1

LECTURE NOTES ON
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA (MAT 211)

B. O. Onasanya

Lecture Hours:
Monday 10:00-12:00
Wednesday 10:00-12:00
Copyright © 2024 by B. O. Onasanya
All rights reserved.
 Certification

I certify that this work was compiled by me, Dr B. O. Onasanya.

i
 Dedication

This work is dedicated to GOD.

ii
 Acknowledgements

I acknowledge my friends, Prof Yuming Feng and Dr Yu, both of the Department of
Computer Science, Chongqing Three Gorges University, P. R. China. I also acknowledge
the members of the Department of Mathematics, University of Ibadan.

iii
 Abstract

This work is just a basic undergraduate course material.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page 1
Certification i
Dedication ii
Aknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
1 SETS 7
1.1 Basic Definitions in Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Some Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Product Sets and Partition of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 MAPPINGS 15
3 RELATIONS 21
3.1 Definition and Properties of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 Relation on a set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 PARTIAL, TOTAL AND WELL ORDERINGS 28
4.1 Partial Orderings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Total Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 First, Last, Minimal and Maximal Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.1 Well Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 Similarity Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 LATTICES 34
6 Introduction to Number Theory 36
6.1 Some properties of (Z, +) and (Z, ·) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.2 GCD, LCM and Linear Properties of GCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5
 6.3 Residue Modulo m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4 Congruence Linear Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7 GROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS 47
7.1 Algebraic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.1.1 Binary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.1.2 Introduction to Some Algebraic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2.1 Examples of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.2.2 Subgroups of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2.3 Some Properties of Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2.4 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2.5 Symmetric groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2.6 Homomorphism of Groupoids and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3 Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3.1 Illustrative Examples of Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.3.2 Some Properties of Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.4 Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.4.1 Some Illustrative Examples and Results in Fields . . . . . . . . 61
8 Polynomial Ring 62
8.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.2 Division Algorithm of Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6
Chapter 1

SETS

1.1 Basic Definitions in Sets

Definition 1.1.1 A set is a well-defined collection of objects, which are called the ele-
ments of the set.

Remark 1.1.2 Use capital letters A, B, C, · · · to denote sets and their elements denote
by lower case letters a, b, c, · · · . If a is in A, we write a ∈ A and the negation of it is
a ̸∈ A.

Representing Sets
Sets can be defined by writing their elements in braces, as in A = {a, b, c, d}. It can
also be by the description of the elements as in A = {a|a has propertyP } is the set of
all objects with the property P .
Example 1.1.3 (1) The set B = {x ∈ Z|x = 2n ∀n ∈ Z} = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · }
(2) The set C = {x ∈ N|x ≥ 5} = {5, 6, 7, 8, · · · }
(3) The set D = {a, b, c, d, e, f }
Here are some common sets:
Example 1.1.4 (1) N = {1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }, set of natural numbers
(2) Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, · · · }, set of integers
(3) Q = { ab |a, b ∈ Z, b ̸= 0}, set of rational numbers

(4) R = {x| − ∞ < x < ∞}, set of real numbers

7
 (5) C = {a + ib|ab ∈ R}, set of complex numbers

Remark 1.1.5 Let A be any of the sets (1)-(5) in the previous slide. A∗ is the set of
nonzero elements of A and A+ set of non-negative elements of A.

Example 1.1.6 (1) R+ = [0, ∞) set of non-negative real numbers

(2) Z∗ = {±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, · · · }, set of non-zero integers
(3) Z+ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }, set of non-negative integers
(4) R∗ = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) set of non-zero real numbers

Set as a Collection of Sets

Let C be a set such that C = {{a}, {b, c}, {a, c, d}}. We can also say that {b, c} ∈ C.
Though {b, c} is a set in itself but it is seen as an element in this case.
Some Useful Set Notations

(1) ∀ means for all

(2) ∃ means there exists
Cardinality of a Set A
This is the number of elements in the set A and is denoted by |A| or n(A). It may be
finite or infinite.
Example 1.1.7 Consider the following sets and tell the cardinality of each of them:
(1) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, |A| =?
(2) Z = {· · · , ±3, ±2, ±1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }, |Z| =?
(3) B = {a, b, c, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, |B| =?
(4) C = {x ∈ R|x ≤ 1}, |C| =?

Definition 1.1.8 A set A is said to be an empty set if it has no elements. It is denoted

either ∅ or {}.

Example 1.1.9 (1) The set of all living humans who do not breathe
(2) A = {x ∈ N|x ≤ 0}
(3) the set of all black-skinned Chinese ladies
(4) The set of all robots which eat vegetables

Exercise 1.1.10 Give an example of empty set.

8
Definition 1.1.11 Let A and B be two non-empty sets. If every element of A is an
element of B, we write
A⊆B
and say that A is a subset of B, or that B is a superset of A and write B ⊇ A.

Note that empty set is considered as a subset of any set.

Definition 1.1.12 If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A and B are said to be equal, and
denoted by
A = B.
That is, every x ∈ A is such that x ∈ B and every x ∈ B is such that x ∈ A.

Definition 1.1.13 The notation A ⊂ B is used if A ⊆ B and A ̸= B. If A ⊂ B, we

say that A is a proper subset of B.

Example 1.1.14 Consider the sets A = {1, 2, 3, · · · , 10}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and C =

{2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. We generally will write that B ⊆ A and C ⊆ A. But since ∀x ∈ B and
∀x ∈ C is such that x ∈ A but some y ∈ A are such that y ∈ / B and y ∈ / C, then,
B ⊂ A and C ⊂ A which respectively mean B and C are proper subsets of A.

Exercise 1.1.15 Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, · · · , 28, 29, 30}. Construct a set which
is a proper subset of A.

Definition 1.1.16 Let set E which is the set of all objects is called the universal set.

Example 1.1.17 Let E = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } be a universal set. The following are subsets
of E:
(1) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(2) B = {4, 8, 12, 16, · · · }
(3) C = {2, 4, 6, 8, · · · }
(4) D = {1, 3, 9, 11, 15}

Definition 1.1.18 Let set E the universal set and A a subset of E. The complement
of A is
A = {x|x ∈ E but x ∈ / A}.

Example 1.1.19 Let E = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } be a universal set.

(1) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {0, 6, 7, 8, · · · }

(2) If B = {4, 8, 12, 16, · · · }, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, · · · }

9
Exercise 1.1.20 Consider a set E = Z. Construct a subset of E and find its comple-
ment.

Power Set
Let A be a nonempty set. The set P(A), called the power set of A, is the set of all
subsets of A. Cardinality of Power SetIf |A| = n, |P(A)| = 2n .

Example 1.1.21 Let A = {1, 2, 3}, P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A}
and |P(A)| = 23 = 8.

Exercise 1.1.22 (1) Let A = {a, b}. Find P(A) and |P(A)|.
(2) Let B = {a, b, c, d}. Find P(A) and |P(A)|.

1.2 Some Operations on Sets

Some useful notions
(1) ∩ means intersection
(2) ∪ means union
(3) ∧ means and
(4) ∨ means or

Definition 1.2.1 Let A and B be any two sets. The intersection of A and B consists of
all objects that belong to both A and B and is denoted by A∩B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Example 1.2.2 Consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10}
C=∅
(1) A ∩ B = {5, 6, 7, 10}
(2) A ∩ C = ∅
(3) B ∩ C = ∅
(4) A ∩ B ∩ C = ∅

Definition 1.2.3 Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B consists of all
objects that belong to either A or B or both and is denoted by A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈
B or x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

10
Example 1.2.4 Consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10}
C=∅
(1) A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
(2) A ∪ C = A
(3) B ∪ C = B

Exercise 1.2.5 Quiz on Important Properties

If A ⊆ B, and E and ∅ are respectively the universal and empty set, then
(1) A ∩ B =?
(2) A ∪ B =?
(3) A ∪ ∅ =?
(4) A ∪ E =?
(5) A ∩ ∅ =?
(6) A ∩ E =?

(7) A ∩ A =?

(8) A ∪ A =?

Exercise 1.2.6 Some algebra of sets

(1) A ∩ A = A, A ∪ A = A (Idempotent Law)
(2) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (Associative Law)
(3) A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative Law)
(4) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) (Distributive
Law)

(5) (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B, (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B (De Morgan’s Law)

Solution to first part of 1.2.6 (4)

Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∩ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ A or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ (A ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)]

11
⇒ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)]
Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ (A ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ (A ∩ B) and x ∈ A or x ∈ C or x ∈ (A ∩ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ [B ∪ (A ∩ B)] and x ∈ A or x ∈ [C ∪ (A ∩ C)]
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ A or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∩ C)
⇒ x ∈ [A ∪ (B ∩ C)]
⇒ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆ [A ∪ (B ∩ C)]
Solution to first part of 1.2.6 (5)
Let x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ / (A ∪ B)
⇒x∈ / A or x ∈/ B or x ∈
/ (A ∩ B)
If x ∈
/A⇒x∈ / (A ∩ B)
If x ∈
/B⇒x∈ / (A ∩ B)
In all, x ∈
/ (A ∩ B)
⇒x∈ / A and x ∈ /B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B)
⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ (A ∩ B). Let x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
⇒x∈ / A and x ∈ /B
x∈ / (A ∪ B)
⇒x∈A∪B
⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ A ∪ B.
Definition 1.2.7 The relative complement of B in A also known as set difference is
A \ B = A − B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

If U is the universal set, usually A ⊆ E, then the complement of A in E is A = E − A.

Example 1.2.8 Consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {x|x ∈ N ∧ 4 ≤ x ≤ 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10}

(1) A \ B = A − B = {4, 8, 9}
(2) B \ A = B − A = {2, 3}
Exercise 1.2.9 1. Let A, B, C be sets such that A ∩ B = A ∩ C and A ∪ B = A ∪ C.
Prove that
B = C.
2. If A, B, C are sets, establish the following:
(a) (A − B) − C = A − (B ∪ C).
(b) A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B ∩ C).

12
Solution to 1.2.9 1
1. Let A ∩ B = A ∩ C and A ∪ B = A ∪ C. We just need to show that B ⊆ C and
C ⊆ B.
Let x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ A ∪ C
Then, x ∈ A or x ∈ C or x ∈ A ∩ C.
If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A ∩ B = A ∩ C ⇒ x ∈ C ⇒ B ⊆ C. Also, if x ∈ C or x ∈ A ∩ C,
then B ⊆ C.
Similarly, let x ∈ C ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ C ⇒ A ∪ B
Then, x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ A ∩ B.
If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A ∩ C = A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ B ⇒ C ⊆ B. Also, if x ∈ B or x ∈ A ∩ B,
then C ⊆ B.
Since B ⊆ C and C ⊆ B, B = C. Solution to 1.2.9 2(a)
2(a). Let x ∈ (A − B) − C
Then, x ∈ (A − B) and x ∈ /C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ / B and x ∈ /C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∩ C = B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ / B∪C
⇒ x ∈ A − (B ∪ C) ⇒ (A − B) − C ⊆ A − (B ∪ C). Let x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
Then, x ∈ A and x ∈ / (B ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C) = B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ / B and x ∈ /C
⇒ x ∈ (A − B) and x ∈ /C
⇒ x ∈ (A − B) − C ⇒ A − (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A − B) − C.
Since (A − B) − C ⊆ A − (B ∪ C) and A − (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A − B) − C, then the equality
holds.
2(b) is left as exercise.
DefinitionL1.2.10 The symmetric difference of A and B L
A△B = A B = {x|x ∈ A ∪ B but x ∈ / A ∩ B}. Also, A△B = A B = (A ∪ B) −
(A ∩ B) = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).
Example 1.2.11 Consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {x|x ∈ N ∧ 4 ≤ x ≤ 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10}

(1) A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A ∩ B = {5, 6, 7, 10}
(A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) = {2, 3, 4, 8, 9}
(2) A − B = {4, 8, 9}
B − A = {2, 3}
(A − B) ∪ (B − A) = {2, 3, 4, 8, 9}
Exercise 1.2.12 Consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {x|x ∈ N ∧ 4 ≤ x ≤ 10}

13
B = {2,L
3, 5, 6, 7, 10}
Find B A.

1.2.1 Product Sets and Partition of Sets

Definition 1.2.13 Let A1 , A2 , · · · , An be sets. An n-tuple of elements from A1 , A2 , · · · , An
is element (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) with ai ∈ Ai , where i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
The set of all n-tuples is denoted by
A1 × A2 × · · · × An ,

which is called the set product (or cartesian product) of A1 , A2 , · · · , An .

Definition 1.2.14 Let X be a nonempty set. The collection {Ai } of subsets of X is

said to be a partition of X if
(1) for any a ∈ X, a ∈ Ai for some i
(2) Ak ∩ Aj ̸= ∅ if Ak = Aj

Definition 1.2.15 Alternatively, {Ai } is a partition of X if

(1) for any a ∈ X, a ∈ Ai for some i
(2) Ak ∩ Aj = ∅ if Ak ̸= Aj
The sets Ai s are called the blocks, parts or cells of the partition.

Example 1.2.16 (1) Let X = {1, 2, 3, · · · , 9} and identify which of the following is
a partition of X:
(i) [{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4, 8, 9}]
(ii) [{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, {5, 7, 9}]
(iii) [{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, {7, 9}]
(2) Let Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · }.
{{2n + 1|n ∈ Z}, {2n|n ∈ Z}} = {{±1, ±3, ±5}, {0, ±2, ±4, ±6}}
is a partition of Z

14
Chapter 2

MAPPINGS

Definition 2.0.1 Let A and B be two sets. A function or mapping from A to B, in

symbols
f : A → B,
is a rule (or a single-valued relation) which assigns to each element a of A a unique
element f (a) of B, called the image of a under f .

Remark 2.0.2 The sets A and B are the domain and codomain of f respectively. Note
that f (A) ⊆ B and f (A) is called the range of f . The image of the function f is
Im(f ) = {f (a)|a ∈ A},

which is a subset of B. The set of the images f (A) = f (A).

Definition 2.0.3 Let A, B and C be nonempty sets and f and g are mappings such
that f : A → B and g : B → C. Then, the composition g ◦ f is the set g(f (A)) ⊆ C
such that g ◦ f : A → B → C, which is also a mapping.

Remark 2.0.4 Composition of mappings need not be commutative though.

Definition 2.0.5 A function f : A → B is called injective (or one-one) if f (a) = f (b)

always implies that a = b , that is, distinct elements of A have distinct images in B
under f .

Definition 2.0.6 f : A → B is surjective (or onto) if each element of B is the image

under f of at least one element of A, that is, f (A) = B.

Definition 2.0.7 f : A → B is said to be bijective (or a one-one correspondence) if it

is both injective and surjective.

15
 150

100

ex 50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
x

Figure 2.1: Exponential Function

Example 2.0.8 (a) f : R → R, where f (x) = ex , in Figure 2.1 is injective but not
surjective.
(b) f : R → R, where f (x) = x(x − 1)(x − 2), in Figure 2.2 is surjective but not
injective. Note that any line parallel to the x-axis meets the curve at least once,
so f is surjective. However, f is not injective since f (0) = 0 = f (1) = f (2) but
0 ̸= 1 ̸= 2.
(c) The identity mapping f : R → R, where f (x) = x, in Figure 2.3 is bijective.
(d) f : R → R, where f (x) = x2 , in Figure 2.4 is neither injective nor surjective.
(e) The constant mapping f : X → Y , where f (x) = r, in Figure 2.5 is neither
injective nor surjective. But, if f : X → {r}, it is only surjective. Consider when
r = 2.

Remark 2.0.9 The composition of two functions f : A → B and g : B → C, where

A, B, C are sets, graphically shown as g ◦ f : A → C and defined by
g ◦ f (a) = g(f (a)),
is also a function.

The following proposition shows that the composition of functions is associative law.
Proposition 2.0.10 If A, B, C, D are sets, f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D are
functions, then
h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.

16
 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
f(x)

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
x

Figure 2.2: Polynomial Function

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
f(x)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x

Figure 2.3: Identity Function

17
 4

3.5

f(x) 2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x

Figure 2.4: Polynomial Function

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2
f(x)

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
x

Figure 2.5: Constant Function

18
Proof: For any x ∈ A, we have

(h ◦ (g ◦ f ))(x) = h((g ◦ f )(x))

= h(g(f (x)))
= (h ◦ g)(f (x))
= ((h ◦ g) ◦ f )(x),

thus the associative law is valid.

Proposition 2.0.11 Composition of two injective mappings is also injective.

Proof: Let f and g be injective and assume that

(f ◦ g)(x) = (f ◦ g)(y)
⇒ f (g(x)) = f (g(y))
⇒ g(x) = g(y), since f is injective
⇒x = y, since g is injective.

Proposition 2.0.12 If f ◦ g is injective, only g must be injective but f needs not be.
Proof: If f ◦ g is injective, let

g(x) = g(y)
⇒ f (g(x)) = f (g(y))
.
⇒ (f ◦ g)(x) = (f ◦ g)(y),
⇒x = y, since (f ◦ g is injective).

Hence, g is injective. To show that f is not we use counter example. Let g(x) = 2x and

 x, for even x,
2
f (x) = (2.0.1)
 x + 1, for oddx

g(a) = g(b) ⇒ 2a = 2b ⇒ a = b and (f ◦ g)(x) = x ⇒ (f ◦ g)(a) = (f ◦ g)(b) ⇒ a = b,

in which case g and (f ◦ g) are injective. But f (1) = 2 = f (4) and 1 ̸= 4. Hence, f is
not injective.

19
Definition 2.0.13 Functions f : A → B and g : B → A are said to be mutually
inverse if f ◦ g = idB and g ◦ f = idA .

Remark 2.0.14 If g ′ is another inverse for f , then g = g ′ , for by the associative law
we have g ′ ◦ (f ◦ g) = g ′ ◦ idB = g ′ = (g ′ ◦ f ) ◦ g = idA ◦ g = g. Therefore f has a unique
inverse if it has one at all; we write

f −1 : B → A
for the unique inverse of f .

Exercise 2.0.15 Which of the following functions is/are injective, surjective, bijective?
(a) f : R → Z defined by f (x) = [x], where [x] denotes the largest integer less or
equal to x.
(b) f : R → R+ with f (x) = ex , where R+ stands for the set of positive real numbers.
(c) f : A × B → B × A where f ((a, b)) = (b, a).
(d) Let f : A → A be an injective mapping, where A is a finite set. Then show that
f is a bijection.

20
Chapter 3

RELATIONS

3.1 Definition and Properties of Relations

Definition 3.1.1 Let A and B be sets, a relation R between A and B is a subset of
the set product A × B. Usually, if (a, b) ∈ R, then a is said to be related to b by R and
we write aRb.
Example 3.1.2 Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3}
a b c
1 (a, 1) (b, 1) (c, 1)
A×B =
2 (a, 2) (b, 2) (c, 2)
3 (a, 3) (b, 3) (c, 3)
Any relation R between the two sets A and B can always be found as a subset of A × B.
Example 3.1.3 (1) Let R be the set of real numbers and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤
b, and a, b ∈ R}. Thus aRb means that a ≤ b. R ⊂ R × R.
(2) Let X = {1, 2, 3} and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤ b, and a, b ∈ X}. Thus aRb =
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
(3) Let X be a nonempty set. {(x, x)|x ∈ X} is a diagonal or identity relation.
(4) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. {(x, x)|x ∈ X} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(5) Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b}. The relation
{(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}

21
 is a universal relation between X and Y .
(6) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. The universal relation is
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
is a universal relation on the set X.
(7) Every function f : X → Y is a relation of the form
{(x, f (x))|x ∈ X, y = f (x) ∈ Y }.

(8) Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {3, 4, 6, 8}. The relation

R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 6)}
is not a mapping/function (Every mapping/function is a relation but not every
relation is a mapping).

Definition 3.1.4 Let

R = {(x, y)|x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }
be a relation. Then, the relation

R−1 = {(y, x)|x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }

is an inverse of R.

Remark 3.1.5 More examples of relation include equality, congruity of shapes, simi-
larity of polygons, subset and superset.

3.1.1 Relation on a set

The relation R between a set A and itself is called a relation on the set A.
Example 3.1.6 (1) Let X = {1, 2, 3} and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤ b, and a, b ∈ X}.
Thus aRb = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
(2) Let X be a nonempty set. {(x, x)|x ∈ X} is a diagonal or identity relation.
(3) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. {(x, x)|x ∈ X} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(4) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. The universal relation is
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
is a universal relation on the set X.

22
Definition 3.1.7 Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is called reflexive if aRa for
all a ∈ A.
Example 3.1.8 (1) Identity relation is reflexive: Let X = {1, 2, 3}. {(x, x)|x ∈
X} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(2) Universal relation is reflexive: Let X = {1, 2, 3}. The universal relation is
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}.
(3) ⊆ is a reflexive relation: For any nonempty set X and P(X) is such that for any
A ∈ P(X), A ⊆ A.
(4) ≤ is a reflexive relation: Let X = {1, 2, 3} and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤ b, and a, b ∈
X}. Thus aRb = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
(5) = is a reflexive relation: Any number x from any set is such that x = x.
(6) Let {1, 2, 3}. R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}?
(7) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}?
(8) Define a relation on the set Z of integers by xRy iff ∃m ∈ Z∗ (nonzero integers)
such that m|(x − y), where m|a means m divides a without remainder. This
relation is reflexive since m|0 ⇒ m|(x − x). Hence, xRx.
Definition 3.1.9 Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is called symmetric if aRb
always implies that bRa.
Example 3.1.10 (1) Identity relation is symmetric: Let X = {1, 2, 3}. {(x, x)|x ∈
X} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(2) Universal relation is symmetric: Let X = {1, 2, 3}. The universal relation is
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}.
(3) ⊆ is not symmetric: For any nonempty set X and P(X), if A, B ∈ P(X), A ⊆ B
does not imply B ⊆ A always.
(4) ≤ is not: Let X = {1, 2, 3} and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤ b, and a, b ∈ X}. Note that
aRb = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} and (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2) ∈
/ aRb.
(5) Let {1, 2, 3}. R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}?
(6) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}?
(7) Define a relation on the set Z of integers by xRy iff ∃m ∈ Z∗ such that m|(x − y).
This relation is symmetric since m|(x − y) ⇒ m| − (y − x) ⇒ m|(y − x). Hence,
xRy ⇒ yRx.
Definition 3.1.11 Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is called antisymmetric if
aRb and bRa imply that a = b.

23
Example 3.1.12 (1) Identity relation is also antisymmetric: Let X = {1, 2, 3}.
{(x, x)|x ∈ X} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(2) Universal relation is not antisymmetric: Let X = {1, 2, 3}. The universal relation
is {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}.
(3) ⊆ is antisymmetric: For any nonempty set X and P(X), if A, B ∈ P(X) and
A ⊆ B implies B ⊆ A then A = B.
(4) ≤ is transitive: Let X = {1, 2, 3} and define R = {(a, b)|a ≤ b, and a, b ∈ X}. If
a ≤ b implies b ≤ a, then a = b.
(5) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}?
(6) Define a relation on the set Z of integers by xRy iff ∃m ∈ Z∗ such that m|(x − y).
This relation is not antisymmetric since m|(x−y) ⇒ m|(y −x), for which xRy ⇒
yRx but x ̸= y ∀x, y ∈ Z.
(7) Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4)}?
Definition 3.1.13 Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is called transitive if aRb
and bRc imply that aRc.
Example 3.1.14 (1) Identity relation, ⊆, ≤ and Universal relation are transitive
(2) Let {1, 2, 3}. R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}?
(3) Let X = {1, 2, 3}. R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}?
(4) Define a relation on the set Z of integers by xRy iff ∃m ∈ Z∗ such that m|(x − y).
This relation is transitive since if m|(x − y) and m|(y − z) for which xRy and
yRz, m|[(x − y) + (y − z)] ⇒ m|(x − z) ⇒ xRz ∀x, y, z ∈ Z.
(5) Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4)}?
(6) Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. R4 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}?

3.1.2 Equivalence Relations

Definition 3.1.15 A Relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an
equivalence relations.
Example 3.1.16 Let m be a nonzero integer, two integers a, b are said to be congruent
modulo m if m divides a − b. Symbolically,
a ≡ b (mod m).
Thus congruence modulo m is a relation on Z, where Z stands for the sets of all integers.
This is an equivalence relation since a ≡ a (mod m), if a ≡ b (mod m) then b ≡
a (mod m) and if a ≡ b (mod m), and b ≡ c (mod m), then a ≡ c (mod m).

24
Example 3.1.17 The relation R defined on Z by aRb ⇔ a = bk + r for some 0 ̸=
k, r ∈ R, a set of real numbers, is equivalence.
(1) aRa since ∃1, 0 ∈ R such that a = a(1) + 0 so it is reflexive.
(2) If aRb, then a = bko + ro . Since ko ̸= 0, b = a( k1o ) + (− kroo ). Hence, b = ak + r,
where r = − kroo , k = k1o ∈ R. Thus, bRa.

(3) Let aRb and bRc. Then, a = bk1 + r1 and b = ck2 + r2 for r1 , r2 , k1 , k2 ∈ R and
ki s are non-zero. Note, a = (ck2 + r2 )k1 + r1 = c(k2 k1 ) + (r2 k1 + r1 ) = ck + r,
where k = k2 k1 and r2 k1 + r1 .

Example 3.1.18 Let A be a set of non zero integers and ∼ the relation on A × A
defined by
(a, b) ∼ (c, d),
whenever ad = bc. Show whether ∼ is an equivalence relation.
Solution:
(1) This is reflexive since (a, b) ∼ (a, b) implies ab = ba for all a, b ∈ A.

(2) It is also symmetric since, if (a, b) ∼ (c, d), ad = bc, whence cb = da which implies
(c, d) ∼ (a, b).

(3) The relation is also transitive since if (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (e, f ), ad = bc
and cf = de which implies that (ad)(cf ) = (bc)(de). Since d and c are non zero,
af = be and that implies that (a, b) ∼ (e, f ).

Example 3.1.19 Let ≾ be a relation on IN defined by a ∼ b if there is n ∈ IN such

that a|bn .
Solution:
The relation is not symmetric since for 2 ∼ 6, 2|6n when n = 2 but no such n so that
6|2n . Thus, 6 ≁ 2.

Theorem 3.1.20 Let S be a nonempty set. Then a relation ∼ on S is equivalence iff

it partitions S.

Proof:
Assume that ∼ is an equivalence relation, we need to show that for a ∈ S, [a] = {b ∈
S : a ∼ b} is a partition of S. Let a ∈ S, usually, ∪[a] ⊆ S. Also, a ∈ [a] ⊆ ∪[a]. Thus,
S ⊆ ∪[a] and S = ∪[a]. Furthermore, assume that [a] ∩ [b] ̸= ∅. Then ∃x ∈ [a] ∩ [b]
which implies that x ∈ [a] and x ∈ [b]. In that case, a ∼ x and b ∼ x. Let y ∈ [a], then
a ∼ y and, by symmetric property, x ∼ a and by transitive property, x ∼ y and b ∼ y.
Hence, y ∈ [b]. Thus, [a] ⊆ [b]. Let y ∈ [b], then b ∼ y and, by symmetric property,
y ∼ b and by transitive property, y ∼ x which implies x ∼ y (symmetric property).

25
Hence, a ∼ y (transitive property) and y ∈ [a]. Thus, [b] ⊆ [a]. Since [a] ⊆ [b] and
[b] ⊆ [a], then, [a] = [b].
Conversely, let there be a partition in S and define a relation ∼ on it by a ∼ b if a
and b are in the same class ∀a, b ∈ S.
Reflexive:
a ∼ a is obvious.
Symmetric Property:
If a and b are in the same class, then, without loss of generality, a ∼ b implies that
b ∼ a.
Transitive Property:
Let a and b be in the same class and b and c be in the same class. Then, a ∼ b and
b ∼ c. This implies that a and c are also in the same class and so a ∼ c.
Remark 3.1.21 Equivalence relation induces partition and partition induces equiva-
lence relation.
Definition 3.1.22 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set X. Choose any element
a ∈ X, define
[a] = {x ∈ X|aRx},
which is called the R-equivalence class of a. The collection of equivalence classes is
defined as
X/R = {[x]|x ∈ X},
which is named as quotient set of X by R. It is actually a partition of X.
Example 3.1.23 The relation R defined on Z by aRr ⇔ a = bm + r for some integer
m ̸= 0 and a non negative integer r such that 0 < m ≤ r. This means that the
remainder upon dividing a by m is r or m|(a − r), which is a ≡ r( mod m). This
relation is also an equivalence relation which induces a partition.
Let m = 5
[0] = {· · · , −10, −5, 0, 5, 10, 15, · · · }
[1] = {· · · , −9, −4, 1, 6, 11, 16, · · · }
[2] = {· · · , −8, −3, 2, 7, 12, 17, · · · }
[3] = {· · · , −7, −2, 3, 8, 13, 18, · · · }
[4] = {· · · , −6, −1, 4, 9, 14, 19, · · ·S}
Z/R = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}. Z = [i]4i=1
In general, if aRm ⇔ a ≡ r( mod m) on Z, Z/R = {[0], [1], [2], [3], · · · [m − 1]}.
Example 3.1.24 Let the set X = {a, b, c} have the equivalence relation
R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (b, c), (c, b)},
then
[a] = {a}, [b] = [c] = {b, c},
the quotient set of X by R is
X/R = {[a], [b]} = {{a}, {b, c}}.

26
 Example 3.1.25 Consider the set Q = { pq |q ̸= 0 ∀p, q ∈ Z} of rational numbers. The
following set of equivalence fractions are subsets of Q and divide it into disjoint subsets
of itself.
1
2
= 24 = 36 = · · · , [ 12 ]
2
3
= 46 = 69 = · · · , [ 23 ]
3
4
= 68 = 129
= · · · , [ 43 ]
.. ..
. .
1 = 22 = 33 = 44 = · · · , [1]
2 = 42 = 36 = 84 = · · · , [2]
.. ..
. .

27
Chapter 4

PARTIAL, TOTAL AND WELL

ORDERINGS

4.1 Partial Orderings

Definition 4.1.1 A relation ∼ which is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive is called
a partial order. If X is a nonempty set and ∼, a partial order, is on X, (X, ∼) is a
partially ordered set (POSET).

Example 4.1.2 (a) (R, ≤), (R, ≥), (P(X), ⊇) and (P(X), ⊆) are POSET
(b) (Z, |) is not a POSET because it is not antisymmetric since a| − a and −a|a but
a ̸= −a.

Remark 4.1.3 Let ⪯ be a relation and a ⪯ b be taken for “a precedes b” while a ≺ b

is taken for “a properly precedes b”

4.2 Total Ordering

Definition 4.2.1 Let (S, ⪯) be a POSET. Then a and b are comparable if either a ⪯ b
or b ⪯ a.

Example 4.2.2 1. In (N, |), 2 and 8 are comparable since 2|8.

2. In (Z, |), 2 and -2 are comparable since 2| − 2 and −2|2.

28
Definition 4.2.3 A POSET is said to be totally (or linearly) ordered or a chain if
every pair of elements in it are comparable.

Example 4.2.4 (1) (N, |) is not a chain because 3 and 5 are not comparable.
(2) But let X = {2, 6, 12, 36}. (X, |) is a chain.
(3) (N, ≤) is a chain.
(4) (P(X), ⊆) is not a chain because neither is {x} ⊊ {y} nor {y} ⊊ {x} if x ̸=
y ∀ x, y ∈ P(X).

4.3 First, Last, Minimal and Maximal Elements

Definition 4.3.1 Let (S, ⪯) be a POSET.
(1) An element a ∈ S is called the first (or least) element of S if a ⪯ x ∀x ∈ S.
(2) An element b ∈ S is called the last (or greatest) element of S if y ⪯ b ∀y ∈ S.
(3) An element c ∈ S is called the minimal element of S if no element of S properly
precedes it. That is, if any x ∈ S such that x ⪯ c ⇒ x = c.
(4) An element d ∈ S is called the maximal element of S if no element of S properly
dominates it. That is, if any y ∈ S such that d ⪯ y ⇒ y = d.

Example 4.3.2 (1) In (P(X), ⊆), ∅ is the first element since ∅ ⊆ A∀ A ∈ P(X)
and X is the last element since A ⊆ X∀ A ∈ P(X). For all x ∈ X, in P(X) ∅ is
the minimal element since ∅ ⊆ {x}. Also, X is the maximal element of P(X).

Example 4.3.3 (2) Let S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, } have a relation R = {(2, 4), (2, 5), (4, 5),
(6, 3), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)} defined on it. State if (S, R) is a POSET.
Also, find first, last, minimal and maximal elements of (S, R).
Solution
(S, R) is a POSET
No first element
No last element
2 and 6 are minimal elements
3 and 5 are maximal elements

Example 4.3.4 (3) (Z, ≤) has neither minimal nor maximal element. The situation
may not be the same for a finite subset of (Z, ≤) such as {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4} with
the relation ≤.

29
 Figure 4.1: Lattice Diagram

Figure 4.2: Lattice Diagram

Use of Hasse Diagram Find the first, last, minimal and maximal elements in the
Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
4.1 4.2 4.3
First Element 1 ∅ e
Last Element ∅ a a
Minimal Element 1 d, e e
Maximal Element 13, 18 a a

30
 Figure 4.3: Lattice Diagram

4.3.1 Well Ordering

Definition 4.3.5 A totally ordered set is said to be well ordered if every subset has the
first element.

Example 4.3.6 (1) Are (N, ≤) and (Z, ≤) well ordered?

(2) But let X = {2, 6, 12, 36}. Is (X, |) well ordered?

Example 4.3.7 Solution

(1) (N, ≤) is well ordered because it is partially ordered (since ≤ is reflexive, anti-
symmetric and transitive), every element in it are comparable (since it is totally
ordered) and every subset of it has the first element. But (Z, ≤) is not since
−N ⊆ Z has no first element.
(2) For X = {2, 6, 12, 36}, (X, |) is well ordered sine | is a partial order, every pair of
elements of (X, |) is comparable and every subset of (X, |) has the first element.

Definition 4.3.8 Let (S, ⪯) be a POSET and T ⊆ S.

(1) A lower bound of T is an element of S which precedes every element of T . That
is, x ∈ S is a lower bound of T if x ⪯ y ∀ y ∈ T . It may or may not be in T .
(2) The greatest lower bound of T is a lower bound of T which dominates any of its
lower bounds.
(3) An upper bound of T is an element of S which dominates every element of T .
That is, y ∈ S is an upper bound of T if x ⪯ y ∀ x ∈ T . It may or may not be in
T.

31
 (4) The least upper bound of T is an upper bound of T which precedes any of its upper
bounds.
Example 4.3.9 Consider the POSET (R, ≤). The interval (0, 1) is a subset of R
(1) (−∞, 0] is a lower bound of (0, 1).
(2) [1, ∞) is the upper bound of (0, 1).
(3) Least upper bound is 1 and greatest lower bound is 0.

4.3.2 Similarity Mapping

Definition 4.3.10 Let A and B be two POSETs. They are said to be similar if there
exists a bijective mapping f : A → B such that a1 ≾ a2 in A iff f (a1 ) = b1 ≾ b2 = f (a2 )
in B. In this case, f is called a similarity mapping from A to B.
Example 4.3.11 Show that if f : A → B is a similarity mapping from a well-ordered
set A to its own subset B, then ∀a ∈ A, a ≾ f (a).
Solution:
Let S be the set {a ∈ A : f (a) ≾ a and f (a) ̸= a}. We simply need to show that
no such S exists in A. But suppose it does. Since A is well-ordered, and S ⊆ A, S
has the first element, say s1 and f (s1 ) ≾ s1 . But f is a similarity relation so we have
f (f (s1 )) ≾ f (s1 ). This implies that f (s1 ) is also in S just as s1 and f (s1 ) ≾ s1 yet
f (s1 ) ̸= s1 , in which case s1 is not the first element as claimed. By this contradiction,
S is empty since there is no subset of A without first element.
Example 4.3.12 Let g : X → Y be a similarity mapping. Then,
(1) g preserves least (or first) element
(2) g preserves maximal elements
Solution:
(1) g preserves least element:
Let x0 be the least element in X. We need to show that g(x0 ) is the least element
in Y . Let y be an arbitrary element in Y . Since g is bijective, there is x ∈ X such
that g(x) = y. Since x0 is the least element in X, x0 ≾ x. But g is a similarity
mapping, hence, g(x0 ) ≾ g(x) = y ∀y ∈ Y . Thus, g(x0 ) is the least element in
Y.
(2) g preserves maximal elements:
Let x0 be the maximal element in X. We need to show that g(x0 ) is the maximal
element in Y . Let y be an arbitrary element in Y such that g(x) ) ≾ y. Since g is
bijective, there is x ∈ X such that g(x) = y. Then, g(x0 ) ≾ y = g(x). But g is a
similarity mapping, hence, x0 ≾ x. But x0 is a maximal element, in which case
x = x0 . Thus, g(x0 ) = g(x) = y ∀x ∈ X. Now, g(x0 ) ≾ g(x) ∀x ∈ X ⇒ g(x0 ) =
g(x), then g(x0 ) is a maximal element of Y .

32
Exercise 4.3.13 Let g : X → Y be a similarity mapping. Then, show whether or not
(1) g preserves least (or first) element
(2) g preserves maximal elements

33
Chapter 5

LATTICES

Let ∧ represent infimum and ∨ the supremum. Then, a ∧ b = b means that b is the
infimum of a and b. Also, a ∨ b = a means that a is the supremum of a and b.
Definition 5.0.1 Let S be a nonempty set. A lattice is a system of quadruple (S, ≾
, ∧, ∨), such that (S, ≾) is a partially set, in which each pair has glb and lub.

Definition 5.0.2 A lattice S is said to be distributive if for a, b, c ∈ S,

(1) a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
(ii) a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

Definition 5.0.3 A lattice S is complemented if it has distinct elements 0 and 1 such

that a ≾ a ≾ 1, ∀a ∈ S with the fact that if a has a complement a′ , a ∧ a′ = 0 and
a ∨ a′ = 1.

Definition 5.0.4 A Boolean algebra is a complemented distributive lattice.

Exercise 5.0.5 Show that (ξ, ⊆, ∩, ∪) is a lattice, where ξ is the universal set.

Remark 5.0.6 Alternatively, let L be a nonempty set which is closed under the binary
operations join (∨) and meet (∧). Then, L is a lattice if the following holds:
(i) Commutativity Law
(a) a ∧ b = b ∧ a
(b) a ∨ b = b ∨ a
(ii) Associativity Law

34
 (a) a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) ∧ c
(b) a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c
(iii) Absorption Law
(a) a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a
(b) a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a

35
Chapter 6

Introduction to Number Theory

6.1 Some properties of (Z, +) and (Z, ·)

For all a, b, c ∈ Z with respect to addition and multiplication, the following are true:
(1) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
(2) a + b = b + a and a.b = b.a
(3) a.(b + c) = (a.b) + (a.c) and (b + c).a = (b.a) + (c.a)
(4) There are 0, 1 ∈ Z such that a + 0 = a = 0 + a and a.1 = a = 1.a
(5) There are −a, a−1 ∈ Z such that a + −a = 0 = −a + a and a.a−1 = 1 = a−1 .a

Definition 6.1.1 Every integer n ≥ 2 can be written uniquely as the product of its
prime factors (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic).

Proposition 6.1.2 For any a ∈ Z, the absolute value of a is


 a, for a ≥ 0,
|a| = (6.1.1)
 −a, for a < 0

Hence, |a| ≥ 0, non-negative.

Proposition 6.1.3 The set (Z, ≤) is such that, ∀a, b ∈ Z, only one of a < b, a = b or
a > b can occur and if a ≤ b,

36
 (1) a + c ≤ b + c for any c ∈ Z
(2) ac ≥ b for some c ≥ 1 ∈ Z
(3) ac ≤ bc for c > 0 in Z
(4) ac ≥ bc for c < 0 in Z

Definition 6.1.4 If a = nb for some n ∈ Z, a is a multiple of b or b is a factor of a.

Hence, we write b|a.

Definition 6.1.5 Any integer P such that |P | > 1 and the only factors of P are ±1
and ±P is called a prime number.

Theorem 6.1.6 Let a be any integer and b be a positive integer. Then, ∃! integers q
and r such that a = bq + r and 0 ≤ r < b (Euclidean Algorithm).

6.2 GCD, LCM and Linear Properties of GCD

Definition 6.2.1 Let a, b ∈ Z. then d is a common divisor of a and b if d|a and d|b.
If also d is divided by all other common divisors of a and b, it is called the greatest
common divisor of a and b and is denoted d = (a, b) or d = gcd(a, b).

Definition 6.2.2 Let {ai }ni=1 be a collection of integers. An integer c is called a com-
mon multiple of a′i s if each ai divides c, that is ai |c ∀i. If c divides all other com-
mon multiples of a′i s, it is called the lowest common multiple of a′i s and is denoted
[a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an ].

Definition 6.2.3 Two numbers a, b ∈ Z are said to be relatively prime or coprime if

gcd(a, b) = 1.

Remark 6.2.4 Let m, n, s ∈ Z. The following are some properties of divisibilities of

integers:
(1) m|n ⇒ m|kn for any k ∈ Z
(2) m|n and m|s ⇒ m|(n + s) and m|k(n + s) for any k ∈ Z
(3) m|n and n|m ⇒ m = ±n
(4) m|n for n, m > 0, m ≤ n

Theorem 6.2.5 If gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r), then a = bq + r.

37
Proof: Let d = gcd(a, b). Then, d|a and d|b which implies that d|bq. Hence, d|(a − bq)
so that d|r. Thus, d|b and d|r. We claim that d = gcd(b, r). Suppose there is another
gcd(b, r) = d′ so that d|d′ . But d′ |b and d′ |r and so d′ |bq in which case d′ |(bq + r) and
d′ |a. Then we have that d′ |b and d′ |a. Since d = gcd(a, b), d′ |d also. The two cases d′ |d
and d|d′ occur together, then, d = ±d′ .
Theorem 6.2.6 If gcd(a, b) = d, we can have integers u and v such that d = ua + vb

Example 6.2.7 Find the gcd(540, 168) = d and the integers u and v such that d =
540u + 168v
540 = 168(3) + 36
168 = 36(4) + 24
36 = 24(1) + 12
24 = 12(2)
Thus, gcd(540, 168) = 12. To find u and v, we reverse the process.
12 = 36 − 24(1)
= 36 − [168 − 36(4)](1)
= 36(5) − 168(1)
= [540 − 168(3)](5) − 168(1)
= 540(5) − 168(16)
= 540(5) + 168(−16)
u = 5, v = −16, 12 = 540(5) + 168(−16)

Example 6.2.8 Find the gcd(2598, 1124) = d and the integers u and v such that d =
2598u + 1124v
2598 = 1124(2) + 350
1124 = 350(3) + 74
350 = 74(4) + 54
74 = 54(1) + 20
54 = 20(2) + 14
20 = 14(1) + 6
14 = 6(2) + 2
6 = 2(3)

38
Thus, gcd(2598, 1124) = 2. To find u and v, we reverse the process.

2 = 14 − 6(2)
= 14 − [20 − 14(1)](2)
= 14 − 20(2) + 14(2)
= 14(3) − 20(2)
= [54 − 20(2)](3) − 20(2)
= 54(3) − 20(6) − 20(2)
= 54(3) − 20(8)
.. .
. = ..
= 350(167) − 1124(52)
= [2598 − 1124(2)](167) − 1124(52)
= 2598(167) − 1124(386)
= 2598(167) + 1124(−386)

u = 167, v = −386, 2 = 2598(167) + 1124(−386)

Example 6.2.9 Find the gcd(−28, 45) = d and the integers u and v such that d =
−28u + 45v. Note that a can be any integer.

−28 = 45(−1) + 17
45 = 17(2) + 11
17 = 11(1) + 6
11 = 6(1) + 5
6 = 5(1) + 1
5 = 1(5)

Thus, gcd(−28, 45) = 1. To find u and v, we reverse the process and obtain u = 8, v = 5
and 1 = −28(8) + 45(5).

39
6.3 Residue Modulo m
If upon dividing a by m the remainder is r, we can say that ‘a is congruent to r modulo
m’, a ≡ r(mod m). It means m|(a − r). So, we can define a relation ∼ such that for
any a, b ∈ Z, a ∼ b iff ∃ m ∈ Z∗ such that m|(b − a). This relation partitions Z into
residue classes modulo m. They are disjoin equivalent classes [0], [1], [2], [3], · · · , [m−1].
In general, [x] = {a ∈ Z : a ≡ x(mod m)}. A special modulo class is the
Zm = {0, 1, 2, · · · , m − 1}.

Arithmetic of Residue Classes

For a, b ∈ Z, [a] + [b] = [a + b]. Hence, if a ≡ r1 (mod m) and b ≡ r2 (mod m), then,
(a + b) ≡ (r1 + r2 )(mod m), where r1 + r2 < m. Similarly, for a, b ∈ Z, [a][b] = [ab].
Hence, if a ≡ r1 (mod m) and b ≡ r2 (mod m), then, (ab) ≡ (r1 r2 )(mod m), where
r1 r2 < m.
Example 6.3.1 Let 7 ≡ 2(mod 5) and 16 ≡ 1(mod 5). Then, 23 ≡ 3(mod 5) and
112 ≡ 2(mod 5).

Reduced Residue System

In Zm , the following elements exist: 0, 1, 2, · · · , m − 1. The set of elements which are
relatively prime with m is called reduced residue system modulo m. The cardinality of
that set is called the Euler Phi Function or the totient, ϕ(m).
Example 6.3.2 In Z10 , the reduced residue system modulo 10 is {1, 3, 7, 9} and ϕ(10) =
4.

Example 6.3.3 In Z15 , the reduced residue system modulo 15 is {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}
and ϕ(15) = 8.

Example 6.3.4 In Zp , where p is prime, ϕ(m) = m − 1.

Complete Residue System

The set {a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , am } is called a complete residue system modulo m if no two
distinct members are congruent modulo m to each other. In other words, if ai ≡
aj (mod m), then, i = j.
Example 6.3.5 Complete residue system modulo 4 are {0, 1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10, 11}, · · ·
Notice that residue classes modulo 4 are [0], [1], [2], [3].

40
6.4 Congruence Linear Equation
The case ax ≡ 1(mod m), where (a, m) = 1 or (a, m) > 1
In the case of gcd(a, m) = 1, the equation has unique and if gcd(a, m) > 1, then it has
no solution.
Example 6.4.1 The congruence equation 11x ≡ 1(mod 33) has no solution because
(11, 33) = 11 > 1.

Example 6.4.2 The solution to 7x ≡ 1(mod 9) is unique because (7, 9) = 1. As a

matter of fact, it is one of the elements in Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, which is x = 4.
But, by Theorem 6.2.6, we can find x and y such that 7x + 9y = 1 = gcd(7, 9).

9 = 7(1) + 2
7 = 2(3) + 1
2 = 1(2)

This confirms that gcd(7, 9) = 1. Reversing the process as we earlier did,

1 = 7 − 2(3)
= 7 − [9 − 7(1)](3)
= 7(4) − 9(3)
= 7(4) + 9(−3)
x = 4
y = −3

Example 6.4.3 Solve 81x ≡ 1(mod 256).

Solution:
Since (81, 256) = 1, we use 81x + 256y = 1.

256 = 81(3) + 13
81 = 13(6) + 3
13 = 3(4) + 1
3 = 1(3)

41
Reversing the process as we earlier did,

1 = 13 − 3(4)
= 13 − [81 − 13(6)](4)
= 13(25) − 81(4)
= [256 − 81(3)](25) − 81(4)
= 256(25) − 81(79)
= 256(25) + 81(−79)
x = −79
= 177
y = 25

The case ax ≡ b(mod m)

We still consider if gcd(a, m) = 1, in which case the equation has unique solution.
Example 6.4.4 (i) 3x ≡ 5(mod 11), Answer: x = 9
(ii) 5x ≡ 3(mod 9), Answer: x = 6
(iii) 3x ≡ 2(mod 11), Answer: x = 8

Example 6.4.5 Solve 6x ≡ 3(mod 9). The given equation has the same solution set
in Z9 as 2x ≡ 1(mod 3). Hence, x = 2, 5, 8.

Example 6.4.6 Solve 33x ≡ 38(mod 280).

Solution:
The given equation involve large numbers whose gcd may not easily come to mind
nor caw we begin to list all elements in Z280 . We can use division algorithm to find
gcd(33, 280). So we consider d = 33x + 280y

280 = 33(8) + 16
33 = 16(2) + 1
16 = 1(16)

42
Reversing the process as we earlier did,

1 = 33 − 16(2)
= 33 − [280 − 33(8)](2)
1 = 33(17) − 280(2)
38 = 33(38)(17) − 280(38)(2)
38 = 33(646) + 280(−76)
x = 646
= 86
y = −76

Example 6.4.7 Solve 66x ≡ 111(mod 237).

Solution:
The given equation has the same solution set as 22x ≡ 37(mod 79) in Z237 . We can
use division algorithm to find gcd(22, 79). So we consider d = 22x + 79y

79 = 22(3) + 13
22 = 13(1) + 9
13 = 9(1) + 4
9 = 4(2) + 1
4 = 2(2)

43
Reversing the process as we earlier did,

1 = 9 − 4(2)
= 9 − [13 − 9(1)](2)
= 9(3) − 13(2)
= [22 − 13(1)](3) − 13(2)
= 22(3) − 13(5)
= 22(3) − [79 − 22(3)](5)
1 = 22(18) − 79(5)
37 = 22(37)(18) − 79(37)(5)
37 = 22(666) − 79(185)
37 = 22(666) + 79(−185)
x = 666
= 34
= 113
= 192
y = −185

6.4.1 Miscellaneous

Non-Linear Congruent Equations

Example 6.4.8 (i) x2 + x + 1 ≡ 0(mod 4), Answer: No solution
(ii) x2 + 3 ≡ 0(mod 6), Answer: x = 3
(iii) x2 − 1 ≡ 0(mod 8), Answer: x = 1, 3, 5, 7

Finding Remainder upon a Division

Example 6.4.9 What is the remainder r when 250 is divided by 105?
Solution:

44
We are to solve 250 ≡ x(mod 105). Note that 105 = 3 × 5 × 7 We should solve:

250 ≡ x(mod 3)
250 ≡ x(mod 5)
250 ≡ x(mod 7)

For 250 ≡ x(mod 3)

2 ≡ −1(mod 3)
250 ≡ 1(mod 3)
250 ≡ 4(mod 3)
For 250 ≡ x(mod 5)

22 ≡ −1(mod 5)
(22 )25 ≡ −1(mod 5)
250 ≡ −1(mod 5)
250 ≡ 4(mod 5)
For 250 ≡ x(mod 7)

23 ≡ 1(mod 7)
(23 )16 ≡ 1(mod 7)
248 ≡ 1(mod 7)
248 22 ≡ 22 (mod 7)
250 ≡ 4(mod 7)
Hence, 250 ≡ 4(mod 105) and r = 4.

Example 6.4.10 What is the remainder r when 7100 is divided by 100?

Solution:
We are to solve 7100 ≡ x(mod 100). Note that 105 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 4 × 25 We should
solve:
7100 ≡ x(mod 4)
7100 ≡ x(mod 25)

45
For 7100 ≡ x(mod 4)

7 ≡ −1(mod 4)
7100 ≡ 1(mod 4)
For 7100 ≡ x(mod 25)

72 ≡ −1(mod 25)
(72 )50 ≡ 1(mod 25)
7100 ≡ 1(mod 25)
Hence, 7100 ≡ 1(mod 100) and r = 1.

46
Chapter 7

GROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS

7.1 Algebraic Systems

7.1.1 Binary Operations

Definition 7.1.1 Let A, B, C be non-empty sets, an algebraic operation ◦ from A × B
to C is a mapping
◦ : A × B → C.
Definition 7.1.2 A binary operation on a set S is a function
∗ : S × S → S.
For each ordered pair (a, b) with a, b in S, the function ∗ produces a unique element
∗((a, b)) of S. In this case, we say that S is closed with respect to ∗. It is better notation
if we write a ∗ b instead of ∗((a, b)) and refer to the binary operation as ∗. (S, ∗) is
called an algebraic system and sometimes we use S to stand for (S, ∗), if ∗ is clear from
the context.
Remark 7.1.3 Sometimes, arbitrary symbols are used to denote a defined binary op-
eration while there are some standard symbols for some binary operations.
Example 7.1.4 (i) “−” is the standard symbol for ordinary “subtraction”.
(ii) “+” is the standard symbol for ordinary “addition”.
(iii) “×” is the standard symbol for ordinary “multiplication”.
(iv) “÷” is the standard symbol for ordinary “division”.

47
(vi) For a set S an arbitrary binary operation “∗” can be given a meaning on it such
as for all a, b in S,
a ∗ b = a2 + b2 − ab.
In this case, we say that ∗ is defined on S as long as a ∗ b ∈ S is meaningful.
Example 7.1.5 (i) Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and define a binary operation □ on it
by x□y = x+y +xy ∀ x, y ∈ X. This is not closed because 2□5 = 2+5+(2×5) =
7 + 10 = 17 ∈
/X
(ii) Let Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and define a binary operation +6 on it by a +6 b = re-
mainder upon dividing a + b by 6.

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
(Z6 , +6 ) is a groupoid since +6 is closed in Z6 .
Remark 7.1.6 Note the following:
(i) (N, +), (Z, +), (R, +), (Q, +), (C, +) are always closed.
(ii) (N, ×), (Z, ×), (R, ×), (Q, ×), (C, ×) are always closed.
(iii) (N, −) is not closed.
(iv) (N, ÷), (Z, ÷), (R, ÷), (Q, ÷) are not closed
Definition 7.1.7 A binary operation ∗ on a nonempty set S is associative if for all
a, b, c ∈ S,
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.
Example 7.1.8 Define a binary operation ∗ on R the set of real numbers by a ∗ b =
a + b + ab
2
∀ a, b, c ∈ R. Show whether this is associative or not.
ab
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + 2
) ∗c
= (a + b + 21 ab) + c + 12 (a + b + 21 ab)c
= a + b + c + 12 (ab + ac + bc) + 41 abc

48
Similarly,
bc
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c + 2
)
bc a(b+c+ bc )
= a + (b + c + 2
) + 2
2

= a + b + c + 21 (ab + ac + bc) + 14 abc

Remark 7.1.9 Note the following:

(i) (N, +), (Z, +), (R, +), (Q, +), (C, +) are always associative.
(ii) (N, ×), (Z, ×), (R, ×), (Q, ×), (C, ×) are always associative.
(iii) (N, ÷), (Z, ÷), (R, ÷), (Q, ÷), (C, ÷) are not associative.
(iv) (N, −), (Z, −), (R, −), (Q, −), (C, −) are not associative.

Definition 7.1.10 A binary operation ∗ on a nonempty set S is distributive over an-

other binary operation ◦ if for all a, b, c ∈ S,
a ∗ (b ◦ c) = (a ∗ b) ◦ (a ◦ c).

Remark 7.1.11 Usually, × is distributive over +.

Example 7.1.12 Define an operation ∗ and ⊙ on the set N of natural numbers respec-
tively by
ˆ a ∗ b = ab ∀a, b ∈ N
ˆ a⊙b= a
b
∀a, b ∈ N
Check the following:
(1) Is ∗ distributive over ⊙
(2) Is ⊙ distributive over ∗
Solution:
Let a, b, c ∈ N
(1) Is ∗ distributive over ⊙
a ∗ (b ⊙ c) = a ∗ ( cb )
= a cb
ab
= c

49
 Also,
(a ∗ b) ⊙ (a ∗ c) = (ab) ⊙ (ac)
ab
= ac
b
= c

Since abc = a ∗ (b ⊙ c) ̸= (a ∗ b) ⊙ (a ∗ c) = b
c
except a = 1, ∗ is not distributive
over ⊙. Let a, b, c ∈ N
(2) Is ⊙ distributive over ∗

a ⊙ (b ∗ c) = a ⊙ (bc)
a
= bc

Also,
a a
(a ⊙ b) ∗ (a ⊙ c) = b
∗ c
a2
= bc

a2
Since bca = a ⊙ (b ∗ c) ̸= (a ⊙ b) ∗ (a ⊙ c) = bc
except a = 1, ⊙ is not distributive
over ∗.

Definition 7.1.13 A binary operation ∗ on a nonempty set S is commutative if for all

a, b ∈ S,
a ∗ b = b ∗ a.

Example 7.1.14 (i) Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and define a binary operation □ on it

by x□y = x + y + xy ∀ x, y ∈ X. Note that this, though is not closed, yet is
commutative because x□y = x + y + (x × y) = y + x + (y × x) = y□x
(ii) Let Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The binary operation +6 on it is commutative.
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

50
Remark 7.1.15 Note the following:
(i) (N, +), (Z, +), (R, +), (Q, +), (C, +) are always commutative.
(ii) (N, ×), (Z, ×), (R, ×), (Q, ×), (C, ×) are always commutative.
(iii) (N, ÷), (Z, ÷), (R, ÷), (Q, ÷), (C, ÷) are not commutative.
(iv) (N, −), (Z, −), (R, −), (Q, −), (C, −) are not commutative.

Exercise 7.1.16 (1) For a set N of natural numbers, check if the binary operation ⊕
defined by a⊕b = (ab)2 −ab for all a, b ∈ N is closed, associative and commutative.
(2) For a set R of real numbers, check if the binary operation ⊕ defined by a ⊕ b =
(ab)2 − ab for all a, b ∈ R is closed, commutative and distributive over ⊘ defined
by a ⊘ b = ab.

7.1.2 Introduction to Some Algebraic Structures

Definition 7.1.17 A non-empty set S is called a groupoid if S is closed with respect
to ∗ and is denoted by (S, ∗).

Definition 7.1.18 A groupoid (S, ∗) is called a semigroup if it satisfies the associative

law:
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Definition 7.1.19 A nonempty set S is said to have an identity or a neutral element

if there is a unique element e ∈ S with respect to a binary operation ∗ if

a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ S.

Example 7.1.20 Find the identity of the set (R, ∗) for ∗ defined on R by x ∗ y =
2x−2y−1
2
∀ a, b ∈ R. Find e for which x ∗ e = x = e ∗ x.

2x−2e−1
x∗e = 2
2x−2e−1
2
= x
2x − 2e − 1 = 2x
−2e − 1 = 0
e = − 12

51
 2e−2x−1
e∗x = 2
2e−2x−1
2
= x
2e − 2x − 1 = 2x
2e − 1 = 4x
4x+1
e = 2

The set has no identity element since e is not unique.

Example 7.1.21 Find the identity of the set (R, ∗) for ∗ defined on R by x ∗ y =
2x+2y−1
2
∀ x, y ∈ R. Find e for which x ∗ e = x = e ∗ x.

2x+2e−1
x∗e = 2
2x+2e−1
2
= x
2x + 2e − 1 = 2x
2e − 1 = 0
1
e = 2

2e+2x−1
e∗x = 2
2e+2x−1
2
= x
2e + 2x − 1 = 2x
2e − 1 = 0
1
e = 2
1
The set has an identity element e = 2
since e is unique.

Example 7.1.22 Find the identity of the set (Z, ∗) for ∗ defined on R by x ∗ y =
2x+2y−1
2
∀ x, y ∈ R. Find e for which x ∗ e = x = e ∗ x. Since e = 12 ∈
/ Z, the set has no
identity.

Definition 7.1.23 If the semigroup (S, ∗) has an identity element, that is, an element
e of S such that
a∗e=a=e∗a
for all a ∈ S, then it is called a monoid.

52
Example 7.1.24 (i) The identity element in (N, ×), (Z, ×), (R, ×), (Q, ×), (C, ×)
is 1 so they are monoids.
(ii) The identity element in (Z, +), (R, +), (Q, +), (C, +) is 0 while (N, +) has none.
(iii) (N, −), (Z, −), (R, −), (Q, −), (C, −) have no identity element.
(iv) (N, ÷), (Z, ÷), (R, ÷), (Q, ÷), (C, ÷) have no identity element.

Definition 7.1.25 An element x−1 ∈ S is said to be an inverse of x ∈ S with respect

to a binary operation ∗ if

x ∗ x−1 = e = x−1 ∗ x ∀x ∈ S.

Example 7.1.26 (i) No element in (N, ×) and (Z, ×) has inverse and 0 has no
inverse in (R, ×) and (Q, ×) since e = 1.
(ii) In (R∗ , ×) and (Q∗ , ×), the inverse is the reciprocal of each element. That is, for
any x reciprocal is x1 or for any xy , reciprocal is xy .

(iii) The inverse of each element x in (Z, +), (R, +), (Q, +), (C, +) is −x while ele-
ments of (N, +) has none.

Exercise 7.1.27 Determine which of the following is/are groupoid(s), monoid(s) and/or
semigroup(s) with respect to the usual addition, subtraction, division and multiplication:
(1) The set N of natural numbers
(2) For a set R of real numbers
(3) For a set Q of rational numbers
(4) For a set Z of integers
(5) For a set C of complex numbers

7.2 Group
The concept of group arises from many real life situations such as crystal structure,
symmetry of atomic orbits, transformation of computer graphics and so on. We have
already considered that when a proper binary operation ∗ is defined on a nonempty set
S, (S, ∗) becomes an algebraic structure. Such structures can be groupoid or semigroup
or monoid depending on some properties of the operation. Now, we define a special
algebraic structure called a group.

53
Definition 7.2.1 A monoid (S, ∗) is called a group if each element a of S has an
inverse. That is, to every a ∈ S, there is an element a−1 of S such that, for identity
element e,
a ∗ a−1 = e = a−1 ∗ a, .

Remark 7.2.2 Equivalently, A nonempty set S is said to be a group with respect to a

binary operation ∗ if we have the following:
(i) For every a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S (Closure property)
(ii) a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c, ∀a, b, c ∈ S (Associative property)
(iii) There is an e ∈ S, called the identity of S, such that for every a ∈ S,
a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a.

(iv) For every a ∈ S, there is an a−1 ∈ S, called the inverse of a, such that

a ∗ a−1 = e = a−1 ∗ a.

Definition 7.2.3 A group (S, ∗) is said to be commutative if

a∗b=b∗a

for all a, b ∈ S. In that case, the group is also called an abelian group.

7.2.1 Examples of Groups

Example 7.2.4 The pair (R, +) is a group, where + is ordinary addition, 0 is an
identity element and an inverse of x ∈ R is its negative, −x.

Example 7.2.5 Let X = {1, −1, i, −i}. The pair (X, ×) is a group, where × is ordinary
multiplication.

Example 7.2.6 The pair (R − {0}, ×) is a group, where × is ordinary multiplication,

1
1 is an identity element and the inverse of x ∈ R − {0} is .
x
Example 7.2.7 Let Mn (R) be the set of all n × n matrices with entries from the set
of real numbers. If the usual rule of addition of matrices is used, we obtain a group
(Mn (R), +), while (Mn (R), ·), where · is matrix multiplication, is only a monoid. More
generally, the set (Mn×m (R), +) of n×m matrices with respect to addition can be shown
to be a group.

54
Example 7.2.8 Let GLn (R) be the set of all n × n invertible matrices with entries
from the set of real numbers. Hence, for A ∈ GLn (R), det(A) ̸= 0. If the usual rule
of multiplication of matrices is used, we obtain a group (GLn (R), ·) called the general
linear group. This particular group is of great importance in physical sciences. It is
easy to see that it is a non-abelian group.

Remark 7.2.9 If the cardinality of a group is finite, then the group is referred to as
finite, otherwise, it is infinite.

Exercise 7.2.10 1. Determine which the following is/are groupoid(s), semigroup(s)

and/or monoid(s) with respect to the usual addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication:
(i) The set N of natural numbers;
(ii) The set R of real numbers;
(iii) The set Q of rational numbers and
(iv) The set Z of integers.
2. Let G be a group, if every element x ∈ G satisfies x2 = e, where e is the identity
element of G, show whether or not G is abelian.
3. For a set Z of integers, show that Z3 × Z4 is a group.
4. For a set Z of integers, show that Z2 × Z2 × Z2 is a group.

7.2.2 Subgroups of a Group

In this section, we refer to H as a subset of G and e as the identity element of G except
otherwise stated. Also, G is short for the group (G, ∗).
Definition 7.2.11 H is a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is also a group. Hence, the notation
H ≤ G.

Example 7.2.12 (i) For any group G, {e} and G are subgroups of referred to as
trivial subgroups
(ii) With respect to the usual addition, the following is a chain of subgroups: Z ⊆
Q ⊆ R ⊆ C, where Z, Q, R, C are respectively set of integers, rational numbers,
real numbers and complex numbers.

55
7.2.3 Some Properties of Subgroups
Let H be any subgroup of G and e as stated earlier.
(i) A group whose cardinality is prime has only the trivial subgroups.
(ii) The identity of G is the same as that of H.
(iii) For all a, b ∈ H, we also have that ab ∈ H.
(iv) If a ∈ H, so is a−1 ∈ H.
(v) (iii) and (iv) can be combined that for all a, b ∈ H, we also have that ab−1 ∈ H.
This is enough to show that H ≤ G.

7.2.4 Cyclic Groups

Definition 7.2.13 Let g ∈ G and ⟨a⟩ be the subset of group G containing all powers
of a and their inverses. Then, ⟨a⟩ is a subgroup of G generated by a.

Remark 7.2.14 Note that


 {an |n ∈ Z}, if operation is multiplication for
⟨a⟩ =
 {na|n ∈ Z}, if operation is addition

Also, G = ⟨a⟩ is called cyclic.

Example 7.2.15 Consider the set Zn with the binary operation ⊕n , which is addition
modulo n. Then, (Zn , ⊕n ) is an additive abelian group.

Example 7.2.16 Consider the set Z∗p with the binary operation ⊗p , which is multipli-
cation modulo p, a prime. Then, (Z∗p , ⊗p ) is a multiplicative abelian group.

7.2.5 Symmetric groups

Definition 7.2.17 A bijective mapping ρ : X → X is called a permutation.

Remark 7.2.18 This mapping only rearranges elements of X. If our permutations

rearrange the elements of a set X of order n, there are only n! ways to do so. Hence,
we can only have n! permutation mappings. The set of all these permutations is denoted
Sn .

Lemma 7.2.19 The set of all permutations on the set X under the composition of
permutations form a group.

56
 ◦ e ρ α λ β ϕ
e e ρ α λ β ϕ
ρ ρ e ϕ β λ α
α α β e ϕ ρ λ
λ λ ϕ β e α ρ
β β α λ ρ ϕ e
ϕ ϕ λ ρ α e β

Table 7.1: Composition on S3

Example 7.2.20 Let X = {1, 2, 3} in which case n = 3 and n! = 6. Hence, the set of
all permutations on X is S3 . We can have these permutations on X as
         
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
ϕ= ,β =   ρ=  α=  λ= 
3 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 1 3 2

and  
1 2 3
e= .
1 2 3
We can compute the composition of the permutations ϕ and β, ϕβ to mean first use β
then ϕ (this is right to left and the direction must be kept unchanged). In that case,
ϕβ(1) = ϕ(2) = 1. So,
    
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
ϕβ =   =  = e.
3 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

Let S3 = {e, ρ, α, λ, β, ϕ} and define an operation on it by the Table 6.4. It is obvious

that each element has an inverse and e is the identity. S3 forms a group which is not
commutative.
Remark 7.2.21 It is important to recall that composition of permutations is not com-
mutative. Consider that
    
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
  = 
2 3 1 4 3 1 4 2 1 2 4 3

57
but     
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
  = .
3 1 4 2 2 3 1 4 1 4 3 2

7.2.6 Homomorphism of Groupoids and Groups

In this section, we consider some special mappings which preserve the algebraic struc-
tures.
Definition 7.2.22 Let (G, ∗) and (S, ◦) be groups. A mapping f : (G, ∗) → (S, ◦) is
called a homomorphism if ∀ a, b ∈ G, f (a ∗ b) = f (a) ◦ f (b).

Remark 7.2.23 Note that f (eG ) = eS and f (g −1 ) = (f (g))−1 .

Example 7.2.24 (i) The identity mapping I : G → G defined by I(x) = x is a

homomorphism.
z
(ii) The mapping f : (Z, +) → (Q, +) defined by f (z) = 2
is a homomorphism.
(iii) The function det : GLn (R) → R∗ defined by det(A) = determinant of A is a
homomorphism.
(iv) The mapping α : (R, +) → (R+ , ×), defined by α(x) = ex , where R+ is positive
real numbers, is a homomorphism.
(v) The mapping β : (N, +) → (N, +) defined by β(x) = 5x is a homomorphism.
(vi) The mapping f : (Z, ×) → (Q, ×) defined by f (z) = 25 z is not a homomorphism.

Definition 7.2.25 (i) A homomorphism which is injective is called a monomor-

phism.
(ii) A homomorphism which is surjective is called an epimorphism.
(iii) A homomorphism which is both injective and surjective is called an isomorphism.
(iv) A homomorphism of a group into itself is called an endomorphism.
(iii) A bijective endomorphism is called an automorphism.

Exercise 7.2.26 1. Check if any of the following homomorphisms is/are monomor-

phism, epimorphism or isomorphism:
(i) The identity mapping I : G → G defined by I(x) = x;
(ii) The mapping f : (Z, +) → (Q, +) defined by f (z) = z2 ;
(iii) The function det : GLn (R) → R∗ defined by det(A) = determinant of A;

58
 (iv) The mapping α : (R, +) → (R+ , ×), defined by α(x) = ex , where R+ is
positive real numbers;
(v) The mapping β : (N, +) → (N, +) defined by β(x) = 5x and
(vi) The mapping f : (Z, ×) → (Q, ×) defined by f (z) = 25 z.
2. Show that the set of all automorphisms of G denoted by Aut(G) is a group (group
of automorphism of G) under composition of mappings.

7.3 Ring
This section mainly contains the definition, some properties and examples of rings.
Definition 7.3.1 A non-empty set R is called a ring if two binary operations + and
×, usual addition and multiplication, are defined on it and for a, b, c ∈ R, the following
hold:
(2) a + b = b + a;
(2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c);
(3) There exists 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a = 0 + a ∀ a ∈ R;
(4) There exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a for each a ∈ R;
(5) a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c and
(6) (i) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c),
(ii) (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c).
Definition 7.3.2 A non-empty set R is called a ring if
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group,
(2) (R, ×) is a semigroup and
(3) (i) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) (Left distributivity),
(ii) (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c) (Right distributivity)
Definition 7.3.3 A ring R
(i) is commutative if a × b = b × a and
(ii) has identity element (or is unital) if for each a ∈ R there is e ∈ R such that
a × e = a = e × a.
Remark 7.3.4 (R, +, ×) denotes a ring but we simply use R instead. If R is commu-
tative, left and right distributivity coincide. The property of a ring being commutative
or having identity is hinged on the operation “×”.

59
7.3.1 Illustrative Examples of Rings
(i) Z, Q, R and C are rings with the usual addition and multiplication.
(ii) The set mZ = {mn : ∀n ∈ Z and a fixed m ∈ Z} is a ring with respect to
addition and multiplication.
(iii) Zm with respect to addition and multiplication modulo m is a ring.
(iv) The set of all polynomials in x with coefficients in R, denoted by R[x], with
polynomial addition and multiplication, is a ring.
(v) Z[i] = {m + in : m, n ∈ Z} with respect to addition and multiplication of complex
numbers is a ring.
(vi) (IMn (R), +, ×) is a non-commutative ring with identity.

7.3.2 Some Properties of Rings

Definition 7.3.5 A non zero element a ∈ R is called zero divisor if for some non zero
element s ∈ R either a × s = 0 or s × a = 0.
Example 7.3.6 (i) In Z8 , 2, 4 and 6 are zero divisors.
(ii) The set IM2 (R) has zero divisors. Consider
   
0 0 0 1
  and  .
1 1 0 −1

(iii) Rings such as Z, Zp , R, Q, C, R[x] and Z[i] do not have zero divisors.
Definition 7.3.7 For a, b, c ∈ IR,
ab = ac ⇒ b = c (Left cancellation) and (7.3.1)
ba = ca ⇒ b = c (Right cancellation) (7.3.2)
Remark 7.3.8 Cancellation can be multiplicative or additive. The condition for mul-
tiplicative cancellation law in a ring is equivalent to not having zero divisors.
Definition 7.3.9 A commutative ring with identity is said to be an integral domain if
it has no zero divisor.
Definition 7.3.10 A ring R is said to be of characteristic n if ∀ a ∈ R n is the least
of all such positive integers for which na = 0. If no such n exists, it is said that R is
of characteristic 0.
Example 7.3.11 (i) Zn is a ring of characteristic n.
(ii) Z, Q, R and C are rings of characteristic 0.

60
7.4 Field
Definition 7.4.1 A ring R is said to be a division ring or a skew field if (R − {0}, ×)
is a group (Note that R − {0} = R∗ ).

Definition 7.4.2 A set IF is called a field if

(i) (IF, +) is an abelian group,
(ii) (IF − {0}, ×) is an abelian group and
(iii) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)

Definition 7.4.3 Alternatively, a set IF is called a field if it is a commutative division

ring.

7.4.1 Some Illustrative Examples and Results in Fields

(i) Zp is a field for a prime p.
(ii) Q, R and C are fields.
(iii) (Z − {0}, ×) is not a group so Z is not a field.
(iv) The ring of matrix IMn (R) is not a field.

61
Chapter 8

Polynomial Ring

8.1 Polynomials
Definition 8.1.1 Let R be a ring and x an indeterminate. A polynomial form or
polynomial function is the expression
n
X
a(x) = ai xi , where ai ∈ R, 0 ≤ i ≤ n.
i=0

Definition 8.1.2 If in
n
X
a(x) = ai x i
i=0

an ̸= 0, then, a(x) is a polynomial of degree n; an is called the leading coefficient of and

a0 is the constant term of a(x).
Definition 8.1.3 n
X
a(x) = ai x i
i=0
is called a constant polynomial if ai = 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Remark 8.1.4 Consider two polynomials
n
X m
X
i
a(x) = ai x and b(x) = bj x j .
i=0 j=0

Let m ≥ n. Then,

62
 (i)
n
X m
X
i
a(x) ± b(x) = (ai ± bi )x + bj x j
i=0 j=n+1

(ii)
n
X k
X
k
a(x).b(x) = ck x , where ck = al bk−l , 0 ≤ k ≤ (m + n).
k=0 l=0

Definition 8.1.5 If in
n
X
a(x) = ai x i
i=0

an = 1, then a(x) is called a monic.

Theorem 8.1.6 Let R[x] be the set of all polynomials in x with coefficients from the
ring R. Then (R[x], +, .) is a ring called the ring of polynomials.

Corollary 8.1.7 Let R be a commutative ring with identity 1, so is R[x]

Corollary 8.1.8 Let R be an entire ring (integral domain), so is R[x]

Remark 8.1.9 For simplicity, except where confusion will arise, we henceforth write
R[x] instead of (R[x], +, .). Let us replace the ring R with any field IF . Then (IF [x], +, .)
is called a field of polynomials with coefficients from the field IF .

Definition 8.1.10 Let a(x), b(x) ∈ IF [x]. Then, a(x) is said to be a factor of or divide
b(x) if there exists a nonzero c(x) ∈ IF [x] such that b(x) = a(x)c(x) and in that case
we write a(x)|b(x) which is read as “a(x) divides b(x).”

Definition 8.1.11 Let a(x), b(x), c(x) ∈ IF [x]. The polynomial a(x) is said to be irre-
ducible over the field IF if it cannot be expressed as a product of any b(x) and c(x) such
that 0 < deg b(x) < deg a(x) and 0 < deg c(x) < deg a(x); otherwise, it is said to be
reducible.

Example 8.1.12 The polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x] but reducible in C[x].

Meanwhile, x2 − 1 is reducible in R[x].

Definition 8.1.13 Let a(x) ∈ IF [x]. u ∈ IF is called the zero or the root of a(x) if
a(u) = 0.

Example 8.1.14 The polynomial x2 + 1 has no real root but ±1 are the roots of x2 − 1.

63
8.2 Division Algorithm of Polynomial
For the set Z of integer numbers, the division algorithm states that if a is any number
and b is any positive number then there exist unique q and r such that a = bq + r such
that 0 ≤ r < b. This same algorithm can be applied to field of polynomials.

Theorem 8.2.1 Consider two polynomials a(x) = ni=0 ai xi and b(x) = m j

P P
j=0 bj x in
IF [x] such that an ̸= 0 ̸= bm , m > 0. Then there exists unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈
IF [x] such that
a(x) = b(x)q(x) + r(x),
where deg r(x) < deg b(x).

Proof: Define T = {a(x)−b(x)c(x)|c(x) ∈ IF [x]}. Note that the degrees of members of

IF [x] are non-negative integers in {0} ∪ N. Hence, it must have a leat element which is
either 0 or some positive integer (by the well ordered property of N). Let the polynomial
in T with this least degree be r(x) of degree s. Then, r(x) = d0 +d1 x+d2 x2 +· · ·+ds xs ,
with ds ̸= 0. Now say that
a(x) = b(x)q(x) + r(x),
we need to show that deg r(x) < deg b(x), that is s < m. Suppose on the contrary that
s ≥ m. Observe that
ds s−m ds s−m
v(x) = a(x) − b(x)q(x) − x b(x) = r(x) − x b(x)
bm bm
is a polynomial of degree less than s and
ds s−m
v(x) = a(x) − b(x)[q(x) + x ]
bm
is a polynomial in T , say of degree t. Hence, in T , t < s, which contradicts the fact
that s is the least degree. Hence, the hypothesis that s ≥ m is not correct and we can
only have that s < m, that is, deg r(x) < deg b(x).
Furthermore, we need to show that q(x) and r(x) are unique. Suppose on the
contrary that there exists q ′ (x) and r′ (x) such that

a(x) = b(x)q(x) + r(x), where deg r(x) < deg b(x)

and
a(x) = b(x)q ′ (x) + r′ (x), where deg r′ (x) < deg b′ (x).
Then,
0 = b(x)[q ′ (x) − q(x)] + [r′ (x) − r(x)]
which implies that
b(x)[q(x) − q ′ (x)] = [r′ (x) − r(x)].

64
Assume that q(x) ̸= q ′ (x), then deg b(x)[q(x) − q ′ (x)] ≥ deg b(x). But

deg b(x)[q(x) − q ′ (x)] = deg [r′ (x) − r(x)] < deg b(x).

This is a contradiction and it can only be that q(x) = q ′ (x) which implies that

0 = b(x)[q(x) − q ′ (x)] = [r′ (x) − r(x)],

whence r′ (x) = r(x).
Corollary 8.2.2 An element u ∈ I F is the zero of a polynomial a(x) ∈ IF [x] if and
only if x − u is a factor of a(x).
Proof: Assume that u is a zero of a(x), then a(u) = 0. For a(x) and x − u in IF [x], by
division algorithm,
a(x) = (x − u)q(x) + r(x) (8.2.1)
for some q(x) ∈ IF [x]. Put x = u in Eq 8.2.1. Then, r(x) = 0 which implies that
a(x) = (x − u)q(x) or (x − u)|a(x) or (x − u) is a factor of a(x).
Conversely, assume that x − u is a factor of a(x). Then,
a(x) = (x − u)q(x) (8.2.2)
for some q(x) ∈ IF [x]. Let u = x in Eq 8.2.2, then a(u) = 0, implying that u is a zero
of a(x) ∈ IF [x].
Corollary 8.2.3 A polynomial a(x) ∈ IF [x] of degree n has at most n zeros.
Proof: When a(x) = a0 + a1 x, with a1 ̸= 0, then x = −a a1
0
is the zero of a(x), so
the corollary is true. Using the principle of mathematical induction, assume that the
corollary is true for n − 1 = r < n. Let
n
X
a(x) = ai xi , an ̸= 0.
i=0

If u is a zero of a(x), then x−u is a factor of a(x) and we can have a unique q(x) ∈ IF [x],
by division algorithm, such that a(x) = (x − u)q(x). Hence, q(x) is of degree n − 1. By
the inductive hypothesis, q(x) has at most n − 1 zeros. Thus, since x − u has only one
zero, (x − u)q(x) has at most 1 + (n − 1) = n zeros.
Definition 8.2.4 Let a(x), b(x) ∈ IF [x]. A common divisor of a(x) and b(x) is a
polynomial c(x) ∈ IF [x] such that c(x)|a(x) and c(x)|b(x). The greatest common divisor
(g.c.d) or highest common factor (h.c.f ) of a(x) and b(x) is the polynomial g(x) which
is also a common divisor of a(x) and b(x) and is divided by any other common divisor
c(x) of a(x) and b(x).

65
Remark 8.2.5 Let a(x), b(x) ∈ IF [x] and g(x) their greatest common divisor, then
we write g(x) = (a(x), b(x)). Also note that there exist w(x), v(x) ∈ IF [x] such that
g(x) = w(x)a(x) + v(x)b(x) as in the case of ordinary number. For the g.c.d to be
unique, it has to be a monic polynomial. By repeated division algorithm for numbers,
we can have
a(x) = b(x)q(x) + r(x), deg r(x) < deg b(x);
b(x) = r(x)q1 (x) + r1 (x), deg r1 (x) < deg r(x);
r(x) = r1 (x)q2 (x) + r2 (x), deg r2 (x) < deg r1 (x);
..
.
rk−2 (x) = rk−1 (x)qk (x) + rk (x), deg rk (x) < deg rk−1 (x);
rk−1 (x) = rk (x)qk+1 (x)
Note that the required monic polynomial which is the g.c.d. of a(x) and b(x) is

g(x) = (a(x), b(x)) = a−1

k rk (x),

where ak is the leading coefficient of the polynomial rk (x).

Example 8.2.6 Find q(x) and r(x) if a(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10 and b(x) = 2x + 1.
Also, find w(x) and v(x) such that g(x) = w(x)a(x) + v(x)b(x).
Solution:
1 2
2
x + 34 x − 15
8


2x + 1 x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10
− x3 − 12 x2
3 2
2
x − 3x
− 23 x2 − 34 x
15
− 4
x − 10
15 15
4
x + 8
65
− 8
Hence,
1 3 15 65
x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10 = (2x + 1)( x2 + x − ) − (8.2.3)
2 4 8 8
65 16 8
2x + 1 = − (− x − ). (8.2.4)
8 65 65

66
 8 65
Hence, g(x) = (a(x), b(x)) = − 65 .− 8
= 1. By reversing order,

65 1 3 15
− = (x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10) − (2x + 1)( x2 + x − ) (8.2.5)
8 2 4 8
8 3 8 1 3 15
1 = − (x + 2x2 − 3x − 10) + (2x + 1)( x2 + x − ) (8.2.6)
65 65 2 4 8
8 3 1
1 = − (x + 2x2 − 3x − 10) + (2x + 1)(4x2 + 6x − 15). (8.2.7)
65 65
8 1
Thus, w(x) = − 65 and v(x) = 65
(4x2 + 6x − 15)

Example 8.2.7 Find q(x) and r(x) if a(x) = x3 +2x2 −3x−10 and b(x) = 12 x2 + 34 x− 15
8
.
Also, find w(x) and v(x) such that g(x) = w(x)a(x) + v(x)b(x).
Solution:

2x + 1
1 2
+ 43 x − 15


2
x 8
x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10
− x3 − 23 x2 + 15
4
x
1 2
2
x + 34 x − 10
− 21 x2 − 43 x + 15
8
65
− 8
4 2 6 3
− 65
x − 65
x + 13
65 1 2
+ 34 x − 15


− 8 2
x 8

− 12 x2
3
4
x
− 34 x
15
− 8
15
8

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Hence,
1 3 15 65
x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10 = ( x2 + x − )(2x + 1) − (8.2.8)
2 4 8 8
1 2 3 15 65 4 2 6 15
x + x− = − (− x − x + ).
2 4 8 8 65 65 65
8 65
Hence, g(x) = (a(x), b(x)) = − 65 .− 8
= 1. By reversing order,

65 1 3 15
− = (x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10) − ( x2 + x − )(2x + 1)
8 2 4 8
8 3 2 8 1 2 3 15
1 = − (x + 2x − 3x − 10) + ( x + x − )(2x + 1). (8.2.9)
65 65 2 4 8
8 1
Thus, w(x) = − 65 and v(x) = 65
(16x + 8)

Example 8.2.8 Find q(x) and r(x) if a(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 10 and b(x) = 2x + 1.
Also, find w(x) and v(x) such that g(x) = w(x)a(x) + v(x)b(x).
Solution:
1
2x2 + 2


2x + 1 4x3 + 2x2 + x + 3
− 4x3 − 2x2

x +3
1
−x− 2
5
2

Example 8.2.9 Find q(x) and r(x) if a(x) = x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2 and b(x) =
3x2 + 2x − 3 in Z7 [x]. Also, find w(x) and v(x) such that g(x) = w(x)a(x) + v(x)b(x).
Solution:

Note that r(x) = x + 2 and q(x) = 5x4 + 5x2 − x in which case

x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2 = (3x2 + 2x − 3)(5x4 + 5x2 − x) + (x + 2)

3x2 + 2x − 3 = (x + 2)(3x − 4) + 5 (8.2.10)
x + 2 = 5(3x − 4).

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Hence, g(x) = (a(x), b(x)) = 5−1 5 = 3.5 = 1. By reversing order,By reversing order,

5 = (3x2 + 2x − 3) − (x + 2)(3x − 4)
1 = 3(3x2 + 2x − 3) − 3(x + 2)(3x − 4)
1 = 3(3x2 + 2x − 3) − 3(3x − 4)[(x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2)
− (3x2 + 2x − 3)(5x4 + 5x2 − x)]
1 = 3(3x2 + 2x − 3) + 3(3x − 4)(3x2 + 2x − 3)(5x4 + 5x2 − x)
− 3(3x − 4)(x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2)
1 = (3x2 + 2x − 3)[3 + 3(3x − 4)(5x4 + 5x2 − x)]
− 3(3x − 4)(x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2)
1 = −3(3x − 4)(x6 + 3x5 + 4x2 − 3x + 2)
+ (3x2 + 2x − 3)[3 + 3(3x − 4)(5x4 + 5x2 − x)] (8.2.11)
Thus, w(x) = −3(3x − 4) = −2x + 5 = 5x + 5 and

v(x) = 3 + 3(3x − 4)(5x4 + 5x2 − x)

= 3x5 − 4x4 + 3x3 − 6x2 + 5x + 3
= 3x5 + 3x4 + 3x3 + x2 + 5x + 3.

69
Bibliography

[1] S.A. Ilori and O. Akinyele, Elementary Abstract and Linear Algebra, Ibadan Uni-
veristy Press, Ibadan (1986).
[2] A. Kuku, Abstract Algebra, Ibadan Univeristy Press, Ibadan (1992).

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