Resistors in Parallel • If the resistors are in parallel, the current through each resistor need not be the same, but the potential difference between the terminals of each resistor must be the same, and equal to Vab. • The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel combination equals the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances:
Series versus Parallel Combinations • When connected to the same source, two incandescent light bulbs in series (shown at top) draw less power and glow less brightly than when they are in parallel (shown at bottom).
• Video Tutor Demonstration: Bulbs Connected in Series and
A Single-Loop Circuit • The circuit shown contains two batteries, each with an emf and an internal resistance, and two resistors. • Using Kirchhoff’s rules, you can find the current in the circuit, the potential difference Vab, and the power output of the emf of each battery.
D'Arsonval Galvanometer • A galvanometer measures the current that passes through it. • Many electrical instruments, such as ammeters and voltmeters, use a galvanometer in their design.
Ammeters and Voltmeters • An ammeter measures the current passing through it. • A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points. • Both instruments contain a galvanometer.
Ammeters and Voltmeters in Combination • An ammeter and a voltmeter may be used together to measure resistance and power. • Two ways to do this are shown below. • Either way, we have to correct the reading of one instrument or the other unless the corrections are small enough to be negligible.
The Potentiometer • The potentiometer is an instrument that can be used to measure the emf of a source without drawing any current from the source. • Essentially, it balances an unknown potential difference against an adjustable, measurable potential difference. • The term potentiometer is also used for any variable resistor, usually having a circular resistance element and a sliding contact controlled by a rotating shaft and knob. • The circuit symbol for a potentiometer is shown to the right.
R-C Circuits: Charging a Capacitor (1 of 4) • Shown is a simple R-C circuit for charging a capacitor.
• We idealize the battery to
have a constant emf and zero internal resistance, and we ignore the resistance of all the connecting conductors. • We begin with the capacitor initially uncharged.
R-C Circuits: Charging a Capacitor (2 of 4) • At some initial time t = 0 we close the switch, completing the circuit and permitting current around the loop to begin charging the capacitor. • As t increases, the charge on the capacitor increases, while the current decreases.
R-C Circuits: Charging a Capacitor (3 of 4) • The charge on the capacitor in a charging R-C circuit increases exponentially, with a time constant τ = RC.
R-C Circuits: Charging a Capacitor (4 of 4) • The current through the resistor in a charging R-C circuit decreases exponentially, with a time constant τ = RC.
R-C Circuits: Discharging a Capacitor (1 of 4) • Shown is a simple R-C circuit for discharging a capacitor. • Before the switch is closed, the capacitor charge is Q0, and the current is zero.
R-C Circuits: Discharging a Capacitor (2 of 4) • At some initial time t = 0 we close the switch, allowing the capacitor to discharge through the resistor. • As t increases, the magnitude of the current decreases, while the charge on the capacitor also decreases.
R-C Circuits: Discharging a Capacitor (3 of 4) • The charge on the capacitor in a discharging R-C circuit decreases exponentially, with a time constant τ = RC.
R-C Circuits: Discharging a Capacitor (4 of 4) • The magnitude of the current through the resistor in a discharging R-C circuit decreases exponentially, with a time constant τ = RC.
