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Unit 1. Part 2 of Cognitive Psychology

Perspectives of how cognition is viewed
(Information processing, connectionist, ecological and evolutionary)

Information Processing Perspective:

The information processing perspective is one of the foundational approaches in cognitive
psychology. It likens the human mind to a computer, with the central idea that cognitive processes involve
the flow of information through various stages, such as input, processing, and output. Information is
perceived, processed, stored, and retrieved, akin to the way a computer processes data.
The information processing theory is a cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind
transforms sensory information. The model assumes that information that comes from the environment is
subject to mental processes beyond a simple stimulus-response pattern. "Input" from the environment goes
through the cognitive systems which is then measured by the "output". Information that is received can take
several paths depending on attention, encoding, recognition, and storage. The central executive feature
controls how much information is being processed, though more primitive sensory areas of the brain first
accept environmental input. The theory looks at real time responses to presented stimuli and how the mind
transforms that information. The model is used in several areas of research such as; cognitive development,
neuroscience, social learning, and artificial intelligence.
Over long spans of time individuals process information with greater efficiency. The model assumes
that through the process of maturation one develops greater abilities to attend to stimulus, recognize patterns,
encode, and retrieve information. Over the life span individuals experience more information, associations,
and ways to categorize the input. The process may seem passive, but the model assumes that input from the
environment is actively being transformed and rehearsed thus becoming a part of long term memory. For
environmental information to become a part of long-term memory one must attend to, rehearse, and make
sense of the stimuli. The interaction between nature and nurture coincide for changes in development. The
model does not attempt nor can it distinguish between the two.
Information processing theory combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative development.
Qualitative development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and
retrieval, developing representational abilities (such as the utilization of language to represent concepts), or
obtaining problem-solving rules. Increases in the knowledge base or the ability to remember more items in
working memory are examples of quantitative changes, as well as increases in the strength of connected
cognitive associations. The qualitative and quantitative components often interact together to develop new
and more efficient strategies within the processing system.
Information Processing Theory is currently being utilized in the study of computer or artificial
intelligence. This theory has also been applied to systems beyond the individual, including families and
business organizations. For example, Ariel (1987) applied Information Processing Theory to family systems,
with sensing, attending, and encoding stimuli occuring either within individuals within the system or as the
family system itself. Rogers, Miller, and Judge (1999) utilized Information Processing Theory to describe
business organizational behavior, as well as to present a model describing how effective and ineffective
business strategies are developed.

Key features:
- Mental processes are sequential and hierarchical, involving different stages of information
processing.
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- Cognitive processes are seen as active and dynamic, with attention, memory, and problem-solving
playing crucial roles.
- The mind is viewed as a system that manipulates symbols and representations to perform cognitive
tasks.
Example: When someone reads a sentence, the information processing perspective suggests that the words
are perceived, their meanings are extracted, and the sentence's overall message is understood through a series
of cognitive operations.

Importance of the theory:

Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to explain
how information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do not merely respond to
stimuli from the environment, instead humans process the information they receive. They first perceive what
they see (Short Term Memory – remembering the phone number) and permanently stored in the brain (Long
Term Memory). In the computer CPU is the short tem memory while hard drive is the long term memory.
It helps performers identify relevant cues via selective attention, therefore increasing movement
reactions which will lead ultimately to a successful outcome. Successful outcomes are increased if strategies
to help enhance our ability to store more information in the long term memory are practiced.

Connectionist Perspective:
Also known as neural network or parallel distributed processing (PDP), the connectionist perspective
emphasizes the neural basis of cognition. It is inspired by the interconnectedness of neurons in the brain and
how they collectively contribute to cognitive processing.
Connectionism is a set of approaches in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology,
cognitive science, neuroscience, and philosophy of mind, that models mental or behavioral phenomena as the
emergent processes of interconnected networks of simple units. Connectionism entails commitment to mental
representations are distributed patterns of neural activity and mental processes involves parallel
transformations of neural activity patterns and changes in connections. In a connectionist model, knowledge
is acquired through the interaction of the learning rule, architecture and modification through experience.
Connectionist models have been inspired by the neural architecture of the brain although the neurons
they employ are a much simplified version of the real neurons. They typically employ parallel distributed
processing and degrade in a graded manner. Processing is spread over multiple units and any loss results only
in partial information loss and not in a all-or-none manner that is typical of computer memories. The models
developed by the connectionists do not rely on explicit rules but learn through examples and are said to
utilize sub-symbolic representations. Connectionist models are networks made up of neurons or neuron-like
elements and the connections between these neurons are typically modified through experience. The neural
networks employ feed forward or recurrent connections. Many learning algorithms are used for changing
weights in a neural network with the most popular ones being Hebb‟s rule and back propagation algorithm.
Learning algorithms can be supervised, unsupervised, or based on reinforcement. Recurrent connections have
been incorporated in an essentially multi-layer neural network architecture to handle time in a more explicit
manner to model language processing.
If we put it in a simple way, it is an approach to the study of human cognition that utilizes
mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks. It is based on the
principle of active learning and is the result of the work of Thorndike. He claims that learning is achieved
when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response. E.g. by opening
the puzzle box (Stimulus) the cat get the food (response).
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The connectionist models consists of a large number of simple processors, or units with relatively
simple input/output functions that resemble those of nerve cells. These units are connected to each other and
some also to input/output structures, via a number of connections. These connections have different „weight‟.
Symbolic connectionist model suggest single artificial neurons corresponding to linguistic units
(language, sounds, words, etc) and distributed connectionist models represent such linguistic entities by
activity vectors involving numerous neuronal elements.
How to apply: the teacher can apply it in the classroom situation by introducing the principles of
pleasure and pain, reward and punishment. When the student does something wrong, he is punished for it, he
will not do the work again because punishment gives him pain. It is the theory that students learn best if they
are taught to navigate and create social networks via technology and use these networks to learn. E.g. joining
a science forum that discusses mitosis and asking questions on the forum to learn from other members.

Key features:
- Cognitive processes are viewed as emerging from the interactions of interconnected neural nodes
(artificial neurons) in distributed networks.
- Learning occurs through the adjustment of connection strengths (synaptic weights) based on
experience, leading to the emergence of cognitive abilities.
Example: In a connectionist model of language processing, word meanings may emerge through the
activation and interaction of interconnected nodes, representing various aspects of semantic knowledge.
One of the limitations are teachers may have difficulty transitioning to new roles (leadership role to
partnership role). Students learn according to their ability level instead of age level.

Ecological Perspective:
The ecological perspective of cognition, as mentioned earlier, is primarily associated with ecological
psychology. It emphasizes the relationship between an individual and their environment in shaping cognition
and perception.
The term „ecological‟ has become increasingly popular in recent years as it is used in a number of
different contexts with different meanings.
“By ecology we understand the total science of the relations of the organism to the surrounding outside
world, to which we can, in a broad sense, count all “conditions of existence”. These are in part of organic, in
part of non-organic nature; both the former and the latter… are of utmost importance to the form of the
organisms, because they force this to adapt itself to them.”
This perspective is also the cornerstone in the most famous adaptation of the term ecology: James
Gibson‟s (1979) studies of animal perception followed by a number of scholars at the University of
Connecticut developing the field of ecological psychology (EP). Their work developed and refined the use of
the term ecology in providing a more comprehensive and systematic account of Gibson‟s pioneer work
insisting that there is no divide between perception and action.
Moreover, in recent years the ecological perspective has found its way into the large and
heterogenous field of cognitive science as well as linguistics. The ecological turn in these fields of study
share a focus on the relational nature between meaning, cognition, and environment starting with the
assumption that any type of phenomenon or activity is always constrained - restricted and enabled - by the
material as well as socio-cultural aspects of its immediate and extended environment.

Key features:
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- Perception and cognition are considered in the context of an individual's interactions with the
environment.
- Information from the environment is essential for understanding how individuals perceive and make
sense of the world.
- Affordances, or action possibilities, of the environment play a significant role in shaping cognition.
Example: An ecological perspective might examine how a rock climber perceives and navigates a rock face
based on the affordances presented by the various handholds and footholds available.

Evolutionary Perspective:
The evolutionary perspective of cognition focuses on understanding cognitive processes as products
of evolution and natural selection. It seeks to identify how cognitive abilities have evolved to enhance
survival and reproduction.
Darwin (1859) was not the first to suggest that species evolve. In fact, one of the first discussions of
evolution predates Darwin by two and a half millennia. Anaximander, a Greek philosopher, suggested that
“in water the first animal arose covered with spiny skin, and with the lapse of time some crawled onto dry
land and breaking off their skins in a short time they survived.” What Darwin (1859) provided, however, was
a viable working mechanism of evolution: natural selection. Darwinian selection has become the centerpiece
of biology, and in the last few decades, many psychologists and anthropologists have recognized the value of
employing an evolutionary perspective in their work. With a focus on evolved psychological mechanisms
and their information processing, evolutionary psychology has risen as a compelling and fruitful approach to
psychological science.
Natural Selection and Sexual Selection - Evolution by natural selection is the process that results
when (1) individuals of a population vary in their characteristics, (2) much of the variation is heritable, and
(3) resources are limited, so that individuals reproduce differentially. Individuals can vary morphologically,
physiologically, psychologically, and behaviorally no two individuals are exactly the same. Because of these
variations, some individuals may be better able to survive and reproduce in their current environment than
other individuals. If the variations are heritable (i.e., if they have a genetic component), the characteristics
can be passed down from parents to offspring. Limited resources (e.g., food, available mates) result in a
competition between individuals, and those individuals who have inherited characteristics that allow them to
compete more effectively will produce more offspring. Thus, all organisms are subject to evolution by
natural selection. As long as the ingredients of natural selection are present - variation, heredity, and
competition resulting in differential reproduction - organisms will evolve. An example of natural selection
follows. The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is typically white with black spots. This coloration provides
an effective camouflage for the moths as they rest on certain birch trees. There exists variation in the
coloration of moths so that some are very white and some very black. In a series of studies, Kettlewell (1955,
1956) documented that when the white trees on which the moths rested became dark from industrial
pollution, birds ate more of the white moths because they were now conspicuous on the soot-covered trees.
In polluted areas, the population of darker, or melanic, moths replaced the lighter form, but in unpolluted
areas, more of the light-colored moths survived. Kettlewell showed that the environment in which the moths
were better camouflaged contributed to better survival and reproduction. Kettlewell‟s work is a classic
demonstration of natural selection in action. Herbert Spencer‟s summary of natural selection, “survival of the
fittest,” has, unfortunately, caused more confusion than clarification.
Reproduction is a much larger component of natural selection than is survival. If an individual had
characteristics that enabled it to survive for hundreds of years yet it never reproduced, those characteristics
could not be favored by selection because without transmission to offspring, characteristics cannot become
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more common in a population. Survival, therefore, functions only to enable individuals to reproduce (directly
or indirectly). Second, Spencer‟s adage suggests that an individual may evolve to be the “fittest.” What
determines whether an individual is fit is its design in relation to competing designs in the current
environment. What is fit in one generation may be unfit in another generation. Also, fit is often taken to
imply physically fit. Fitness, in an evolutionary context, is an organism‟s success in producing offspring that
survive to reproductive age.
Sexual selection is the process that favors an increase in the frequency of alleles associated with
reproduction. Darwin distinguished sexual selection from natural selection, but today most evolutionary
scientists combine the two concepts under the label natural selection. Sexual selection is composed of intra-
sexual competition (competition between members of the same sex for sexual access to members of the
opposite sex) and intersexual selection (differential mate choice of members of the opposite sex). Under
sexual selection, even a trait that is a liability to survival can evolve. When the sexual attractiveness, for
example, of a trait outweighs the survival costs to maintain it, the trait may be sexually selected. The epitome
of a sexually selected trait is the peacock‟s tail.
Maintaining and maneuvering an unwieldy tail is metabolically costly for peacocks, and it is often the
target of predators. The cumbersome tail evolved, however, because it was attractive to peahens. The mass
and brightness of the plumage are attractive to peahens because this appearance signals a modicum of
parasites. Peacocks with smaller, lackluster tails are more susceptible to parasites and have a higher parasite
load. Thus, the large, bright tail feathers are an honest signal of health, and peahens would be reproductively
wise to select as mates males with such tails (who sire offspring that share their high-quality genes). In many
species, particularly polygynous species where male reproductive variance is high and female reproductive
variance is low, sexual selection is responsible for prominent sexual dimorphism. In such species, intra-
sexual competition between males for sexual access to females is fierce, and a size advantage is adaptive. It
is often difficult to establish whether a trait evolved via natural selection or sexual selection, but, as
mentioned previously, this distinction is not often necessary.

Key features:
- Cognitive processes are viewed as adaptive mechanisms that have evolved over time.
- Evolutionary psychologists seek to identify universal cognitive traits that have been favored by
natural selection.
- Some cognitive functions may be seen as byproducts of adaptations that were initially evolved for
other purposes.
Example: The human tendency to fear snakes and spiders more easily than other objects might be explained
by an evolutionary adaptation that helped our ancestors survive in environments where these creatures posed
a threat.
Each of these perspectives offers unique insights into the study of cognition, and researchers often
combine aspects of different perspectives to gain a more comprehensive understanding of human cognition.

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