0

MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES

CONTENTS
Number Systems 1
Integers 2
Multiplying/Dividing with Negatives 2
Order of Operations: PEMDAS 2
Fractions 3
Proportions, Percents, Rates, and Ratios 4
Percents to Decimals and Decimals to Percents 4
Scientific Notation 5
Algebraic Terms 5
Metric Conversions 5
Approximations 5
Percentage Error & Degree of Accuracy 6
Modular Arithmetic 6
Changing the Subject of a Formula 7
Distance Formula 7
Functions & Relations 7
Perimeter & Area 8
Volume & Surface Area 8
Polygons 8
Variation 9

NUMBER SYSTEMS
Natural numbers: {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
Whole numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Integers: {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}

Rational numbers: all numbers that can be written in the form a/b, where a
and b are integers and 𝑏 ≠ 0.
Irrational numbers: numbers that cannot be written as the quotient of two
integers but can be represented on the number line.
Real numbers: all numbers that can be represented on the number line, that
is, all rational and irrational numbers.

Prime numbers: a number greater than 1 that has only itself and 1 as factors.
Examples: 2, 3, and 7 are prime numbers.
2 Olaniyi Evans | University Mathematics

Composite numbers: A natural number or a positive integer which has more

than two factors.
Example: 15 has factors 1, 3, 5 and 15, hence it is a composite number.

KEY PROPERTIES
Properties of Addition
Identity Property of Zero: 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎
Inverse Property: 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0
Commutative Property: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
Associative Property: 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
Properties of Multiplication
Property of Zero: 𝑎 × 0 = 0
Identity Property of One: 𝑎 × 1 = 𝑎, when 𝑎 ≠ 0.
1
Inverse Property: 𝑎 × = 1, when 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑎
Commutative Property: 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑏 × 𝑎
Associative Property: 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐
Properties of Division
0
Property of Zero: = 0, when 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑎
𝑎
Property of One: = 1, when 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑎
𝑎
Identity Property of One: =𝑎×1
1

ABSOLUTE VALUE
The absolute value of a number is always ≥ 0.
If 𝑎 > 0, |𝑎| = 𝑎. If 𝑎 < 0, |−𝑎| = 𝑎.
Example: |−2| = 2 and |2| = 2. In each case, the answer is positive.

B A S I C W O R D S /S Y M B O L S
The following words and symbols are used for these operations.
Addition Multiplication
Sum, plus, total, increase Product, times, of,
addend + addend = sum factor × factor = product
Subtraction Division
Difference, minus, decrease Quotient, divided by, per,
minuend -- subtrahend = difference dividend ÷ divisor = quotient

INTEGERS
Adding and Subtracting with Negatives
−𝑎 − 𝑏 = (−𝑎 ) + (−𝑏) Examples:
−𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 −4 − 6 = (−4) + (−6) = −10
𝑎 − (− 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 −11 + 7 = 7 − 11 = −4

M U L T I P L Y I N G /D I V I D I N G W I T H N E G A T I V E S
−𝑎 × 𝑏 = −𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎 × −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎
−𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 = − =
𝑏 −𝑏 𝑏
Examples:
−1 × 2 = −2 − 4 × −3 = 12
2 −9 3
−8 ÷ 4 = − = −2 = =3
1 −3 1

O R D E R O F O P E R A T I O N S : PEMDAS
Follow this order to evaluate mathematical expressions accurately!
1st: Parentheses
Simplify any expressions inside parentheses or brackets.
Chapter 0| Mathematical Preliminaries 3

2nd: Exponents
Work out any exponents or powers.
3rd: Multiplication and Division
Solve all multiplication and division, working from left to right.
4th: Addition and Subtraction
Solve all multiplication and division, working from left to right.
For example,
4 − 1 × 2 + (14 − 5) ÷ 32 = 4 − 1 × 2 + 9 ÷ 9 = 4 − 2 + 1 = 3

FRACTIONS
Fractions are used to express division. The top number of a fraction is the
numerator, and the bottom number is the denominator.
Least Common Multiple (LCM): The smallest number that is a multiple of
all the specified numbers.
Example: The LCM of 4 and 5 is 20, since 4 and 5 have no factors in common.
Greatest Common Factor (GCF): The largest number that can be equally
divided into each of the given numbers.
Example: The GCF of 15 and 20 is 5, since both 15 and 20 are divisible by 3,
however they are not both divisible by any numbers greater than 5.
Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Before fractions can be added or subtracted, they must have the same
denominator.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
+ = , if 𝑐 ≠ 0 − = , if 𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
If the fractions have different denominators, first convert into like fractions by
finding the same LCM denominator of these fractions and convert them into
equivalent fractions.
Example:
1 4 3 8 11
+ = + =
2 3 6 6 6
The unlike fractions are converted into equivalent fractions equivalent fractions
are found by multiplying the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the
same number. In the example above:
1 1×3 3
= =
2 2×3 6
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions
To multiply fractions, take the To divide fractions, invert the second
product of the numerators and the fraction and then multiply the
product of the denominators: numerators and denominators:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 × 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
× = = ÷ = × =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 × 𝑑 𝑐𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑏 𝑏𝑐

Examples:
3 5 15 3 3 3 5 15 5
× = ÷ = × = =
4 2 8 2 5 2 3 6 2

Reducing Fractions
To reduce a fraction, divide the numerator and denominator by common
factors. In the last example above:
15 15 ÷ 3 5
= =
6 6÷3 2
.
Mixed Numbers
A mixed number has two parts: an integer and a fraction. An example of a mixed
1
number is 2 , which is same as
3
1 6 1 7
2+ = + =
3 3 3 3
4 Olaniyi Evans | University Mathematics

Or equally as

10 1 7
+ =
5 3 3
Likewise, improper fractions can be expressed as a mixed number.
Example:
11 3
can be written as 2
4 4
Which means 11 divided by 4 equals 2 with a remainder of 3.

P R O P O R T I O N S , P E R C E N T S , R A T E S , A N D R A T IO S
Rates and Ratios
A rate is the ratio between two related quantities in different units. For example,
a jet that travels 2700 kilometers in 3 hours is moving at a rate of 2700
kilometers/3 hours or 900 km/h.
A ratio is a comparison of two quantities (with the same units). For example, a
2
class with 2 boys and 3 girls has a boy–girl ratio of 2: 3 or .
3

Proportions
A proportion says two ratios or rates are equal. A proportion is read as "x is to y
as z is to w".
𝑥 𝑧
= where 𝑦, 𝑤 ≠ 0
𝑦 𝑤
If one number in a proportion is unknown, you can easily find that number by
solving the proportion.
Example:
To make 10 pancakes requires 2 eggs. How many eggs are required to make 500
pancakes?
We can solve this problem by taking a cue from this equation:
𝑥 2 2 × 500
= Cross multiply 𝑥= = 100
500 10 10
So, 100 eggs are required to make 500 pancakes.

Percents
A percent is the number of parts in every hundred. To write a percent as a
fraction, divide by 100 and remove the percent sign.
Example:
25 1
25% = =
100 4

To write a fraction as a percent, To find a percent of a quantity,

multiply the fraction by 100 and multiply the quantity by the percent.
attach a percent sign. Example: 25% of 40
Example: 25 1000
3 3 = × 40 = = 10
= × 100% = 60% 100 100
5 5

Percents to Decimals and Decimals to Percents

To change a number from a percent to a decimal, divide by 100 and remove the
percent sign:
75% = 75/100 = 0.75
To change a number from a decimal to a percent, multiply the number by 100
and attach the percent sign:
0.32 = 0.32 × 100 = 32%
Chapter 0| Mathematical Preliminaries 5

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientific notation is a math expression used to represent a decimal number
between 1 and 10 multiplied by ten to the appropriate power, so as to write large
numbers using less digits.
Example:5000 written as 5 × 10³
To change a number to scientific notation, move the decimal point to the right of
the first digit. If the decimal point is moved n places to the left, n is positive;
otherwise, n is negative. If the decimal point is not moved, n is 0.
Example: 0.000902 = 9.02 × 10−4

Multiplying/Dividing in Scientific Notation

To multiply or divide numbers in scientific notation, multiply or divide
first the decimal parts and then the powers of 10.
Example:
(4.0 × 105 ) × (1.9 × 10−4 ) = (4.0 × 1.9) × (105 × 10−4 )
= 7.6 × 105+(−4) = 7.6 × 101

ALGEBRAIC TERMS
Variable: a quantity that can change. Letters are used to represent these
changing, unknown quantities. For example, the temperature at different times
of the day is changing, so it could be represented by a variable, x.
Constant: a term that does not change. Example: the number of days in a week,
7, is unchanging, so it is a constant.
Expression: a group of numbers, variables, and operators (such as + and ×)
2
representing a quantity or an operation. Example: 9𝑥 − is an expression.
5
Equation: a mathematical statement that two expressions are equal.
Example: 4 − 11𝑥 = 0 is an equation.
Solution: Any and all value(s) of the variable(s) that satisfies an equation.
4 1
Example: In − 1 = , we know that the statement is true if 𝑥 = 3.
𝑥 𝑥

METRIC CONVERSIONS
12 inches = 1 feet 3 feet = 1 yard
1760 yards = 1 mile 5280 feet = 1 mile
2 cups = 1 pint 1 cups = 8 ounces
4 quarts = 1 gallon 2 pints = 1 quart
2000 pounds = 1 ton 16 ounces = 1 pound
Metric
1000 millimeters = 1 meter 100 centimeters = 1 meter
1000 meters = 1 kilometer 100 centiliters = 1 liter
1000 milliliter = 1 liter 100 centigram = 1 gram
1000 milligrams = 1 gram 1000 g = 1 kilogram
0.001 m = 1 millimeter 0.01 m = 1 centimeter
0.001 g = 1 milligram 0.01 g = 1 centigram
0.001 liter = 1 millimeter 0.01 liter = 1 centiliter
Metric/Imperial Units
8 kilometers = 5 miles 1 meter = 40 inches
30 centimeters = 1 foot 2.5 centimeters = 1 inch
3
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds 1 liter = 1 pints
4
1 2
1 gallon = 4 liters 1 acre = 1 hectare
2 5
450 gram = 1 pound

APPROXIMATIONS
There are three main ways to round numbers:
• To the nearest 10, 100, 1000, etc
• To a certain number of significant figures
6 Olaniyi Evans | University Mathematics

• To a certain number of decimal places

Example:
23547 = 24500 to the nearest 100. 84259 = 84300 to 3 significant figures
23547 = 24000 to the nearest 1000. 0.006197 = 0.00619 to 3 significant figures
0.11538 = 0.12 to 2 decimal places. By convention, we normally round 0.5 up
290.183 = 290.18 to 2 decimal places to the next whole number.

PERCENTAGE ERROR & DEGREE OF ACCURACY

Percent error is the difference between an estimated value and the true or
exact value, expressed in percentage.

|Approximate value − Exact value|

Percentage error = × 100%
|Exact value|
Example:
If a student measured the temperature of boiling water to be 98.5°C, the
percentage error is:
|98.5 − 100| 1.5
Percentage error = × 100% = × 100% = 1.5%
|100| 100
The degree of accuracy is a measure of how exact a stated value is to the actual
value being described. Accuracy may be affected by rounding, the use of
significant figures or ranges in measurement.
Absolute error is the difference between the actual and the measured value
(symbol ±).
|absolute error|
Relative error =
measured value
absolute error
Percentage error = × 100%
measured value
Example:
A truck is measured as 22.5 meters long, accurate to 0.1 of a meter.
0.1
Accurate to 0.1 m means it could be up to = 0.05 m either way:
2
Length = 22.5±0.05 m
So it could really be anywhere between 22.45 m and 22.55 m long.
Thus
Absolute error = 0.05 0.05
0.05 Percentage error = × 100%
22.5
Relative error = ≅ 0.002 ≅ 0.2%
22.5

MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Modular arithmetic is a method of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "loop"
when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.
A common use of modular arithmetic is in the 12-hour clock, in which the day is
divided into two 12-hour periods. If the time is 6:00 now, then 7 hours later it
will be 1:00. In normal addition, the later time should be 6 + 7 = 13, but the hour
number starts over when it reaches 12; this is arithmetic modulo 12.
For a positive integer n, two numbers a and b are congruent modulo n, if their
difference a − b is an integer multiple of n. This congruence relation is denoted:
𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) where n is the modulus of the congruence.
More precisely, the statement 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) implies that a and b have the same
remainder when divided by n.
Example:
37 ≡ 13 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
Because 37 – 13 = 24, which is a multiple of 12. Equally, because both 37 and
13 have the same remainder 1 when divided by 12.
The same rule applies for negative values:
−9 ≡ 6 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) 1 ≡ −4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Chapter 0| Mathematical Preliminaries 7

CHANGING THE SUBJECT OF A FORMULA

𝑃𝑅𝑇
In the simple interest formula, 𝐼 = , I is the subject of the formula. We can
100
change the subject of the formula to either P, R or T.
For example, to change the subject of the formula to P, divide both sides of the
formula by P.
𝐼 𝑃𝑅𝑇 𝑃 100 100𝐼
= → = → 𝑃=
𝑃 100𝑃 𝐼 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

Example: Yet Another Example:

The formula The formula 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 is used to
5(𝐹 − 32) calculate velocity.
𝐶= To rearrange to make u the subject,
9
is used to convert between subtract 2𝑎𝑠 from both sides.
°Fahrenheit and °Celsius. 𝑣 2 − 2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑢2
To rearrange to make F the subject, Take the square root of both sides
remove the fraction and multiply 𝑢 = √𝑣 2 − 2𝑎𝑠
both sides by 9
9𝐶 = 5(𝐹 − 32)
Expand the brackets and simplify
5𝐹 = 9𝐶 + 160
Divide both sides by 5
9𝐶 + 160
𝐹=
5

DISTANCE FORMULA
Given the speed and the length of time of a travel, the distance can be found by
using the formula:
Distance = speed × time
Example:
A Ferrari is driven at its top speed of 349 km/h for 2.5 hours. How far did the car
travel?
Distance = 349 × 2.5 = 872.5 𝑘𝑚

FUNCTIONS & RELATIONS

A relation is a set of ordered pairs between two sets, called the domain and
codomain. A function is a relation where every element in the domain
corresponds to exactly one element in the codomain.
A relation may have multiple outputs for a single input, while a function has
exactly one output for every input. All functions are relations, but not all relations
are functions. To determine if a relation is a function, check if every element in
the domain corresponds to exactly one element in the codomain. If yes, it's a
function; if not, it's not a function.
A relation between the sets {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and {1, 2, 3} is: {(𝑥, 1), (𝑦, 2), (𝑧, 3), (𝑥, 3)}. This
relation is not a function because the element '𝑥' in the domain corresponds to
multiple elements (1 and 3) in the codomain.
A function between the sets {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and {1, 2, 3} is: {(𝑥, 1), (𝑦, 2), (𝑧, 3)}. This is a
function because each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one element
in the codomain.
Operations on functions Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4
Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3) + (𝑥 2 − 4) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3) − (𝑥 2 − 4) = −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7
Product: (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 4) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 12
𝑓
Quotient: ( ) 𝑥 =
𝑓(𝑥)
, 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 2𝑥 + 3
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 ≠ ±4
𝑥 −4
Product: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 4) = 2(𝑥 2 − 4) + 3 = 2𝑥 2 − 5
2
8 Olaniyi Evans | University Mathematics

PERIMETER & AREA

Square Rectangle Triangle

𝑃 = 4𝑠 𝑃 = 2(𝑙 + 𝑤) 𝑃 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑠2 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ/2
Circle Parallelogram Trapezoid

𝑃 = 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑃 = 2(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑃 = 𝑎 + 𝑏1 + 𝑐 + 𝑏2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝐴 = (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )ℎ/2
P = perimeter, A = area, C = circumference

VOLUME & SURFACE AREA

Cube Rectangular Prism Sphere

𝑉 = 𝑠3 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑟 3 /3
𝑆 = 6𝑠 2 𝑆 = 2(𝑙ℎ + 𝑤ℎ + 𝑤𝑙) 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
Cylinder Cone Square/Rectangular
pyramid

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ/3
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟(ℎ + 𝑟) 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟√𝑟 2 + ℎ2 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ/3
V = volume, S = surface area

POLYGONS
A polygon is a closed plane figure made up of several line segments that are
joined together. Examples include triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons
and so on.
Formulas
The sum of the interior angles 180°(𝑛 − 2)
The number of diagonals in a 𝑛(𝑛 − 3)
polygon 2
The number of triangles in a polygon 𝑛−2
360°
Exterior angle
𝑛
180°(𝑛 − 2)
Interior angle
𝑛
Chapter 0| Mathematical Preliminaries 9

𝑛𝑠 2 1
Area of a regular polygon ×
4 180°
tan ( )
𝑛
𝑛 = number of sides and 𝑠 = side length
Example:
For an octagon with sides equal to The number of triangles = 8 − 2 = 6
0.765: Exterior angle = (360°)/8 = 45°
𝑛 = 8, 𝑠 = 0.765 Interior angle
The sum of the interior angles 180°(8 − 2)
= 180°(8 − 2) = 1080 = = 135°
8
The number of diagonals Area
8(8 − 3) 8(0.765)2 1
= = 20 = × ≅ 2.83
2 4 180°
tan ( )
8

VARIATION
Direct or proportional variation: one variable is a constant multiple of
another.
For example, the value of y varies directly with x, or y is directly proportional
to x.
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 or =
𝑥1 𝑥2
Inverse or Indirect Variation: when one of the variables increases, the other
one decreases.
For example, the value of y varies inversely with x, y is inversely proportional
to x, or y is indirectly proportional to x
𝑘
𝑦= or 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑘
𝑥
Joint variation: Like direct variation, but involves more than one variable.
For example, y varies jointly with x and the square of z.
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥𝑧 2
Partial Variation: The value of one variable is the sum of two or more
quantities each of which is determined by a variation. In some cases, one of those
quantities may be constant.
For example, y is partly constant and partly varies directly with x.
𝑦 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2
Combined Variation: One quantity varies with more than one other variable.
This may involve a combination of direct variation or joint variation, and indirect
variation.
For example, y varies jointly as x and w and inversely as the square of z.
𝑘𝑥𝑤
𝑦= 2
𝑧
Example:
The simple interest (I) on an investment is jointly proportional to the time (t)
and the principal (P). After 5 years, the interest on a principal of $2000 is $800.
The equation relating the interest, principal, and time is
𝐼 = 𝑘𝑃𝑡
Thus,
800 = 𝑘 × 2000 × 5 → 𝑘 = 0.1
So, the equation relating interest, principal, and time is
𝐼 = 0.08𝑃𝑡
To find the interest after 10 years
𝐼 = 0.08 × 2000 × 10 = $1600
10 Olaniyi Evans | University Mathematics

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