FEEE Notes

Unit 1 Basic Electrical Parameter and concepts

1.1 What is an Electric Charge?

In the CBSE curriculum, understanding the concept of electric charge and its various
types is of utmost importance.

Electric Charge Definition

Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that

gives rise to the phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and
magnetic fields. These fields exert influence on charged particles, resulting in
observable effects.

Types of Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative charges. Positive
charges are associated with protons, which are subatomic particles residing in the
nucleus of an atom. They are represented by the symbol “+”. On the other hand,
negative charges are linked to electrons, which orbit the atomic nucleus and are
denoted by the symbol “-“.

The distinction between positive and negative charges plays a vital role in
comprehending the behaviour of electrically charged objects. Opposite charges, such
as positive and negative, attract each other, while like charges, such as positive and
positive or negative and negative, repel each other. This fundamental principle is the
foundation for various concepts in electromagnetism and is pivotal in understanding the
interaction of charged particles.
When an object carries a negative charge, it possesses an excess of electrons
compared to protons. Conversely, a positive charge indicates an excess of protons
relative to electrons.

It’s important to note that when an equal number of positive and negative charges are
present, they cancel each other out, resulting in a neutral state for the object.

By grasping the definition of electric charge and recognizing the significance of positive
and negative charges, one can understand the fundamental principles governing
electricity and magnetism.

Coloumb is the unit of electric charge.

“One coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred in one second.”

Mathematically, the definition of a coloumb is represented as:

Q = I.t
In the equation, Q is the electric charge, I is the electric current and t is the time.

Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of electric
current is the Ampere.

Electrons are minute particles that exist within the molecular structure of a substance.
Sometimes, these electrons are tightly held, and other times they are loosely held.
When electrons are loosely held by the nucleus, they are able to travel freely within the
limits of the body. Electrons are negatively charged particles hence when they move, a
number of charges moves, and we call this movement of electrons as electric current. It
should be noted that the number of electrons that are able to move governs the ability of
a particular substance to conduct electricity. Some materials allow the current to move
better than others. Based on the ability of the material to conduct electricity, materials
are classified into conductors and insulators.

Conductors: these materials allow the free flow of electrons from one particle to another.
Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons. The flow
of electrons inside the conducting material or conductor generates an electric current.
The force that is required to drive the current flow through the conductor is known as
voltage.

Examples of conductors: Human body, aqueous solutions of salts and metals like
iron, silver and gold.
Properties of Electric Current

 We know that electric current is the result of the flow of electrons. The work done
in moving the electron stream is known as electrical energy. Electrical energy
can be converted into other forms of energy such as heat energy, light energy,
etc. For example, in an iron box, electric energy is converted to heat energy.
Likewise, the electric energy in a bulb is converted into light energy.
 There are two types of electric current known as alternating current (AC) and
direct current (DC). The direct current can flow only in one direction, whereas the
alternating direction flows in two directions. Direct current is seldom used as a
primary energy source in industries. It is mostly used in low voltage applications
such as charging batteries, aircraft applications, etc. Alternating current is used
to operate appliances for both household and industrial and commercial use.
 The electric current is measured in ampere. One ampere of current represents
one coulomb of electric charge moving past a specific point in one second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second

 The conventional direction of an electric current is the direction in which a

positive charge would move. Henceforth, the current flowing in the external circuit
is directed away from the positive terminal and toward the negative terminal of
the battery.

Ideal Current Source:

Definition:
An ideal current source is a two terminal device which supplies constant current
irrespective of load resistance. The value of current will be constant with respect to time
and load resistance. This means that the power delivering capability is infinite for this
source.
An ideal current source has infinite parallel resistance connected to it. Therefore, the
output current is independent of voltage of the source terminals. No such current source
exists in the world, this is just a concept. However, every current source is designed to
approach closer to the ideal one.
Symbol:
It is represented by the symbol as shown below.
Characteristics:
The characteristics of ideal current source is shown below.

Internal Resistance of Ideal Current Source:

The internal resistance of current source is the value of resistance connected across its
terminal. This internal resistance of ideal current source is infinite.
Let us understand this using circuit diagram. Any current source is represented by a
parallel connection of current source and resistance. This is shown in figure below.

Since, output current in the above circuit should be I for ideal case, this means the
current through parallel resistance R should be zero. This is only possible if the value of
this resistance is infinite. This is the reason; the internal parallel resistance of ideal
current source is infinite.
Practical Current Source:
Definition:
A practical current source is a two terminal device having some resistance connected
across its terminals. Unlike ideal current source, the output current of practical source
depends on the voltage of the source. The more this voltage, the lesser will be the
current.
To better understand, let us consider a practical current source as shown below.

It is quite clear from the above circuit that the voltage of source is equal to the voltage
drop across the resistance R. This voltage drop is given as V = iR, where i is the current
through the resistance R. Hence the output current Io = (I – i).
Thus, if V is more, this means i is more and hence output current Io will be less.
Characteristics of Practice Current Source:
Let us first derive the relationship between the voltage of the source and output current.
V = iR
i = V/R
Therefore,
Io = (I – i)
= (I – V/R)
The above equation represents a straight line with slope (-1/R). Thus, the
characteristics of practical current source can be drawn as shown below.

1.2 Analogy of charge

When describing voltage, current, and resistance, a common analogy is a water tank. In
this analogy, charge is represented by the water amount, voltage is represented by the
water pressure, and current is represented by the water flow. So for this analogy,
remember: Water = Charge.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lvp_a_JkD2o

Potential difference between two points.

1. Potential difference between any two points In the electric field is

defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge
without acceleration from one point to another along any path between

2. It is denoted by 𝑑𝑉.
the two points.

𝑑𝑉=𝑑𝑤𝑑𝑞
3. Or the potential difference between points A and B, is defined as the shift
in the potential energy of a charge q, divided by the charge, shifted from A

𝑉𝐵-𝑉𝐴=𝑈𝐵-𝑈𝐴𝑞=𝑊𝐴𝐵𝑞=𝑑𝑉
to B.

4. The SI unit of electrostatic potential difference is volt.

5. Potential difference is said to be one volt if one joule of work is done in
moving a charge of one coulomb from one point to another in an electric
field.
6. If a positive charge is moved from a point at a higher potential to a point
at a lower potential, energy is liberated.

Induced EMF

Induced EMF

1. Induced EMF: If the magnetic flux through a coil is changed, a

voltage will be produced. This voltage is known as the induced
emf.

Induced EMF can be created in two ways:

 1. If an electric current conductor moves in a magnetic field then
an induced emf is produced.

2. If a magnetic field is moving around an electric field then an

induced EMF is produced

The mathematical expression for induced emf is

1. For a rod
inducedemf=magneticfield×lengthoftheconductor×speedofthe
movingobjectrelativetothemagneticfielde=BLv
From the above equations, we can say,
4.1 The number of turns in the coil is directly proportional to
the induced emf
4.2 The magnetic field strength is directly proportional to the
induced emf
4.3 The speed of the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet is directly proportional to the induced emf

2. According to Lenz's law, the induced electromotive force with

different polarities induces a current whose magnetic field
opposes the change in magnetic flux through the loop in order
to ensure that the original flux is maintained through the loop
when the current flows in it.
ϕϕemf=number of turns×change in flux change in time=-
Ndϕdt
From the above equations, we can say,

3. Hence, the rate of change of flux is directly proportional to the

induced emf

Terminal voltage
E.m.f.: When no current is drawn from a cell, the potential difference
between the terminals of the cell is called its electro-motive force (or
e.m.f.).

Terminal voltage: When current is drawn from a cell, the potential

difference between the electrodes of the cell is called its terminal
voltage.

Terminal voltage is the potential difference across the terminals of a load when the
circuit is switched on. E.m.f is the maximum potential difference that can be delivered by
a cell or a generator when no current flows through it. Terminal voltage is measured by
voltmeter whereas, E.m.f is measured by potentiometer.

Ideal & Practical Voltage Source

Ideal Voltage Source
An ideal voltage source is defined as the two terminal device capable of providing a
constant voltage across its terminals. The voltage across the terminals of an ideal
voltage source remains constant and is independent of load current.
Symbol:
The symbol of an ideal voltage source is shown below.

Characteristics:
As per the definition, the voltage across the terminals of such source is always constant
irrespective of the circuit resistance or output current. This means, the characteristics of
this source must be as shown below.
In the above, characteristics, circuit resistance means the resistance connected across
the terminals of source.
Internal Resistance:
The internal series resistance of an ideal voltage source is ZERO. Let us understand
this by using the following circuit diagram.

In the above circuit diagram, R represents the resistance connected across the
terminals A & B of a source having series internal resistance r. A current I is shown
flowing in the circuit.
Let us now calculate the voltage across the terminals A and B i.e. VAB.
VAB = (V-Ir) …………(1)
Now, for source to be ideal, the voltage across its terminal A & B must be constant and
equal to V irrespective of the value of current.
(V-Ir) = V
r=0
Thus, the internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is always zero. However, no
such source exists in the world. All the sources of voltage have some series connected
internal resistance and hence its terminal voltage vary with current I as per (1). Such
sources are called practical / real voltage source.
Practical Voltage Source:
A practical voltage source is one which we find around us. The terminal voltage across
its terminals are not constant rather it varies with output current. Internal resistance of
practical voltage source has some finite value. Though efforts are made to minimize this
internal resistance. Examples of voltage sources are Batteries, Generators etc.
Symbol:
A practical voltage source is denoted as an ideal voltage source connected with a series
resistance. This series resistance (r) represents the internal resistance of the source.
Characteristics:
Since the practical voltage source have finite value of internal resistance, therefore, the
voltage across its terminal A&B i.e. V AB is not constant rather it depends upon the circuit
current. The more the value of current, the lesser will be the magnitude of terminal
voltage VAB. Similarly, if the current is less, the terminal voltage will be more. In fact, the
relationship between the circuit current and terminal voltage of a practical voltage
source is given as below.
VAB = (V-Ir)
For a given source, the source voltage and its internal resistance r are constant,
therefore the above expression represents a straight line having slope “-r”. The
characteristics of a practical voltage source is shown below.

From the above characteristic, it is clear that the terminal voltage is dependent on the
output current. However, the value of internal resistance is very small and hence there
is slight variation of terminal voltage with the output current. Hence, a practical voltage
source approaches ideal voltage source.

1.3 Resistor

It is defined as- A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for
either limiting or regulating the flow of electric current in electrical circuits. The main
purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow and to lower the voltage in any
particular portion of the circuit.
The SI unit of resistor is Ohm.

There are two basic types of resistors as follows:

 Linear resistor
 Non-linear resistor

Linear resistors

The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are
known as linear resistors. There are two types of linear resistors:

Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be
changed. Following are the different types of fixed resistors:

 Carbon composition resistors

 Wire wound resistors
 Thin film resistors
 Thick film resistors
Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be
changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in radio
receivers for controlling volume and tone. Following are the different types of variable
resistors:

 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Trimmers

Non-linear resistors

The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage applied and is not
dependent on Ohm’s law. Following are the different types of non-linear resistors:

 Thermisters
 Varisters
 Photo resistors
Practical application of resistors

Because of the nature of generating heat when conducting current, resistors are used in
a heater, toaster, microwave, electric stove, and many more heating appliances. In a
light bulb, the metal filament glows white-hot due to the very high temperature produced
from the resistance when electricity is passed through it.

Effect of temperature on resistance

Series and parallel combination of resistance

Resistors in Series

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the same amount of
current flows through all the resistors. In such circuits, the voltage across each resistor
is different. In a series connection, if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs, then the
entire circuit is turned off. The construction of a series circuit is simpler compared to a
parallel circuit.
For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ….. + Rn
The total resistance of the system is just the total sum of individual resistances.
For example, consider the following sample problem.
A resistor with an electrical resistance value of 100 ohms is connected to another with a
resistance value of 200 ohms. The two resistances are connected in series. What is the
total resistance across the system?

Here, R1 = 100 Ω and R2= 200 Ω

Rtotal = 100 + 200 = 300 Ω

Resistors in Parallel

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is the same
across all the resistors. In such circuits, the current is branched out and recombined
when branches meet at a common point. A resistor or any other component can be
connected or disconnected easily without affecting other elements in a parallel circuit.
Phase Difference

1.4 Heating, magnetic and chemical effect of current

There are 3 main effects of electricity as,

 Heating effect
 Magnetic effect (Magnetism)
 Chemical effect

Heating Effect of Electric Current

As this electric effect’s name imply, generation of heat due to electric current is known
as the heating effect of electricity. The electric iron, kettle, toaster, heater, etc. are
used as alternatives to the conventional methods of cooking and laundry. The same is
used in electric bulbs which is the alternative of conventional lamps. These devices
have revolutionized the world over the years. In this section, we will discuss the concept
of the heating effect of electric current and its applications.
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the
hindrance caused by the conductor to the flowing current. The work done in overcoming
the hindrance to the current generates heat in that conductor.

Application:

Following are the devices in which heating effect of current is harnessed for other
purposes:

Electric Iron

Electric Bulb

Electric Heater

Electric Fuse

ffMagnetic Effects of Electric Current

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current – A magnetic field is a force field that is created by
magnetic dipoles and moving electric charges, and it exerts a force on other nearby
moving charges and magnetic dipoles. Magnetic Field is a vector quantity because it
has both magnitude and direction.

Magnetic Field Lines

A magnetic field line or lines of forces shows the strength of a magnet and the direction
of a magnet’s force. It was discovered by Michael Faraday to visualise the magnetic
field.

Direction of Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are directed from the south pole to the north pole inside the magnet
and from the north pole to the south outside the magnet.

Strength of Magnetic Field Lines

A straight current-carrying conductor has a magnetic field in the shape of concentric

circles around it. Magnetic field lines can visualise the magnetic field of a straight
current-carrying conductor.
The direction of a magnetic field produced due to a current-carrying conductor relies
upon the same direction in which the current is flowing.

The direction of the magnetic field gets reversed if the direction of the electric current
changes.

Let Us Understand Magnetic Effect of Electric Current Using a

Simple Experiment:

suppose a straight current-carrying conductor is hung vertically, and an electric current

is flowing from north to south, i.e. from up to down. In this situation, the direction of the
magnetic field will be clockwise. And if the same current is flowing from south to north
through the same conductor, the direction of the magnetic field will be anti-clockwise.

The direction of the magnetic field in electric current through a straight conductor can be
represented by using the Right-Hand Thumb Rule.

Applications of Chemical Effects of Electric Current

Electroplating

Electroplating is a process where a layer of metal is deposited on another material with

the help of electricity. Based on the application, the right electrodes and electrolytes
must be chosen. To deposit gold over a material, an electrolyte containing gold must be
chosen. Out of the two electrodes, one electrode should be of gold, and the other
electrode needs to be a material on which gold is coated.
Electroplating of Copper on Brass

While coating copper over brass, you need a copper electrode and a brass electrode
and any solution containing copper, such as copper sulphate solution. The copper
electrode is made anode, and the brass electrode is made the cathode. When current is
passed through the copper sulphate solution, it breaks down into ions. The copper ions
with a positive charge get attracted to the brass electrode, and the sulphur ions with a
negative charge get attracted to copper electrode. The amount of time taken for the
completion of the process depends upon the strength of the being passed through the
circuit and the concentration of the solution.

Applications of Electroplating

 Electroplating is used in imitation jewellery which is made by applying a layer of

gold or silver.
 Parts of a bicycle and motorbike are chrome plated through electroplating.
 Tin cans are made by electroplating tin on iron.
 Beams of bridges and electric poles are electroplated with zinc.
 Anodizing and chrome plating prevent corrosion.

Electrical work,Power and energy

We use electrical energy to power various electrical devices in our daily lives. The
quantity of energy transmitted in an electric circuit for a certain period is known as
electric power. Energy is defined as the ability to carry out any task. Work is done when
a force moves an object from one point to another.
Electrical energy is defined as the work done by the source of electricity to maintain the
rate of flow of charge in an electrical circuit.

The movement of an electric charge produces electrical energy. Kinetic Energy is the
movement of charges from one location to another. The capacity to carry more electrical
energy grows as the speed of the electric charge transfer increases.

According to the conversion law, ‘Energy cannot be converted nor destroyed, but it can
be altered from one form to another. Electrical energy is transferred from one form to
another in the same way.

For example, when you turn on a light bulb, electrical energy is converted into light and
heat. Electrical energy can be utilised to power and run a wide range of electrical
devices.

Electrical energy can be denoted as ‘W’ or ‘E’.

Electrical Energy Formula

Let us consider a basic circuit with a power source (battery), a resistance and a
conductor to complete the current flow.

Assume ‘V’ is the potential difference existing across a circuit, ‘I’ is the current flowing
through it, ‘Q’ is the charge and ’R’ is the resistance.

Then work done by the electrical charge will be,

W = V*Q

We know that,

I = Q/t

It can be written as,

Q=It

When current ‘I’ flow through a conductor for ‘t’ seconds, the total work done by the
charge ‘Q’ is
W = V*I*t

Therefore, the Electrical Energy formula can be given as follows,

E = V*I*t joules

Basic Units of Electrical Energy

SI units of Electrical Energy are given in joules or watts-sec. Also, electrical energy is
measured in the other units like ergs and calories.

The electrical energy (i.e. electricity) is mostly measured in the Electron-watt, Kilowatt-
hour (kWh) and Megawatt-hour (MWh).

Since V = IR

E= I2R*t Or I = V/R
Thus, E = V2t/R
Definition of Electrical Power

Electrical power is the rate at which work on an electrical circuit is completed. Working
generates energy, as we already discussed. As a result, electric power can be defined
as the rate of electrical energy consumed in a circuit per unit of time.

Electrical power can be denoted as ‘P’.

Now we know that work done is given as,

W = VQ

Electrical power is defined as the amount of electrical work carried out per unit of time.
As a result, we can write in derivative form as,

Power = dQ/dt

As, current (I) = dQ/dT

The electrical power formula is given as,

Power (P) = V*I watts

Basic units of Electrical Power

SI units of electrical power are given as Watt (W) or Joule/Sec (J/s).

Sometimes, Electrical power is measured in ergs per second.

Volts are used to measure voltage, whereas amperes measure current.

Watt is the unit of power as a result. However, because watt represents a small number,
greater ratings are expressed in kilowatt-hours.

Therefore, P = V*I

And V = I*R

Thus P = I2R Or I = V/R

Therefore, P = V2t/R
As a result of this explanation, we can conclude that the current flowing through an
electrical circuit is related to electrical energy and power. Electrical energy manifests
itself as heat and power is measured in units of consumption time. The units of electrical
energy are given in joules and electrical energy is given in watts. E stands for electrical
energy, while P stands for electrical power. The value of energy is calculated as the
product of power and time. On the other hand, power is the product of the potential
difference between two conductor ends and the current running through them.

Open and short circuit condition of electric circuit

A closed path following an electric current is known as an electric circuit or

simply circuit. An electric circuit consists of a number of circuit components
such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, etc.

Sometimes in an electric circuit, two undesirable conditions occur namely

open circuit and short circuit. Basically, these two states of an electric circuit
are considered as faults in the circuit and hence are undesirable.

What is an Open Circuit?

As its name suggests, an open is a break in the path of the current in the
circuit. Therefore, an open circuit can be defined as a break or interruption in
the circuit path.

An open circuit may be as a result of a component failure or disconnection of

a conducting path such as breaking of a conducting wire.

For any electrical circuit, by Ohm’s law, we have,

R=V/I

Now in case of open circuit, the current through the circuit is zero, thus,

R=V/0=∞

Hence, ideally an open circuit offers infinite resistance in the path of electric
current.

The effect of open circuit in a series circuit and a parallel circuit is different.
That is, in a series circuit following symptoms can be observed −

 The total circuit current becomes zero.

 There is no voltage drop across the components which are normal.
 The total supply voltage will appear across the open circuited
terminals.
 The terminal voltage of source may measure higher than the normal.

Following are the effects of an open circuit in a parallel circuit −

 The total circuit will decrease.

  The current through the open circuit branch becomes zero, while the
operation of the branches without open circuit will be normal.

What is a Short Circuit?

In any electrical circuit, the unwanted path of low resistance is called short
circuit. When a short circuit occurs in an electric circuit, the total resistance
of the circuit becomes very low.

Consequently, the total circuit current becomes greater than the normal
which may cause damage of other heathy devices in the circuit.

The common reasons of occurrence of short circuit in an electric circuit are

insulation failure, components get shorted, etc.

The effect of short circuit in both series circuits and parallel circuit is almost
same. Sometimes, the short circuits are result in electric fire, explosion, etc.

Mathematically, by Ohm’s law, we have,

R=V/I

When there is a short circuit in the circuit, the circuit current becomes
infinitely high, thus,

R=V/∞=0

Hence, a short circuit ideally offers a resistance of zero ohms in the path of
current.
Differences between Open Circuit and Short Circuit

Both open and short circuits are unwanted conditions in an electric circuit
and are treated as a fault in the circuit. However, there are several
differences between open and short circuit that are listed in the following
table −

1.5 Capacitor

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy by accumulating electric charges on

two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other.

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an
electric charge. It consists of two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance.
The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating
material known as a dielectric. The ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as
capacitance.

Capacitors store energy by holding apart pairs of opposite charges. The simplest design
for a capacitor is a parallel plate, which consists of two metal plates with a gap between
them. But, different types of capacitors are manufactured in many forms, styles, lengths,
girths, and materials.
How Does a Capacitor Work?

For demonstration, let us consider the most basic structure of a capacitor – the parallel
plate capacitor. It consists of two parallel plates separated by a dielectric. When we
connect a DC voltage source across the capacitor, one plate is connected to the
positive end (plate I) and the other to the negative end (plate II). When the potential of
the battery is applied across the capacitor, plate I become positive with respect to plate
II. The current tries to flow through the capacitor at the steady-state condition from its
positive plate to its negative plate. But it cannot flow due to the separation of the plates
with an insulating material.

An electric field appears across the capacitor. The positive plate (plate I) accumulates
positive charges from the battery, and the negative plate (plate II) accumulates negative
charges from the battery. After a point, the capacitor holds the maximum amount of
charge as per its capacitance with respect to this voltage. This time span is called
the charging time of the capacitor.

When the battery is removed from the capacitor, the two plates hold a negative and
positive charge for a certain time. Thus, the capacitor acts as a source of electrical
energy.

If these plates are connected to a load, the current flows to the load from Plate I to Plate
II until all the charges are dissipated from both plates. This time span is known as
the discharging time of the capacitor.
How Do You Determine the Value of Capacitance?

The conducting plates have some charges Q 1 and Q2 (Usually, if one plate has +q, the
other has –q charge). The electric field in the region between the plates depends on the
charge given to the conducting plates. We also know that potential difference (V) is
directly proportional to the electric field hence we can say,
𝑄∝𝑉

𝑄=𝐶𝑉
𝐶=𝑄𝑉
This constant of proportionality is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.

Capacitance is the ratio of the change in the electric charge of a system to the
corresponding change in its electric potential.
The capacitance of any capacitor can be either fixed or variable, depending on its
usage. From the equation, it may seem that ‘C’ depends on charge and voltage.
Actually, it depends on the shape and size of the capacitor and also on the insulator
used between the conducting plates.
Capacitive reactance

A capacitor is a device used to store electrical energy. The capacitance of a capacitor

determines the amount of charging a capacitor can achieve. The measure of the
opposition to alternating current by the capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance. The
unit of Capacitive Reactance is Ohms like resistance. The symbol of Capacitive
Reactance is XC .

Capacitive Reactance Formula is expressed by

XC =1/2Π𝑓𝐶
Where in,

XC is the capacitance reactance measured in ohms

C = capacitance in farads

f = frequency in hertz

Example 1

Calculate the capacitive reactance if 40 mF is connected to a frequency generator of 50

Hz signal.

Solution

According to given parameters

C= 40 mF

F = 50Hz

The capacitance reactance formula is given by

Xc = 1 / 2πfC

= 1 / 2×3.14× 40×10−3×50

= 0.07961Ω

Energy stored in capacitor

We know that a capacitor is used to store energy.

Work has to be done to transfer charges onto a conductor against the force of repulsion
from the already existing charges on it. This work done to charge from one plate to the
other is stored as the potential energy of the electric field of the conductor.

C = Q/V

Suppose the charge is being transferred from plate B to A. At the moment, the charge
on the plates is Q’ and –Q’. Then, to transfer a charge of dQ’ from B to A, the work done
by an external force will be
𝑑𝑊=𝑉𝑑𝑄′=(𝑄′/𝐶)𝑑𝑄′

Total work done=

Q.A parallel plate capacitor has plates of an area of 4 m 2 separated by a distance of 0.5
mm. The capacitor is connected across a cell of emf 100 volts. Find the capacitance,
charge and energy stored in the capacitor if a dielectric slab of dielectric constant k = 3
and thickness 0.5 mm is inserted inside this capacitor after it has been disconnected
from the cell.
Sol: When the capacitor is without dielectric

Series and parallel combination of capacitor

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential difference V across each is the
same and the charge on C1 and C2 is different, i.e., Q1 and Q2.
Series Combination of Capacitors

When capacitors are connected in series, the magnitude of charge Q on each capacitor
is the same. The potential difference across C1 and C2 is different, i.e., V1 and V2.

Problem 1: Two capacitors of capacitance C1 = 6 μ F and C2 = 3 μ F are connected

in series across a cell of emf 18 V. Calculate:

(a) The equivalent capacitance

(b) The potential difference across each capacitor

(c) The charge on each capacitor

Sol:

(a)

Supercapacitor

Supercapacitor is an electrochemical capacitor that has high energy density

and better performance efficiency as compared to the common capacitor,
the reason why it has the prefix ‘super ’attached to it. It stores and
releases energy by reversible desorption and adsorption of ions at the
electrode-electrolyte interface.

Conventional capacitors have low energy density with wider cell voltage and
higher specific power. On the other hand, supercapacitors have high
capacitance over a lower limit of cell voltage.
Supercapacitors are made up of two electrodes, an electrolyte and a porous
membrane separator. This specific structure of supercapacitors makes them
have the features of conventional capacitors as well as electrochemical
batteries.

Nanomaterial-based supercapacitors are used to increase the electrode

surface area so as to achieve high performance and enhanced capacitance.

Types of Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors are also referred to as gold capacitors, power capacitors,

ultracapacitors or super condensers. On the basis of their charge storage
mechanism, these are classified into three types:

1. Electrostatic double-layer capacitors

2. Pseudo capacitors
3. Hybrid capacitors

1.6 Inductors

The passive electrical component called an inductor stores energy in the form of a
magnetic field. An inductor is a wire loop or coil in its most basic form.

Inductors are commonly employed in switched-mode power systems to produce DC

current as energy storage devices. The inductor stores energy and delivers it to the
circuit to keep current flowing during “off” switching periods, allowing for topographies
with output voltage exceeding input voltage

Five Properties of Inductors

Property 1: Inductors store kinetic energy in the form of magnetic energy. The formula
for energy stored in the magnetic field is equal to E = (½)LI 2, where L is the inductance
and I is the current.

Property 2: Inductors allow only direct current (DC) to pass through it while blocking the
alternating current (AC). These types of inductors are called chokes.

Property 3: Inductors consume reactive power from the power source.

Property 4: In a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind voltage by 900.

Property 5: Inductors oppose current change for alternating current.

Inductance is classified into two types as:

 Self Inductance
 Mutual Inductance

What is Self Inductance?

When there is a change in the current or magnetic flux of the coil, an electromotive
force is induced. This phenomenon is termed Self Inductance. When the current starts
flowing through the coil at any instant, it is found that, that the magnetic flux becomes
directly proportional to the current passing through the circuit. The relation is given as:
𝜙=𝐿×𝐼
Where L is termed as the self-inductance of the coil or the coefficient of self-inductance,
the self-inductance depends on the cross-sectional area, the permeability of the
material, and the number of turns in the coil.

The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,

𝑒=–𝑑𝜙/𝑑𝑡=–𝑑(𝐿𝐼)/𝑑𝑡
𝑒=–𝐿𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡

Self inductance formula:

𝐿=𝑁𝜙/𝐼

Where,

 L is the self inductance in Henries

 N is the number of turns
 Φ is the magnetic flux
 I is the current in amperes

What is Mutual Inductance?

Consider two coils: P – coil (Primary coil) and S – coil (Secondary coil). A battery and a
key are connected to the P-coil, whereas a galvanometer is connected across the S-
coil. When there is a change in the current or magnetic flux linked with the two coils, an
opposing electromotive force is produced across each coil, and this phenomenon is
termed Mutual Inductance.
This phenomenon is given by the relation:
𝜙=𝑀𝐼

Where M is termed as the mutual inductance of the two coils or the coefficient of the
mutual inductance of the two coils.

The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,

𝑒=–𝑑𝜙/𝑑𝑡=–𝑑(𝑀𝐼)/𝑑𝑡
𝑒=–𝑀𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡
Mutual Inductance Formula

𝑀=𝜇0𝜇𝑟𝑁1𝑁2𝐴/𝑙

Where,

 μ0 is the permeability of free space

 μr is the relative permeability of the soft iron core
 N is the number of turns in coil
 A is the cross-sectional area in m2
 l is the length of the coil in m

Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance is the name given to the opposition to a changing current flow. This
impedance is measured in ohms, just like resistance. In inductors, voltage leads current
by 90 degrees.

An inductor competes against the current in a coil which alters the direction and
instantaneous magnitude. This opposition is comparable to resistance but always
possesses a phase shift between voltage and current and dissipate zero power. As it
has some alteration from the resistance, it is termed as reactance. Inductive reactance
is denoted as XL. The SI unit is the ohm. The formula for reactance is given as

XL = 2πfL

Where the frequency is f, L is the inductance and XL is the inductive reactance.

Example 1: An inductor of 2H is connected to a circuit at a frequency of 50Hz.

Compute the inductive reactance of this circuit?

Answer:

The given parameters are,

f = 50Hz

L = 2H

Inductive reactance formula is given as,

XL = 2πfL

XL = 2×3.14×50×2

XL= 628 Ω

Example 2: At what frequency does a 250 mH inductor have 3.5 kΩ of reactance?

Answer:

The known parameters are,

XL = 3.5 kΩ = 3500Ω
f =? and

L = 250mH = 0.25H

Inductive reactance formula is articulated as,

XL = 2π fL

𝑓=𝑋𝐿/2𝜋𝐿
𝑓=3500/2×3.14×0.25
f = 2229 Hz

Energy stored in inductor

1. An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power

electronic circuits to store energy in the form of magnetic energy when
electricity is applied to it.
2. The inductor store electrical energy.
3. The expression for energy stored in an inductor
W=(1/2)Li2
where, W represents energy stored in an inductor, L represents
inductance and i represents current.

Inductance in AC and DC circuit

when an inductor is subjected to a current having a particular polarity, it tries to oppose

it while it's being stored inside the inductor in the form of magnetic energy.

This response is exponential, meaning gradually varying with time , during which the
resistance of the inductor is maximum at the onset of the DC application and gradually
reduces and moves towards zero resistance with time, eventually reaching zero ohm
after some specified time depending upon the magnitude of the inductance (directly
proportional).
The above response can be visualized through the presented graph below. The green
waveform shows the curren (Amp) response through the inductor when a DC applied to
it.

It can be clearly seen that the current is zero through the inductor at the onset and
gradually increases to the maximum value as it stores the energy magnetically.

The brown line indicates the voltage across the inductor for the same. We can witness it
to be maximum at the switch ON instant, which gradually dies down to the lowest value
during the course of the inductor energy storage.

Inductor response for AC Voltages

An AC or an alternating current is nothing but a DC changing it's polarity at some given
rate also called the frequency.

An inductor will respond to an AC exactly in the manner explained above however since
it would be subjected to a constantly changing polarity at the given frequency, the
storing and releasing of electrical energy inside the inductor will also correspond to this
frequency resulting in an opposition to the current.

This magnitude or the impedance may be assumed to be the average or the RMS value
of this continuous give-and-take of electrical energy across the inductor.

Thus in short the response of the inductor to AC would be identical to that of a resistor
in a DC circuit.
Types of inductors

Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used, inductors can be classified as follows:

1. Iron Core Inductor

2. Air Core Inductor
3. Iron Powder Inductor
4. Ferrite Core Inductor, which is divided into:

 Soft Ferrite
 Hard Ferrite

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests, the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors
are low-space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they
are limited in high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is
no core, it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is
more for this type when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-
quality factor. Usually, ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is iron oxide. They are formed by very fine and
insulating particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the
air gap. The permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less and is usually
below 100. They are mainly used in switching power supplies.

Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of inductor, ferrite materials are used as the core. The general composition
of ferrites is XFe2O4, where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified
into two types: soft ferrites and hard ferrites.

 Soft Ferrite: These are materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity
without any external energy.
 Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets, that is, their polarity will not change
even when the magnetic field is removed.
MEMS inductor and their applications