ponents from the evolving slab, the overlying

Figure 2: Early Miocene and Recent maps showing depth changes to Wadati-Benioff zone proposed by
Isacks (1988) along with arc volcanic front (red), backarc mafic centers (black), and large ignimbritic
centers (red stripes) from Kay et al. (1999). Miocene ore districts shown in brown boxes. Patterned bands
are locations of reconstructed Miocene to Recent lithospheric cross sections in Figures 3 and 4.

Indio and Maricunga gold belts, the Farallon role (e.g., Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et al.,
Negro copper-gold district, the El Teniente 1990, 1997). Prominent fold-thrust belts to
copper belt, and the Potosí silver-gold the east provide a temporal record of this
district. In the model, mineralization is linked crustal shortening. These belts include the
to changes in crustal and lithospheric Subandean and Eastern Cordillera and Santa
thickness induced by the evolving geometry Bárbara Ranges east of the plateau, and the
of the subducting Nazca plate. Fluids for Precordillera and block-faulted Pampean
mineralization that are ultimately derived Ranges east of the Main Cordillera.
from the hydrated mantle above the A distinctive feature of the central Andes is
subducting slab are released as wet the relatively shallow dip (<30°) of the
amphibole-bearing lower crust thickens and subducting Nazca plate beneath South
transforms into dryer, garnet-bearing crust America compared to other circum-Pacific
above a shallowing or recently shallow subduction zones. As recognized by
subduction zone. The model has implications Barazangi and Isacks (1976) and refined by
for Miocene deposits over the shallow Cahill and Isacks (1992), the Nazca plate can
subduction zone in Peru and for Tertiary be divided at depths of ~90–135 km into
Laramide deposits in western North America. nearly flat segments, above which there is no
volcanism, that are flanked by relatively
TECTONIC SETTING OF MIOCENE steeper segments associated with active
CENTRAL ANDEAN ORE DEPOSITS volcanism (Fig. 1). The Chilean flat-slab
Major Miocene central Andean ore districts segment between 28° and 33°S has a
are located in extinct Miocene volcanic belts relatively smooth northern transition and an
underlain by thickened continental crust abrupt southern transition to the steeper
(50–70 km thick; Isacks, 1988) on the arc segments (Fig. 1). In terms of this modern
side of major fold-thrust belts. This paper slab geometry, the El Indio belt is above the
explores why they occur where they do. center of the Chilean flat slab, the
Figure 1 shows mineral districts between 22° Maricunga–Farallon Negro district above the
and 34°S relative to modern central Andean northern transition, the El Teniente district
geologic provinces and contours to the above the southern transition, and the Potosí
Wadati-Benioff seismic zone. The most district above the steeper slab to the north.
prominent province, the Puna-Altiplano Rationalizing the relationship among late
Plateau with its widespread Miocene to Cenozoic central Andean uplift, crustal
Recent volcanic cover and average elevation thickening, and Miocene mineralization Figure 3: Schematic lithospheric cross sections
of 3700 m, is second on Earth only to the requires understanding how the geometry of across Chilean flat-slab transect at lat ~30ºS
the subducting Nazca plate has changed showing temporal changes in subducting slab
Tibetan Plateau in area and height. To the geometry, crustal thickness, and areas of active
north and south, the Puna-Altiplano merges since the breakup of the Farallon plate and
the initiation of fast, nearly orthogonal volcanism and deformation before, during, and
with the Main Cordillera of the high Andes. after mineralization. Size of volcanic centers
Most investigators attribute uplift and crustal convergence at ~26 Ma (Pardo Casas and
reflect erupted volume. Hatched wedges represent
thickening of the Puna-Altiplano and the Molnar, 1987). The model for evolving slab areas of ductile thickening of the lower crust.
Main Cordillera to Miocene crustal shortening geometry used here is that proposed by Active faults shown in red. Figures based on Kay
with magmatic addition playing a secondary Isacks (1988) on the basis of seismologic, et al. (1991, 1999).

GSA TODAY, MARCH 2001 5

mantle wedge, and the crust. Uniquely, Kay and Abbruzzi, 1996). Shallowing from of the volcanic arc, the compressional
diagnostic chemical fingerprints can put ~18–8 Ma can account for decreasing deformation front, and the foreland basin
restrictions on evolving temperature- amounts of volcanism and cessation of system into the Precordillera. Continued
pressure, chemical, and fluid profiles in the andesitic volcanism by ~9 Ma in the Main shallowing of the slab after ~7 Ma can
mantle and crust. Chemical analyses of more Cordillera, as well as an eastward broadening explain eastward expansion of deformation
than 500 pre-, syn-, and postmineralization and magmatism into the Pampean Ranges,
samples from the El Indio, Maricunga– and the end of volcanism across the transect
Farallon Negro, and El Teniente districts all at ~5 Ma as the asthenospheric wedge
show the relatively high K, Ba, and Th, and became too thin in the west and the slab too
low Ta concentrations expected in magmas dehydrated in the east to flux mantle melting.
erupted over a subduction zone (Kay et al., In concert with shallowing, the mantle and
1999). Central to the discussion below are crust over the slab became increasingly
the rare earth elements (REE), which show a hydrated under the Main Cordillera and the
relatively small range of La/Sm ratios and a zone of hydration broadened eastward as
wide range of Sm/Yb ratios (Fig. 5). decreasing asthenospheric circulation
Increasing Sm/Yb ratios mostly reflect increasingly limited melting and fluid
pressure-dependent changes from removal (e.g., Kay and Gordillo, 1994). As
clinopyroxene to amphibole to garnet in the shallowing proceeded, magmatically
mineral residue in equilibrium with evolving weakened lower crust beneath the Main
magmas (review in Kay and Kay, 1991). Cordillera thickened (Kay et al., 1991) in
Following the proposition of Hildreth and conjunction with crustal shortening in the
Moorbath (1988) that arc magmas in a Precordillera and the Sierras Pampeanas
compressional regime evolve from mafic (e.g., Allmendinger et al., 1990), as well as
parent magmas in the lower crust and using with shortening in the forearc. Mass balance
Andean southern volcanic zone magmas and considerations require contemporaneous
crustal thicknesses as depth indicators, thinning of the continental lithosphere (Kay
Sm/Yb ratios can serve as guides to relative and Abbruzzi, 1996).
crustal thicknesses. Because breakdown Important Miocene mineralization took
pressures are influenced by factors like bulk place in the Chilean flat-slab region as the
composition and temperature, inferred subduction zone was shallowing. Evidence
depths are approximations. As a rough guide for the temporal and spatial association
in mafic lavas, clinopyroxene is dominant at between mineralization and Miocene
depths of <35 km, amphibole from ~30–45 magmatic stages and deformational events
km, and garnet at >45–50 km. over the shallowing subduction zone
beneath the El Indio, Maricunga–Farallon
MAGMATISM, DEFORMATION, Negro, and El Teniente mineral districts is
AND MINERALIZATION OVER A summarized in Table 1 and discussed below.
Figure 4: Schematic lithospheric cross sections Within the region, ages of mineralization, like
SHALLOWING SUBDUCTION ZONE along the central Puna-Altiplano Plateau transect average crustal thicknesses and subduction
The lithospheric cross sections in Figure 3 lat ~22º–23ºS showing temporal changes in zone angles, decrease to the south and east.
illustrate a working model for the post–early subducting slab geometry, crustal thickness and
areas of active volcanism and deformation before,
The El Indio Transect. The El Indio
Miocene shallowing of the Chilean
during, and after mineralization. Red striped transect is located in the Main Cordillera
subduction zone that accounts for magmatic,
regions are crustal magma chambers below master above the middle of the present flat slab.
structural, and basin evolution over the
fault detachment that feed ignimbrites (in red). Major mineralization can be associated with
modern flat-slab region and its borders (e.g.,
Figure based on Kay et al. (1999). the last two of three volcanic stages in this
Kay et al., 1991, 1999; Jordan et al., 1993;

6 MARCH 2001, GSA TODAY

area. Each successive volcanic stage has a (Atacama gravels) which show syntectonic mineralization (Tosdal and Richards, 2001).
distinctive distribution and composition, deformation east of the arc (Gardeweg et al., The final stages of Maricunga belt volcanism
shows a decrease in overall erupted volume, 1997). The second mineralization episode is are dominated by the ~11–7 Ma dacitic units
and is generally bounded by compressional linked to the emplacement of 13–10 Ma fault- from the Copiapó center, and 7–5 Ma
deformational peaks (Kay et al.,1991, 1999). controlled “gold porphyries” (e.g., Marte; Jotabeche rhyodacitic and Pircas Negras
The initial Doña Ana Group is characterized Sillitoe et al., 1991) near the end of the mafic andesitic flows. These
by voluminous 27–21 Ma andesitic to second volcanic stage. REE patterns of these postmineralization flows, which have REE
rhyodacitic tuffs that unconformably underlie magmas again indicate an amphibole-bearing patterns that indicate equilibration with
21–17 Ma mafic andesite flows and are cut mineral residue. Mild extension and normal garnet-bearing residues (Fig. 5), erupted
by small shallow intrusives (Martin et al., faulting at this time are consistent with through very thick crust as the arc front
1997). Small ~23 Ma (Las Máquinas) backarc models of stress relaxation during porphyry began to migrate eastward (Kay et al., 1999).
alkali basalt flows are related to faults. Low- The final mineralization in this transect
pressure pyroxene-bearing mineral residues at 7–6 Ma occurred in the Farallon Negro
complimentary to these magmas (Fig. 5; Kay volcanic field to the east (Sasso and Clark,
et al., 1991) are consistent with ascent from 1996), which erupted as volcanism
lower levels of a normal thickness crust over migrated eastward and the crust
a relatively steep subduction zone. This first thickened in association with uplift of the
volcanic stage terminated with high-angle Pampean Ranges.
reverse faulting in the Main Cordillera and El Teniente Transect. El Teniente
initiation of thrust faulting in the Precordillera transect volcanism at the southern border of
(Jordan et al., 1993). The second volcanic the flat-slab region also occurred in three
stage in the Main Cordillera is composed stages separated by deformational peaks
dominantly of ~17–14 Ma and ~13–9 Ma (Kurtz et al., 1997; Kay et al., 1999). Unlike
hornblende-bearing andesitic to dacitic units the Maricunga transect, ages of shallowing of
(Martin et al., 1997). Their REE patterns are the subduction zone, crustal thickening, and
consistent with equilibration in a thickening mineralization are younger than in the El
crust in which the mafic mineral residue Indio belt. Voluminous mafic to silicic
changed from amphibole to garnet-bearing magmas of the first volcanic stage erupted
in the final stages (Fig. 5; Kay et al., 1991). through a thin crust in a neutral to slightly
This second stage also included small extensional tectonic regime. They were
backarc amphibole-bearing andesitic to followed by an ~19–16 Ma lull associated
dacitic centers that extended into the with compressional deformation leading to
Precordillera. The end of the second volcanic initial uplift and crustal thickening (Kurtz et
stage overlaps the peak of Precordillera al., 1997). Magmatism resumed with the
thrust faulting at ~11–9 Ma (Jordan et al., formation of the ~15–7 Ma Teniente volcanic
1993) and initiation of the major and plutonic complex east of the older arc
mineralization episode in the El Indio belt at front. Like chemically equivalent early-to-
~10 Ma which lasted until 6.5 Ma (Clavero et middle Miocene El Indio belt magmas (Fig.
al., 1997; Bissig et al., 2000). The terminal 5), these premineralization Teniente
volcanic stage consists of minor ~7–6 Ma Complex units have pyroxene to amphibole-
hornblende-bearing dacitic centers with dominated residual mineralogy. This
amphibole-bearing residual mineralogy in magmatic stage ended with deformation
the Main Cordillera (Vallecito in Fig. 5) and (Godoy et al., 1999) and rapid regional uplift
Precordillera, and mafic andesitic to dacitic (~3 mm/year; Kurtz et al., 1997). Late
centers in the Pampean Ranges (Kay and Miocene to early Pliocene porphyries and
Gordillo, 1994). dikes equilibrating with garnet-bearing
The Maricunga Transect. Deformational residual assemblages (Fig. 5) were emplaced
and magmatic peaks in the Maricunga as the frontal volcanic arc south of 33°S
transect to the north near the boundary with shifted eastward to the present southern
the steeper slab are virtually analogous to volcanic zone. Mineralization is associated
those in the El Indio belt, but initial with late Miocene tourmaline-bearing breccia
mineralization is older (Kay et al., 1994; complexes whose ages decrease from north
Mpodozis et al., 1995). This mineralization at to south: Pelambres–El Pachon deposit at
23–21 Ma is linked to dacitic dome 32°S at ~10–9 Ma, Rio Blanco–Los Bronces
complexes emplaced near the end of a 26–21 deposit at 33°S at ~7–5 Ma, and El Teniente
Ma volcanic peak (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Figure 5: Plots of La/Sm (light REE) vs. Sm/Yb deposit near 34°S at ~5 Ma (see Skewes and
Mpodozis et al., 1995). Unlike first-stage El (heavy REE) ratios for more than 500 magmatic Stern, 1994, 1997). Skewes and Stern (1994)
Indio magmas, REE patterns of these magmas rocks from the Maricunga–Farallon Negro, El argue that metal-rich fluids forming these
point to amphibole-bearing lower crustal Indio, and El Teniente districts. Premineralization deposits are released as long-lived plutons
or between mineralization (Maricunga belt) units
residues (Fig. 5) consistent with a thicker are in blue, synmineralization units in red, and
cool and solidify in the dying magmatic arc
crust over a shallower subduction zone (see postmineralization units in yellow. Hatched fields over the shallowing subduction zone.
Fig. 2). This episode is followed by are plutonic units. Thick lines enclose fields for
deformation and diminished volcanism from magmas erupted near times of gold (Au) and MAGMATISM, DEFORMATION, AND
20 to 18 Ma. Andesitic units that erupted at copper (Cu) mineralization. Presence of plutonic MINERALIZATION OVER A
the beginning of the next volcanic stage from units and Cu rather than Au in the El Teniente
17–12 Ma have steeper REE patterns district reflects greater erosion in this region. FORMERLY SHALLOW
consistent with a more garnet-rich residual Samples in Au and Cu field have Sm/Yb ratios SUBDUCTION ZONE
magmas in equilibrium with amphibole-bearing Important central Andean Miocene
mineralogy at deep levels of a thicker crust.
residual mineral assemblages in transition to mineralization also occurred in the northern
In accord with this observation, regional garnet-bearing. Data sources in Kay et al. (1999)
uplift in the middle Miocene is signaled by Puna and southern Altiplano near 21°–23°S
and Kay and Mpodozis (1999).
thick sequences of alluvial sediments in an area where the present slab dip is steep

GSA TODAY, MARCH 2001 7

 of mineralization are in equilibrium with an amphibole-bearing mafic
mineral residue that is changing to garnet. These features are
incorporated in the general model in Figure 6 which builds on long-
standing ideas of associating these deposits with hydrous magmas
over subduction zones (e.g., Barnes, 1997).
Linking mineralization with a shallowing (or formerly shallow)
subduction zone over a thickening crust is important as decreasing
mantle flow in the cooling wedge above the dehydrating, shallowing
slab increasingly limits melting and fluid removal from the wedge.
Melts entering the thickening lower crust from this wedge become
increasingly hydrous as fluids are progressively concentrated in the
cooling mantle. As shown in stage 1 of Figure 6, arc magmas erupted
through a normal thickness crust before the slab shallows have
anhydrous residual mineral assemblages and are not linked to large
ore deposits. In contrast, arc magmas formed above the cooling,
hydrating mantle in stage 2 of Figure 6 contain fluids that cause
amphibole to crystallize in them as they are underplated and intruded
into a thickening crust. This process can occur for as much as 6–8
m.y. before mineralization as shown by eruption of amphibole-
bearing Miocene lavas in the El Indio and El Teniente belts.
Figure 6: Cartoon showing genetic model for major Miocene central Andean An implication for mineralization is that breakdown of amphibole
ore districts. Stage 1 shows magmas equilibrating with pyroxene-bearing
can release a significant amount of fluid during melting resulting in
mineral residues in normal thickness continental crust over relatively steep
subduction zone. Stages 2 and 3 show magmas equilibrating with hydrous magmas. Fluid can come from amphibole in underplated
amphibole-bearing and garnet-bearing mineral residues in deep parts of magmas and their cumulate and melt residues, as well as from
thickening crust over shallowing subduction zone. Mineralization occurs metamorphosed amphibole-bearing lower crustal units. These fluids
between stages 2 and 3. Critical ingredients are a hydrated mantle above a can be liberated as magma are emplaced and cooled in shallow level
shallow subduction zone, storage of fluid in amphibole and hydrous magmas magma chambers. Oxidizing conditions, which prevent the early
in the deep crust, and release of that fluid in conjunction with breakdown of removal of sulfide minerals and allow metals to be concentrated in
amphibole-bearing crustal assemblages in crustal melt zones during the residual fluids of crystallizing magmas are consistent with trace-
subhorizontal shortening and thickening of ductile, magma-injected crust. element signatures (e.g., small Eu anomalies with low Sr contents; see
Kay et al., 1991, 1999).
The observation that major central Andean Miocene ore deposits
(Fig. 1). This mineralization is associated with a group of 14–12 Ma generally form near the end of a deformational peak in a setting
stocks and domes, and includes the giant silver deposit in the Cerro where compression leads to crustal shortening and thickening
Rico de Potosí stock (13.8 Ma; Zartman and Cunningham, 1995). highlights a role for thickened crust in the breakdown of hydrous
Lithospheric cross sections from 18 to 7 Ma in Figure 4 for the minerals. REE patterns of silicic melts from the lower crust are the
transect show the distribution of volcanism and deformation, slab best indicators of the change from intermediate pressure, hydrous
geometries, and crustal thicknesses proposed by Kay et al. (1999). amphibolite/garnet amphibolite to high-pressure dry
The existence of an early-to-middle Miocene shallow subduction granulite/eclogite metamorphic facies residues. Sm/Yb ratios of
zone (Fig. 2) is consistent with a volcanic gap (Coira et al., 1993) samples in Figure 5 indicate that major periods of central Andean
associated with widespread late Oligocene–early Miocene Miocene mineralization occurred as the mafic mineral residue
deformation in the southern Altiplano (Allmendinger et al., 1997). As changed from hornblende to garnet. Garnet-dominated signatures are
in the modern Chilean flat-slab region, a thin asthenospheric wedge present in most postmineralization silicic magmas erupted in the
is interpreted to have inhibited arc magmatism while enhancing Maricunga, El Teniente, and El Indio belts. Major ore deposits are not
mantle hydration above a shallowly subducting slab (James and found associated with magmas like those in stage 3 of Figure 6 as
Sacks, 1999). Steepening of the slab in the middle Miocene increased their anhydrous garnet-dominated mafic mineral residues lack
the volume of the asthenospheric wedge promoting melting of the adequate fluid sources.
overlying hydrated mantle and lower crust. Heating of the crust by Another essential factor linking fluid sources associated with ore
mantle-derived magmas in a compressional regime provides a deposits to tectonic stresses is that magmas intruding a thickened
mechanism for ductile thickening of the lower crust and plateau crust under compression have difficulty ascending and evolve at
uplift. Mineralization at ~14–12 Ma appears to be associated with the depth leading to high intrusive/extrusive ratio magmatic systems.
first “wet’’ magmas erupted as the slab steepened and the crust Storage at depth promotes repeated crustal melting, enhances crustal
thickened. Continued crustal thickening accompanied eruption of ductility, and makes the crust susceptible to horizontal compressional
huge late Miocene plateau ignimbrite sheets as brittle deformation failure leading to crustal shortening and thickening. Such conditions
terminated under the plateau region and upper crustal deformation promote pressure-induced amphibole breakdown in lower crustal
migrated eastward. Plateau uplift accompanied Subandean Belt melt zones. Multiple melt and freeze cycles in these melt zones could
thrusting as both movement on thrusts and large ignimbrite eruptions enhance metal enrichment. The erupted magmas are a combination
were triggered by horizontal compressional collapse of the melt- of crustal and mantle components that last equilibrated with lower
weakened crust. Subsequent volcanism was progressively crustal mineral residual assemblages. This is essentially the MASH
concentrated to the west as the slab continued to steepen and the process of Hildreth and Moorbath (1988). The importance of uplift
lithosphere thickened in response cooling and underthrusting of the and solidification of long-lived magmatic systems to metal-rich fluid
Brazilian shield (Allmendinger et al., 1997). No major mineralization release over a shallowing subduction zone is addressed for the El
is associated with post-10 Ma volcanic units in the transect (Coira et Teniente district by Skewes and Stern (1994). Temporal coincidence
al., 1993). of ductile crustal thickening beneath the arc and upper crustal
shortening in the backarc is evident in the Chilean flat slab (e.g., Kay
MODEL FOR MINERALIZATION OVER A SHALLOWING and Abbruzzi, 1996), and has been proposed for the El Teniente (e.g.,
SUBDUCTION ZONE AND A THICKENING CRUST Kurtz et al., 1997; Godoy et al., 1999) and Maricunga (Kay et al.,
The discussion above shows that common features of giant 1994) transects.
Miocene Andean ore deposits include formation over a shallowing or Crustal thickening due to shortening must also be compensated in
formerly shallow subduction zone in a thickened crust near the end the lithospheric mantle. Thickening of the lithosphere reduces space
or at the beginning of a volcanic episode. Magmas erupted near times for the asthenospheric wedge above the shallowing slab and forces

8 MARCH 2001, GSA TODAY

 retreat of the melt zone towards the backarc. Clavero, J.R., Martin, M.W., Mpodozis, C., and Cultiño, L.,
1997, Eventos alteración-mineralización en la franja el
As such, a thicker crust and a shallower slab
Indio (29°–30°S), nuevos antecedentes geológicos y
KARST HYDROLOGY
under the El Indio belt than under the geochronológicos: Antofagasta, Chile,VIII Congreso June 18-23, 2001
Maricunga and El Teniente belts can account Geológico Chileno Actas 2, p. 896–900.
for volcanic quiescence in the former, and Coira, B., Kay, S.M., and Viramonte, J., 1993, Upper This is the 22nd year for this successful,
eastward migration of the frontal arc in the Cenozoic magmatic evolution of the Argentine Puna—A "hands-on" course/workshop offered in
latter. An unresolved question is the role of model for changing subduction geometry: International
Bowling Green, Kentucky. It deals with
subduction erosion (forearc removal of the Geology Review, v. 35, p. 677–720.
groundwater monitoring techniques,
hanging wall of the plate above the Gardeweg, M., Mpodozis, C., Clavero, J., 1997, Hoja Ojos
subduction zone) and the mechanical del Salado, Mapas Geológicos (1:100 000): Servicio tracers, and the movement of contami-
removal of basal continental lithosphere and
Nacional de Geología y Minería, open file, Santiago, Chile. nants through karst aquifers. Other top-
continental crust in the arc and backarc as Godoy, E., Yanez, G., and Vera, E., 1999, Inversion of an ics include methods for preventing or
Oligocene volcano-tectonic basin and uplifting of its treating sinkhole flooding and collapse.
the subduction zone shallows and the crust superimposed Miocene magmatic arc in the Chilean central
thickens. Such lithospheric thinning allows Andes; first seismic and gravity evidence: Tectonophysics, A primary objective of this course is to
for the return of a thickened asthenospheric v. 306, p. 216–236. provide "state-of-the-practice" informa-
wedge renewing magma production above Hildreth, W., and Moorbath, S., 1988, Crustal contributions tion and experience for dealing with
the slab, and could be important in explain- to arc magmatism in the Andes of central Chile: Contri- groundwater problems of karst regions.
butions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 98, p. 455–489.
ing multiple mineralization episodes such as INSTRUCTORS:
those in the Maricunga and El Indio belts. Isacks, B.L., 1988, Uplift of the central Andean plateau and
bending of the Bolivian orocline: Journal of Geophysical
William B. White, Ph.D.
Research, v. 93, p. 3211–3231. Nicholas C. Crawford, Ph.D.
TIMING OF TECTONIC AND James, D.E., and Sacks, J.W., 1999, Cenozoic formation of offered by the
MINERALIZATION EVENTS the central Andes: A geophysical perspective, in Skinner, B., Center for Cave and Karst Studies
Mineralization events generally correspond ed., Geology and ore deposits of the central Andes: Society Applied Research & Technology Program
of Economic Geology Special Publication 7, p. 1–25. of Distinction
to crustal deformational peaks which can be
Jordan, T.E., Allmendinger, R.W., Damanti, J., and Drake, Department of Geography and Geology
argued to be approximately contempora- Western Kentucky University
R., 1993, Chronology of motion in a complete thrust belt:
neous along the Andean front from Peru to The Precordillera, 30°–31°S, Andes Mountains: Journal of
Chile. Sébrier and Soler (1991) suggest that Geology, v. 101, p. 133–156.
Additional Course/Workshops Offered:
peaks near ~17 Ma, ~10 Ma, ~7 Ma, and ~2 Karst Hydrology of the Edwards Aquifer
Kay, R.W., and Kay, S.M., 1991, Creation and destruction (San Antonio, TX) George Veni, Ph.D.
Ma occurred at times of little or no westward of lower continental crust: Geologische Rundschau, v. 80, Karst Geology
retreat of the subducting Nazca plate relative p. 259–278.
(Mammoth Cave, KY) Art Palmer, Ph.D.
to South America. Such a regime could be Kay, S.M., and Abbruzzi, J.M., 1996, Magmatic evidence
related to changes in plate directions and for Neogene lithospheric evolution of the central Andean For more information contact:
“flat slab” between 30° and 32°S: Tectonophysics, v. 259, Center for Cave and Karst Studies
spreading rates. Whether mineralization p. 15–28.
occurs in a given place depends on local at (502) 745-3252
Kay, S.M., and Gordillo, C.E., 1994, Pocho volcanic rocks http://caveandkarst@wku.edu
crustal thickness, asthenospheric wedge and the melting of depleted continental lithosphere E-mail: rita.collins@wku.edu
volume, and the geometry of the subducting above a shallowly dipping subduction zone in the central
plate. This unifying model links Andes: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 117,
mineralization to the changing dip of shallow p. 25–44. Sasso, A., and Clark, A.H., 1998, The Farallon Negro group,
northwest Argentina: Magmatic, hydrothermal, and tectonic
subduction zones beneath continents. Kay, S.M., and Mpodozis, C., 1999, Setting and origin evolution and implications for Cu-Au metallogeny in the
of Miocene giant ore deposits in the central Andes: Andean backarc: Society of Economic Geology Newsletter,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS PACRM’99, The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy Publication Series 44, p. 5–12.
v. 34, p. 1–18.
Discussions with R.W. Kay, B. Coira, V.A. Sébrier, M., and Soler, P., 1991, Tectonics and magmatism
Ramos, and E. Godoy are especially Kay, S.M., Mpodozis, C., and Coira, B., 1999, Magmatism, in the Peruvian Andes from late Oligocene time to the
tectonism, and mineral deposits of the central Andes present, in Harmon, R.S., and Rapela, C.W., eds., Andean
acknowledged. Funding came from the (22°–33°S), in Skinner, B., ed., Geology and ore deposits of magmatism and its tectonic setting: Boulder, Colorado,
National Science Foundation (EAR89-03732, the central Andes: Society of Economic Geology Special Geological Society of America Special Paper 265,
92-05042), CODELCO, Chilean Publication 7, p. 27–59. p. 259–279.
SERNAGEOMIN and FONDECYT (1950025, Kay, S.M., Mpodozis, C., Ramos, V.A., and Munizaga, F., Sillitoe, R.H., McKee, E.H., and Vila, T., 1991,
1990009), and Argentine Geologic Survey. 1991, Magma source variations for mid-late Tertiary Reconnaissance K-Ar geochronology of the Maricunga
magmatic rocks associated with a shallowing subduction
Review by Jeremy Richards and Karl zone and a thickening crust in the central Andes (28° to
gold-silver belt, northern Chile: Economic Geology, v. 86,
Karlstrom improved the presentation. p. 1261–1270.
33°S) Argentina, in Harmon, R.S., and Rapela, C.W., eds.,
Andean magmatism and its tectonic setting: Boulder, Skewes, M.A., and Stern, C.H., 1994, Tectonic trigger for
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Mpodozis, C., and Isacks, B.L., 1990, Foreland shortening
Kay, S.M., Mpodozis, C., Tittler, A., and Cornejo, P., 1994, Skewes, M.A., and Stern, C.H., 1997, Late Miocene
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Barazangi, M., and Isacks, B.L., 1976, Spatial distribution of Revista Geológica de Chile, v. 24, p. 75–90. ±Au deposits: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 14,
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South America: Geology, v. 4, p. 686–692.
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Barnes, H.L., 1997, Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore ~30°S, north-central Chile: Antofagasta, Chile, VIII systems in the Maricunga belt, northern Chile: Economic
Deposits: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 972 p. Congreso Geológico Chileno Actas 1, p. 149–153. Geology, v. 86, p. 1238–1260.
Bissig, T., Clark, A.H., Lee, J.K.W., and Heather, K.B., 2000, Mpodozis, C., Cornejo, P., Kay, S.M., and Tittler, A., 1995, Zartman, R.E., and Cunningham, C.G., 1995, U-Th-Pb
Revised metallogenetic model for the El Indio–Pascua/Lama La Franja de Maricunga: Sintesis de la evolución del frente zircon dating of the 13.8 dacite volcanic dome at Cerro
Au (Ag, Cu) belt, Regiones III/IV, Chile and Provincía San volcánico oligoceno-mioceno de la zona sur de los Andes Rico de Potosí, Bolivia: Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
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Pardo-Casas, F., and Molnar, P., 1987, Relative motion of Manuscript received October 10, 2000;
Cahill, T.A., and Isacks, B.L., 1992, Seismicity and shape of the Nazca (Farallon) and South American plates since Late
the subducted Nazca plate: Journal of Geophysical Cretaceous time: Tectonics, v. 6, p. 233–248.
accepted January 4, 2001. ▲
Research, v. 97, p. 17,503–17,529.

GSA TODAY, MARCH 2001 9

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