Battery Management System

A Seminar Report
Submitted to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of the

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
by
Prajin Kumar V P
TLY21EC065

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING THALASSERY
KERALA
November 2024
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING THALASSERY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

VISION

To render activities that create and transfer a new technology in electronics and
communication to meet the industrial needs and for the benefits of society.

MISSION

• Ensuring effective teaching-learning process to provide in-depth knowledge

of basic principles and its applications in Electronics and Communication
Engineering.

• To educate the students to meet the growing challenges of industry.

• To develop professional attitudes and ethical values to have a productive career

and to serve humanity.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING THALASSERY
2024 - 25

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled Battery Management System submitted
by Prajin Kumar V P (TLY21EC065), to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
the B.Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering is a bonafide report of the
seminar work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision. This report in
any form has not been submitted to any other University or Institute for any purpose.

Shayini R Jinesh S
(Seminar Guide) (Seminar Coordinator)
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept.of ECE Dept.of ECE
College of Engineering College of Engineering
Thalassery Thalassery

Dr.Sudheer V R
Professor and Head
Dept.of ECE
College of Engineering
Thalassery
 DECLARATION

I Prajin Kumar V P hereby declare that the seminar report Battery Management
System , submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of the Bachelor of Technology of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological
University, Kerala is a bonafide work done by me under supervision of Shayini
R , Assistant Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of
Engineering Thalassery.
This submission represents my ideas in my own words and where ideas or words
of others have been included, I have adequately and accurately cited and referenced
the original sources.
I also declare that I have adhered to ethics of academic honesty and integrity
and have not misrepresented or fabricated any data or idea or fact or source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for disciplinary
action by the institute and/or the University and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper permission has
not been obtained. This report has not been previously formed the basis for the award
of any degree, diploma or similar title of any other University.

Thalassery Prajin Kumar V P

23-09-24
Acknowledgement

I take this opportunity to express my deepest sense of gratitude and sincere thanks
to everyone who helped me to complete this work successfully.I am indebted to
Dr.Rajeev P,Principal,College of Engineering Thalassery for giving me provision
to do the seminar in the required way.I express my sincere thanks to Dr.Sudheer
V R, Head of Department, Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of
Engineering Thalassery for providing me with all the necessary facilities and support.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Jinesh S ,Assistant Profes-
sor,Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of Engi-
neering Thalassery for their support and co-operation.
I would like to place on record my sincere gratitude to my seminar guide
Shayini R , Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, College of Engineering Thalassery for the guidance and mentorship
throughout the course.
Finally I thank my family,faculties and friends who contributed to the succesful
fulfilment of this seminar work.

Prajin Kumar V P

i
Abstract

Battery Management Systems (BMS) are crucial for the effective operation of electric
vehicle (EV) batteries, enabling precise monitoring and control of critical parameters
such as State of Charge (SOC), State of Health (SOH), and thermal conditions. This
seminar report delves into the fundamental concepts underpinning battery management
system, SOC estimation ensures efficient utilization of the battery by providing an
accurate measure of available capacity, while SOH tracking helps predict battery
lifespan and maintain safety standards. Proper charging and discharging strategies
managed by BMS are essential to prolong battery life, minimizing risks associated with
overcharging and excessive depletion. BMS also includes cell balancing features that
equalize voltage levels across cells to optimize energy distribution, which improves
battery performance and longevity. Thermal management is another fundamental
component, as it regulates battery temperature to prevent overheating and enhances
overall system reliability. In conclusion, we understand why Battery Management
Systems are critical both now and for the future.

ii
Contents

List of Figures iv

List of Symbols v

1 Introduction 1

2 Literature Review 3

3 Battery management system 8

4 BMS functions 10
4.1 State monitoring and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Charging and discharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Cell balancing and optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Thermal management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Methodology 15
5.1 SOC and SOH estimation approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1.1 Approaches to Soc calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1.2 Approaches to Soh calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Charging and discharging techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Cell balancing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.4 Temperature management techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6 Conclusion 23

References 24

iii
List of Figures

3.1 BMS functional block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.1 Block diagram for state monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.2 Charging and discharging process of battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Illustration of cell balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Block diagram for battery thermal management . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5.1 A general block diagram of model based SOC estimation method . . . 17

5.2 Block diagram for Soh estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Traditional charging approaches for battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4 Active and passive cell balancing topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5 Active liquid cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.6 The working mechanism of PCM on battery cells . . . . . . . . . . . 22

iv
List of Symbols

% ——— Percentage

SOC ——— State of Charge

SOH ——— State of Health

V ——— Voltage

I ——— Current

Rint ——— Internal Resistance

Cn ——— Nominal Capacity of the Battery

η ——— Efficiency Factor (typically between 0 and 1)

τ ——— Time Variable in Integration

∆T ——— Temperature Difference

δV ——— Voltage Variation

T opt ——— Optimal Temperature

T max ——— Maximum Safe Temperature

T min ——— Minimum Safe Temperature

EKF ——— Extended Kalman Filter

UKF ——— Unscented Kalman Filter

CC ——— Constant Current

v
 CV ——— Constant Voltage

CCCV ——— Constant Current Constant Voltage

MCC ——— Multi-Step Constant Current

∆Vcell ——— Cell Voltage Difference (for balancing)

vi
Chapter 1

Introduction

Battery Management Systems (BMS) are integral to electric vehicles (EVs), as they
ensure safe, reliable, and efficient battery operation, which is fundamental to EV
performance and longevity. A BMS manages several core functions related to battery
health and safety, such as State of Charge (SOC), State of Health (SOH), charging
and discharging regulation, cell balancing, and battery thermal management. These
functions allow the BMS to extend battery lifespan, optimize energy use, and maintain
safe operating conditions, particularly under the variable demands of electric vehicle
applications [1].
SOC estimation is one of the primary roles of a BMS, providing real-time data
on the available capacity of the battery. This estimation ensures that EVs are aware
of their remaining charge, which is critical for range accuracy and efficient power
management, especially as vehicles operate under various load and environmental
conditions [2]. Accurate SOC data helps prevent over-discharge, which can lead to
battery degradation, and improves energy usage efficiency, contributing to a longer
battery life.
Another critical component is SOH monitoring, which provides insights into the
overall health and longevity of the battery by comparing its current capacity and
performance with that of a new battery [3]. SOH estimation considers factors such as
capacity fade and internal resistance changes, both of which are impacted by repeated
charging and discharging cycles. Regular SOH monitoring allows for proactive
maintenance and timely interventions, enhancing battery reliability and safety.

1
 Charging and discharging management is also vital, as improper charging rates can
cause significant wear and decrease battery lifespan. The BMS optimizes charging
speed while avoiding extreme currents or voltages that may lead to overheating or
capacity loss [4]. This management function is critical for the extended usability of EV
batteries, particularly as charging demands increase with the growth of fast-charging
infrastructure.
Cell balancing is another essential BMS feature, designed to equalize the charge
levels of individual cells within a battery pack. Without balancing, differences in cell
capacity or age can lead to uneven charge distribution, reducing the overall efficiency
and lifespan of the battery pack [5]. Effective cell balancing enables each cell to
operate at its optimal charge level, which improves overall performance and minimizes
the risk of cell failures.
The thermal management system within a BMS regulates the temperature of the
battery pack to prevent overheating and maintain stable performance [6]. Temperature
fluctuations can significantly impact battery performance and safety, and managing
these fluctuations is essential for avoiding thermal runaway and other temperature-
induced damage. Efficient thermal management ensures that batteries operate within
safe temperature ranges, which is crucial for maintaining consistent performance,
especially in extreme environmental conditions.
Overall, the BMS plays a complex, multifaceted role in supporting electric
vehicles, addressing key challenges related to accurate SOC and SOH estimation, safe
charging practices, effective cell balancing, and thermal control. These capabilities are
central to maximizing battery efficiency, safety, and longevity, helping to make electric
vehicles a more viable and sustainable alternative to conventional vehicles.

2
Chapter 2

Literature Review

1. “Battery management system ”

Electric vehicles (EVs) have become a promising alternative to traditional fossil-
fuel-powered vehicles due to their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
decrease air pollution, and improve energy efficiency. The shift toward EVs is
driven by the global need for sustainable transportation solutions in response to
climate change concerns and fossil fuel depletion.Battery Management Systems
(BMS) play a crucial role in enabling EV adoption by optimizing battery
performance and longevity. A well-designed BMS manages key functions such
as State of Charge (SOC) estimation, which ensures efficient energy utilization,
and State of Health (SOH) monitoring, which tracks battery degradation to
enhance lifespan. By regulating charging and discharging, the BMS prevents
overcharging or deep discharging, which could lead to safety issues and
accelerated aging of battery cells. Another essential aspect of BMS is cell
balancing, which maintains uniform charge levels across all cells in a battery
pack. This uniformity helps avoid issues associated with cell variability,
extending the operational life of the battery. Additionally, thermal management
systems within BMS prevent overheating by controlling the temperature within
optimal limits, further ensuring battery safety and reliability.

Thus, advancements in battery management, encompassing SOC and SOH

monitoring, charging control, cell balancing, and thermal regulation, directly
contribute to the feasibility and attractiveness of EVs. These improvements

3
 in battery technology support EV performance and safety, making them a
competitive and sustainable transportation solution [1].

2. “State of charge“

Accurate state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is vital for effective battery man-

agement in electric vehicles (EVs), as it directly influences battery longevity,
efficiency, and the reliability of EVs. Conventional SOC estimation methods,
such as the Coulomb counting approach, often face limitations, including
error accumulation and reliance on accurate initial conditions. To overcome
these drawbacks, filtering techniques like the extended Kalman filter (EKF)
and unscented Kalman filter (UKF) are commonly employed due to their
effectiveness in managing nonlinear battery dynamics. However, these methods
often assume constant noise statistics, which can compromise performance
in dynamic operating conditions. Experiments conducted with various stress
tests across different temperatures support the improved accuracy of UKF with
autocovariance least-squares (ALS) over traditional EKF methods, showing
lower mean absolute error (MAE) and greater robustness against initialization
errors. Such enhancements make this adaptive approach highly suited for the
dynamic and high-stress demands of EV applications [2].

3. “State of health“

Electric vehicle (EV) battery health is increasingly crucial as EV adoption

rises, with state-of-health (SOH) estimation methods being central to battery
management. Traditional methods typically rely on monitoring voltage drop
over cycles to estimate battery degradation, but these often face challenges
with noise sensitivity and the non-monotonic nature of battery voltage behavior,
which can compromise prediction accuracy. Advanced battery SOH estimation
approaches include models based on fuzzy logic, neural networks, and Bayesian
methods, like the Kalman and particle filters, offering improved accuracy by
integrating predictive modeling of battery behavior. In recent research, empirical
models, which are simpler and focus on measurable physical characteristics,
have shown promise. This work introduces a straightforward, reliable SOH
estimation method by analyzing the time needed for charging at each cycle.

4
 The method minimizes complexity by tracking charging time, which declines as
the battery degrades, showing resilience to noise effects and yielding consistent
results even under noisy conditions. Compared to voltage-charge models,
this time-based approach enhances reliability, particularly in scenarios with
variable degradation patterns. By leveraging cloud-based infrastructure for
data processing and user notifications, this method facilitates practical SOH
monitoring for EV users, enabling timely intervention and potentially extending
battery lifespan [3].

4. “Charging and discharging”

Optimizing the charging and discharging processes of lithium-ion batteries in
electric vehicles (EVs) is essential to maximize efficiency, longevity, and user
satisfaction. Various charging strategies, such as constant current (CC), constant
voltage (CV), and CC-CV combinations, have been widely implemented to
balance charging speed and battery health. However, these traditional methods
sometimes fail to meet the complex demands of EV users, which include
reducing charging time, preserving capacity, and minimizing energy loss.

Recent advancements like the multistage constant current (MCC) approach have
improved charging by dividing the process into stages with optimized currents
for each. Voltage-based MCC (VMCC) and SOC-based MCC (SMCC) have
been employed to enhance performance, with VMCC being advantageous for
its adaptability. Research indicates that multi-objective optimization algorithms,
like the multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO), are effective in
fine-tuning these stages. Such optimization allows for a more flexible charging
experience, balancing the different needs of various users, whether they prioritize
charging speed, efficiency, or battery preservation [4].

5. “Cell balancing ”
Balancing the cells in electric vehicle battery packs is essential for enhancing
battery performance, cycle life, and safety. Various cell balancing strategies
have been explored, generally categorized as active and passive balancing
methods. Active balancing, though efficient in energy transfer, can be complex
and costly due to the need for components like converters and additional

5
 circuitry. Conversely, passive balancing dissipates excess energy through
resistors, providing a simpler and cost-effective solution, though it may result
in some energy loss.

Recent studies emphasize the optimization of passive balancing to minimize cell

imbalance during charging, aiming to maintain the consistency of state of charge
(SOC) across cells. The proposed work explores a passive balancing strategy
that optimizes the timing of enabling and disabling balancing currents through
genetic algorithms (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO). Through
simulations, the optimized parameters for balancing current timing demonstrate
improved voltage and SOC uniformity across cells compared to non-optimized
or random timing approaches.

This optimization reduces energy dissipation and enhances the battery’s usable
capacity. The study’s simulation model, constructed in MATLAB/Simulink,
uses a 16-cell series configuration, showing that optimized balancing can
effectively manage SOC discrepancies, leading to prolonged battery life and
reduced degradation over time [1, 5].

6. “Battery thermal management ”

As the world transitions to electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, battery thermal management systems (BTMS) are becoming increas-
ingly important. The performance and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs),
the most common battery used in EVs, are heavily influenced by temperature.
LIBs perform best and have the longest lifespan when operated between 25°C
and 40°C. Operating outside of this range, particularly at high temperatures, can
significantly reduce energy storage capacity and cycle life. Effective BTMSs
are essential for maintaining optimal battery temperature, ensuring safety, and
extending battery life. High temperatures can accelerate the development of the
solid electrolyte interface layer, increase internal resistance, and reduce power
delivery. Extreme temperatures can even lead to thermal runaway, causing the
separator to burn and potentially resulting in an internal short circuit. Liquid
cooling is a more efficient heat exchange method for BTMS compared to air
cooling. It offers advantages such as uniform temperature distribution, ease of

6
arrangement, and higher heat conductivity and capacity. Research on BTMS
is currently focused on improving thermal performance, particularly at the
component level, with a focus on specific battery pack structures. This includes
studies on different parameters of liquid-cooled structures and comparative
analyses of various liquid-cooled designs. However, there’s a need for more
research on practical power battery pack designs and real-world experimental
verification of simulation results [6, 7].

7
Chapter 3

Battery management system

The Battery Management System (BMS) is a crucial technology in electric vehicles

(EVs), responsible for managing and maintaining the safe, efficient operation of the
battery pack. Its primary functions include monitoring and controlling various battery
parameters, such as state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and temperature [1].
Additionally, the BMS governs the charging and discharging processes, cell balancing,
and overall system safety, making it essential for battery performance and longevity.
The BMS consists of both hardware and software components. The hardware
includes sensors that continuously measure critical parameters like voltage, current,
and temperature. This data is transmitted to the BMS software, which uses advanced
algorithms for real-time analysis, enabling precise SOC and SOH estimation and
strategic decision-making for battery control.
Key Functions of the BMS

• Monitoring: The BMS performs continuous monitoring of the battery’s voltage,

current, and temperature to ensure it remains within safe operational limits.

• State Estimation: Through SOC and SOH estimation, the BMS provides
essential information about the battery’s current charge level and overall health,
which is critical for energy management.

• Charging and Discharging Control: The BMS regulates both charging and dis-
charging currents, optimizing these processes to improve the battery’s lifespan
and performance.

8
 • Cell Balancing: To maximize capacity and extend battery life, the BMS
ensures that individual cells within the battery pack maintain a balanced charge
distribution.

• Safety Protection: The BMS safeguards the battery by preventing conditions like
overcharging, over-discharging, and exposure to extreme temperatures, thereby
minimizing the risk of damage and hazards.

• Communication: The BMS facilitates communication with other vehicle sys-

tems, delivering up-to-date information on battery status and receiving control
signals when needed.

Accurate SOC and SOH estimation is essential for effective energy management
and battery health assessment. Common SOC estimation techniques include Kalman
filtering, artificial neural networks, and support vector machines [2, 3]. For SOH
estimation, methods often involve tracking changes in parameters such as internal
resistance, impedance, and capacity. These functions collectively make the BMS a
critical component in achieving reliable, efficient, and safe EV battery operation.

Figure 3.1: BMS functional block diagram

(Source://www.boardinfinity.com)

9
Chapter 4

BMS functions

This section delves into the core functions of Battery Management Systems (BMS)
in electric vehicles, emphasizing the critical mechanisms that uphold battery perfor-
mance, safety, and durability. Key functionalities include monitoring the State of
Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH) to evaluate available capacity and battery
condition. Thermal management controls temperature for safe operation, while cell
balancing maintains charge uniformity across cells. Effective charge and discharge
regulation further protect against degradation, extending the battery’s operational life.

4.1 State monitoring and assessment

The State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH) are critical parameters managed
by the Battery Management System (BMS) in electric vehicles, providing insight into
battery performance and longevity 4.1. SOC indicates the battery’s current energy level
as a percentage of its full capacity, essential for predicting range, managing energy,
and preventing overcharge or deep discharge, both of which can degrade the battery.
SOC estimation methods include the Ampere-hour integration and Kalman filtering
approaches, such as the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and Unscented Kalman Filter
(UKF), selected based on accuracy needs, computational demands, and sensor data
availability [1, 2].
SOH, meanwhile, assesses the battery’s overall health compared to its original
state, helping to predict remaining useful life and guide maintenance or replacement
decisions. Estimation techniques for SOH often involve tracking parameters like in-

10
ternal resistance, impedance, and capacity through experimental measures or adaptive
models, including Kalman filters and observer-based methods [3].
The BMS leverages SOC and SOH data to optimize battery performance and
ensure safety. For instance, it may regulate charging and discharging currents based
on SOC and SOH values to extend battery life, or activate protective measures—such
as disconnecting the battery if SOH drops below a critical threshold.

Figure 4.1: Block diagram for state monitoring

(source:https://www.redwaypower.com)

4.2 Charging and discharging

The Battery Management System (BMS) is a critical component in electric vehicles
(EVs) that manages battery charging and discharging to ensure safety and optimal
performance 4.2. It continuously monitors essential parameters like voltage, current,
and temperature to estimate the battery’s State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health
(SOH). By regulating the charging process, the BMS protects the battery from
hazards such as overcharging, over-discharging, and overheating, which can accelerate
degradation or even cause fires [1].
Common charging methods include Constant Current (CC), Constant Voltage (CV),
and Constant Current-Constant Voltage (CCCV), while advanced techniques like
Multistage Constant Current (MCC) and Pulse Charging (PC) aim to improve charging
efficiency and speed. During discharge, the BMS ensures the current remains within
safe limits to avoid stressing the battery. Additionally, cell balancing a key BMS
function ensures uniform charge and discharge among cells, enhancing the battery
pack’s capacity and lifespan [4]

11
 Figure 4.2: Charging and discharging process of battery
(Source:https://evworld.au)

4.3 Cell balancing and optimization

In electric vehicles (EVs), cell balancing is a key function of the Battery Management
System (BMS), ensuring consistent voltage levels across all cells in a battery pack 4.3.
This process is essential because, even in new batteries, cells exhibit slight variations
in characteristics such as internal resistance and capacity. Over time, these differences
cause certain cells to charge or discharge more quickly, leading to voltage imbalances
that limit the battery’s usable capacity, increase degradation rates, and pose safety risks
if individual cells are overcharged or discharged beyond safe limits [1].
Cell balancing redistributes energy to align cell voltages, maintaining an optimal
voltage range and maximizing battery performance. There are two main types of
cell balancing: passive and active. Passive balancing dissipates excess energy from
high-voltage cells as heat, which is simpler and more cost-effective but less efficient.
Active balancing, meanwhile, transfers energy between cells using components like
capacitors, inductors, or converters, making it more efficient but also more complex
and expensive [5].
By maintaining balanced cell voltages, the BMS helps extend battery life, improve
EV performance, and enhance safety. Cell balancing is thus crucial for achieving
sustainable and reliable EV operation, as it ensures that each cell contributes effectively
to the battery’s overall capacity and longevity.

12
 Figure 4.3: Illustration of cell balancing
(Source://www.autoven.tech)

4.4 Thermal management

Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) require a Battery Thermal Management
System (BTMS) to regulate their operating temperature, as temperature fluctuations
significantly impact their performance, lifespan, and safety 4.4. Li-ion batteries need
to operate within a specific temperature range, typically between 25°C and 40°C, to
function optimally and have a longer lifespan [1]. Temperatures outside this range
can lead to several issues. High temperatures accelerate battery degradation, reduce
capacity, and increase internal resistance.
In extreme cases, high temperatures can trigger thermal runaway, a dangerous chain
reaction that can result in fires or explosions. On the other hand, low temperatures
significantly reduce battery capacity and power output. BTMS utilize various methods
to maintain the optimal temperature range, including active cooling, passive cooling, or
a combination of both. Active cooling methods use external energy sources and include
liquid cooling, air cooling, and thermoelectric cooling. Passive cooling methods
rely on the thermal properties of materials and include heat pipes and phase change
materials (PCMs). The choice of BTMS depends on factors such as the battery pack
size, vehicle operating conditions, cost, and complexity. An efficient BTMS is vital for
ensuring battery performance, longevity, and safety in EVs [6, 7].

13
Figure 4.4: Block diagram for battery thermal management
(Source://www.researchgate.net)

14
Chapter 5

Methodology

This section outlines key estimation techniques to enhance Battery Management

System (BMS) functionality. It covers methods for accurately estimating parameters
like State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH), as well as strategies for
efficient charging, discharging, and thermal management. Using advanced algorithms,
including coulomb counting and Kalman filtering, these approaches enable precise
monitoring and optimization of battery performance. The aim is to extend battery
life, ensure safe operation, and boost overall energy efficiency, which is critical for the
sustainable advancement of electric vehicles and energy storage systems.

5.1 SOC and SOH estimation approaches

The methods for estimating SOC and SOH in batteries, essential for tracking charge
levels and health status.

5.1.1 Approaches to Soc calculation

Coulomb Counting Method: The Coulomb counting method estimates the State of
Charge (SOC) by integrating the current flowing into or out of the battery over time.
The SOC at any given time t can be expressed as:

Z t
1
SOC(t) = SOC(t0 ) + η I(τ) dτ
Cn t0

15
where:

SOC(t) : The state of charge at time t.

SOC(t0 ) :The initial state of charge at time t0 .

Cn :The nominal capacity of the battery, typically expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).

η : The efficiency factor, representing the effectiveness of the charging process

(usually a value between 0 and 1).

I(τ) : The current flowing into or out of the battery at time τ (expressed in amperes).
Rt
t0
η I(τ) dτ : The integral represents the cumulative charge added to or removed from
the battery between times t0 and t.

While simple and computationally efficient, Coulomb counting is prone to errors from
current sensor inaccuracies, self-discharge, and it requires an accurate initial SOC.
These limitations make it less reliable on its own, especially under dynamic operating
conditions.

Extended Kalman Filter (EKF): The Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is an extension
of the standard Kalman filter designed to manage non-linear systems. In SOC
estimation, EKF approximates the battery’s non-linear dynamics by linearizing around
an operating point, which allows it to update the SOC with a mix of real-time sensor
data and battery models. This method is effective for moderately non-linear battery
behaviors, where it integrates current and voltage readings to improve accuracy over
simple methods. Despite its effectiveness, EKF can introduce linearization errors,
especially in systems with high non-linearity, and it requires higher computational
effort than basic SOC estimation methods like Coulomb counting.

Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF): The Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) builds on the
EKF by using a set of “sigma points” that provide a more accurate representation of
the distribution of SOC in non-linear transformations, thus avoiding the linearization
errors found in EKF. UKF is especially useful for SOC estimation in highly non-linear
battery systems, as it captures the non-linear effects without linear approximations.

16
These sigma points are propagated through the battery model, providing improved
SOC estimates. While UKF enhances accuracy and robustness, it is computationally
more intensive than EKF, but it offers significant advantages for complex, real-world
battery dynamics [2].

Figure 5.1: A general block diagram of model based SOC estimation method
(Source://www.researchgate.net)

5.1.2 Approaches to Soh calculation

Model-based method: This method offers an alternative by utilizing mathematical

models to estimate SOH based on factors like discharge rate, temperature, and depth
of discharge. One such method is data fitting, where internal resistance is calculated
at different SOC levels and temperatures, creating a characteristic map for SOH
estimation. Another model-based approach is Coulomb counting, which tracks the
cumulative charge flowing in and out of the battery to estimate the capacity and
subsequently SOH. However, model-based methods can struggle with the complex
and dynamic behavior of batteries in real-world scenarios [1].

Adaptive model-based method: This method addresses this limitation by combining

models with real-time data. For instance, Kalman filters use a model of the battery
along with real-time measurements to estimate SOH, effectively handling noise and
uncertainty. They offer high accuracy and are suitable for real-time applications but can
be computationally intensive. Finally, data-driven models employ machine learning

17
algorithms to estimate SOH. Support Vector Regression (SVR) and neural networks
are examples of data-driven models that learn from large datasets to predict SOH based
on new measurements [3]. These models excel at capturing the non-linear behavior of
batteries but require extensive training data. The sources note that the selection of an
appropriate SOH estimation method depends on factors like accuracy requirements,
computational capabilities, and the availability of data.

Figure 5.2: Block diagram for Soh estimation

(Source://www.researchgate.net)

5.2 Charging and discharging techniques

Constant Current Constant Voltage (CCCV) and Multi-Step Constant Current (MCC)
charging methods differ primarily in their control over current and voltage during the
charging process.
Constant Current Constant Voltage(CCCV): charging follows a two-stage process,
beginning with a Constant Current (CC) phase where a fixed current is applied until the
battery reaches a set voltage. Once this voltage threshold is met, the charging shifts to

18
the Constant Voltage (CV) phase, where the voltage remains steady while the current
gradually decreases as the battery approaches full capacity. This approach is popular
for fast charging and helps prevent overcharging by reducing current in the final stage.
However, rapid current changes during the CV phase can lead to temperature increases,
which may impact battery performance over time.

Multi-Step Constant Current: (MCC) charging involves multiple stages, each with a
different constant current level, to optimize the charging process. Rather than using
a single fixed current, MCC adjusts the current in steps, applying a different level at
each stage to balance charging speed and prevent issues like electrolyte decomposition.
Calculating the optimal current for each step is crucial in MCC to reduce capacity loss
and enhance battery life, often requiring advanced optimization algorithms like the ant
colony algorithm, Taguchi method, or genetic algorithm. Although MCC can improve
battery longevity and charging efficiency, it requires additional control circuitry to
monitor and adjust the current at each stage. In summary, CCCV provides a simpler
two-stage process focusing on safe current reduction near full charge, whereas MCC
takes a multi-step approach with varying current levels to further optimize battery
health and performance [4].

Figure 5.3: Traditional charging approaches for battery

(Source://ieeexplore.ieee.org/)

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5.3 Cell balancing techniques
Passive cell balancing: Is a relatively straightforward and economical method used in
battery management systems. This technique relies on shunt resistors to drain excess
energy from cells with higher voltage levels by converting it into heat. By dissipating
this excess energy, the voltage of these cells is gradually brought down to match that
of lower-voltage cells in the battery pack. Passive balancing is simple to implement,
requiring minimal circuitry, and is typically compact, making it an attractive option for
applications where cost and space constraints are a priority. However, a key drawback
is that passive balancing can be slow, especially in larger battery packs, as energy is
simply dissipated rather than redistributed. Additionally, this heat dissipation leads
to a loss in overall energy efficiency, which makes passive balancing less suitable for
applications requiring high energy efficiency and extended battery life [1, 5].

Figure 5.4: Active and passive cell balancing topologies

(Source://www.researchgate.net)

Active cell balancing: Offers a more efficient but complex solution. Instead of
converting excess energy to heat, active balancing redistributes energy by transferring
it from cells with higher charge levels to those with lower levels. This transfer
is achieved using advanced components such as capacitors, DC-DC converters,
transformers, and inductors, which enable efficient energy flow across the battery cells.
Active balancing provides faster balancing times, making it ideal for larger battery
systems or high-power applications where quick balancing is essential. Additionally,
because energy is not wasted as heat, this method significantly improves overall

20
efficiency, extending battery life and maximizing available capacity. However, active
cell balancing requires more sophisticated circuitry and control algorithms, increasing
both the cost and complexity of the system. Consequently, active balancing is typically
favored in applications where energy efficiency and rapid balancing are priorities, even
if it means a higher upfront investment in the balancing system [1, 5].

5.4 Temperature management techniques

Liquid cooling and phase change materials (PCMs) are two thermal management
techniques used to maintain optimal battery temperatures. Liquid cooling actively
circulates coolant to dissipate heat, ideal for high-load operations. PCMs passively
absorb and release heat during phase transitions, providing a compact and energy-
efficient cooling solution.
Liquid cooling: Is an active thermal management technique that circulates a coolant
fluid, typically a water-glycol mixture, through channels or plates strategically placed
near the battery cells. This method utilizes the high thermal conductivity and specific
heat capacity of liquids to effectively transfer heat away from the battery cells,
helping to keep them within a safe and optimal temperature range. Liquid cooling
is particularly effective during high-load operations, such as fast charging, where
significant heat is generated. It enables precise temperature control, maintaining a
consistent temperature across the battery pack. However, liquid cooling systems are
generally more complex and costly than air-based cooling methods due to the need for
components like pumps, radiators, and additional plumbing [6].

Phase change materials (PCMs): Provide a passive cooling solution by using the
latent heat absorbed or released during phase transitions (e.g., solid to liquid, liquid
to gas) to regulate battery temperature. PCMs are integrated into the battery pack,
often in pouches or encapsulations, where they absorb heat generated by the battery
cells. As the battery temperature rises, the PCM absorbs heat and undergoes a
phase change, typically from solid to liquid, effectively limiting temperature increase
without requiring external energy input. When the battery temperature drops, the PCM
solidifies, releasing stored heat and helping to maintain a suitable temperature. PCMs

21
offer benefits like high energy storage density, compactness, and lightweight, allowing
them to be seamlessly integrated into the battery pack without adding significant
weight or volume [7].

Figure 5.5: Active liquid cooling system

(Source://publications.lib.chalmers.se)

Figure 5.6: The working mechanism of PCM on battery cells

(Source://publications.lib.chalmers.se)

22
Chapter 6

Conclusion

Battery management systems (BMS) are pivotal in ensuring the safety, efficiency,
and durability of electric vehicle batteries. A BMS is responsible for monitoring
essential metrics, including the State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH),
and for managing crucial operational aspects of the battery. It regulates the charging
and discharging processes to maintain optimal performance and safety, balances
cell voltages to maximize capacity and lifespan, and oversees battery temperature
to prevent overheating. Various methods are employed to achieve these functions
effectively, such as using coulomb counting and Kalman filtering for SOC estimation
and applying model-based and adaptive approaches for SOH assessment. Charging
strategies like Constant Current Constant Voltage (CCCV) and Multi-Step Constant
Current (MCC), along with cell balancing techniques (both passive and active), and
advanced thermal management options, such as liquid cooling and phase change
materials (PCMs), are all integral components of BMS technology. By seamlessly
coordinating these processes, BMS play a critical role in advancing electric vehicle
technology, significantly enhancing battery performance, extending longevity, and
ensuring safe operation.

23
References

[1] R. Ranjith Kumar, C. Bharathiraja, K. Sathiya Sekar, and Lucian Mihet-Popa,

”Advances in Batteries, Battery Modeling, Battery Management System, Battery
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Applications,” IEEE, 2023.

[2] Menatalla Shehab El Din,and Ala A. Hussein, ”Improved Battery SOC

Estimation Accuracy Using a Modified UKF With an Adaptive Cell Model Under
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[3] Vanessa Quintero and Aramis Pérez, ”A Reliable and Simple Method to Estimate
the Electric-Vehicle Battery State-of-Health,” Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
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[4] B.V. Manikandan, M. Vasantha Kumar, and L. Chandrasekeran, ”Battery

Management System with Charge Monitor and Fire Protection for Electrical
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[5] Murat Mustafa Savrun, Burak Onur, Tahsin Köroğlu, and Mehmet Uğraş Cuma,
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[6] Pankhuri Kaushik and Amandeep Gill, ”Cooling System for Li-ion Battery
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[7] Rajalingam S, ”Optimizing Battery Thermal Management for Electric Vehicles,”
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