LESSON ONE:

Layers of the Earth b. Inner core

Two categories: compositional and mechanical -1220 km
layers -SOLID layer
-composed of solid iron
A. Compositional Layers (traditional
-hottest and densest layer
layers)
-where you can find the magnetic field
-temperature is 6000 C
1. Crust
-5-70km
-thinnest layer, dense, hard to go down
B. Mechanical Layers (physical
Kinds of Crust:
properties,pressure,density,state of
1. Continental crust
matter)
- Crust that makes up the continents
- 40-70 km thick
- Light granitic rocks and made up of 1. Lithosphere
mostly aluminum silicates -100km thick
- 29% of Earth’s surface -brittle,SOLID, rigid layer that breaks under
2. Oceanic crust stress
- Crust that underlies the ocean floor - composed of crust+upper mantle
- 5 km thick -composed of major and minor blocks called the
- Dense basaltic rocks and made up of tectonic plates
mostly magnesium silicates 2. Asthenosphere
- 71% of Earth’s surface -180km thick
- Oceanic plates are heavier than water -semisolid, PLASTIC
because water is lighter than the crust -middle portion of mantle
itself -contains hot molten rocks or magma
-can deform and reshape driven by heat energy
2. Mantle which circulates as convection currents
-2900 km (thickest layer) -the heat transfer mechanism helps drive the
-semi-solid rocky hot layer movement of tectonic plates which is manifested
-composed of ferro-magnesium silicate rocks in earthquakes
-makes up 80% of Earth and carries most of its - its liquid, carries the continents (because of the
mass movement of plastic asthenosphere)
-top layer is 900 degrees celcius but it becomes -lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere
hotter once you go down (1000-3700C) 3. Mesosphere
Layers of mantle: - lowermost part of mantle
a. Upper part- part of lithosphere -SOLID
b. Middle-part of asthenosphere 4. Outer Core-molten
c. lowermost part of mesosphere 5. Inner Core-solid

3. Core
a. Outer Core
Interfaces marking the boundaries
-2270km
between layers of the Earth
-only layer of the Earth that is LIQUID/MOLTEN
-composed of molten nickel and iron
-temperature is from 3700 to 4300 C (pressure 1. Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho)
is too big to breathe) - Crust and upper mantle
-responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field 2. Gutenberg discontinuity
 - Lower mantle and outer core were centered over the souther land
3. Lehmann discontinuity mass close to the South pole and the
- Liquid outer core and solid inner core continents moved to their present
positions later on (glacial deposits in
africa)
c. Landforms and Rock Layers -Identical
The Historical developments leading to the
rocks of the same type and age are
plate tectonics theory
found on the both sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.Wegener said that the rocks had
1. Contraction Theory formed side by side and that the had
Theory by James Dwight Dana (American) since moved apart
>Suggests that the planet was once a molten Ex. The Appalachians of the eastern United
ball in the process of cooling,and the surface States and Canada are just like mountain
shrunk and crumpled, producing mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great
ranges Britain, and Norway.Wegener concluded that
>no explanation on the inner portion of the earth, they formed as a single mountain range that was
openings for volcanoes etc. separated as the continents drifted.
>depression=occupied by water
>protruding=mountains d. Continental Fit-Fit together like pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle and Wegener
2. Continental Drift theory discovered their rock layers “fit”.
Theory by Alfred Wegener (German) Ex.South America and Africa’s boundary fit
>All of Earth’s continents were once part of a together
single landmass called Pangaea (a
supercontinent that incorporated almost all Pangaea would later break into Gondwana by
the landmasses on Earth) Eduard Suess (AF,AUS,ANTRC,SA,IND) and
>No explanation was given on how the Laurasia by Alexander du Toit (ASIA,NA,EUR)
continents moved
>Pan=all of earth Gaea=greek goddess, mother 3. Seafloor spreading Theory
of titans/giants(land masses are like giants) or Theory by geophysicist Harry Hess
Earth (American)
>Panthalassa=all seas >He was able to map the ocean floor, and
discovered the mid-Atlantic ridge, and that the
He cited 4 evidences to support his theory: temperature near the mid-Atlantic ridge was
a. Fossil evidence-fossils of similar types warmer than the surface above it.
of plants and animals and rocks of a >He believed that the high temperature was due
similar age have been found on the to the magma that leaked out from the ridge.
shores of different continents, >It indicated that there is a shift in the position
suggesting that the continents were of the Earth's surface as a result of the
once joined. magma rising up along the fissures on the
b. Glacial Evidence-grooves and rock ocean floor.
deposits left by ancient glaciers are >Seafloor spreading proves that the ocean itself
found today on different continents very is a site of tectonic activity.
close to the equator. This would indicate >magma from fissures on the floor, shift on the
that the glaciers either formed in the position of earth’s surface
middle of the ocean and/pr covered >answer to wegener’s question
most of the Earth.Today glaciers only
form on land and nearer the 4. Plate Tectonics Theory
poles.Wegener thought that the glaciers
>incorporates the continental drift and seafloor them. It also carries the continents and bodies of
spreading theories water over the plates and boundaries.
>It states that the earth's solid outer shell
(lithosphere) is broken into large, rigid
pieces called plates that can move relative to Plate Boundaries
each other by sliding atop the non-solid -are the edges where two plates meet and
asthenosphere due to a combination of where most geologic activities including
convection in the asthenosphere and gravity. volcanoes, earthquakes,and mountains take
>Most volcanoes and earthquakes occur where place
the solid lithospheric plates meet. -regions between plates (gap between tectonic
>This theory, which solidified in the 1960s, plates)
transformed the earth sciences by explaining
many phenomena, including mountain building Faults
events, volcanoes, and earthquakes -as plates moves, faults develop on Earth’s crust
>why places on earth have a lot of -cracks on Earth’s crust
volcanoes,earthquakes. Three types:
a. Normal fault
LESSON TWO: b. Reverse fault
c. Strike-slip fault
Tectonic Plates
-large segments of the lithosphere that move Fault Plane
very slowly over the asthenosphere causing -surface where the blocks slip past each other
changes on the Earth's surface feature and
topography. Lithosphere
-interact and create tectonic activities on Earth - combo of the crust and upper mantle
- are moving plates due the activity of the
Major plates-large plates boundary
Minor plates-smaller plates -either oceanic or continental plates
Major plates: -beneath is asthenosphere (convection current
1. North American Plate below that brings about the movement of
2. South American Plate lithospheric plates)
3. African Plate
4. Eurasian Plate Oceanic vs. Continental Plates
5. Australian Plate Common thing: they are both moving plates
6. Antarctic Plate Oceanic: plates that are located beneath the
7. Pacific Plate ocean.
Minor plates: Continental: are pieces of Earth's crust and
1. Nazca Plate uppermost mantle
2. Caribbean Plate
3. Juan de fuca Plate
4. Scotia Plate
Types of plate boundaries:
5. Indian Plate
6. Arabian Plate
7. Cocos Plate 1.Divergent Plate Boundary
8. Philippine Plate -when two plates move away from each
other,a gap or rift between them is created
Tectonic Plate Map
-device or mechanism that features the plates 2.Convergent Plate Boundary
and the boundaries existing between or among -occurs when two plates slide towards each
Subduction zone-plate goes below another 2 Continental plates:
plate >year after year, gap widens
Orogenic belt-what happens above the >rift valley is formed
convergent plate boundary, crumpled >lakes,rivers will also be formed
continents become very compact and form >earthquake
mountains over the area >no water is there, but with constant rains or of
Kinds of convergence: oceanic-oceanic, near the sea, seawater seeps
oceanic-continental, continental-continental >(not all filled with water)

3.Transform Plate Boundary Features:Rift Valleys

-slide against each other in opposite directions Activities:Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes
-Earthquakes result

Dip slip
-refers to the movement of the faults along the
Convergent Boundaries between:
angle of the fault plane
Dip-angle of movement
Slip-movement 2 Oceanic plates:
>one subducts and other stays up
>burn lithospheric plate because of heat
>magma goes up and volcanoes are formed
Divergent Boundaries between:
>volcanic island arcs are formed when plates go
up/down
2 Oceanic plates: >trenches are also formed
>constant separation underneath >subduction zones are formed
>lithosphere moves along the motion of >archipelagos are formed
asthenosphere which sets the motion of the gap >there can be a volcanic
between the plates eruption,earthquake,tsunami
>molten rocks in the asthenosphere will find a
way to go out of the cracks. Coldness of water Features:Trenches,volcanic island
will quench the heat and pressure of the arcs,archipelagos,subduction zones
magma. They dry up and a geological feature Activities:Tsunamis,Earthquakes,
called mid ocean ridges(rifts) are formed. Volcanic Eruptions
>rift valley will be filled with dry magma
>in places where molten lava or magma can
move up and fill the gap,volcanic islands are 2 Continental plates:
eventually formed >Indian+Eurasian plate= Mount Everest
>when magma forms out of fissure, young rocks >chains of volcanoes are formed
form that push plates out >mountains(mountain ranges) and plateaus are
formed
Mid ocean ridge >volcanic arcs
-little mountains formed between the gaps of >Earthquake,volcanic eruption but no tsunami
divergent plate boundaries.
Features:Mountain ranges,plateaus
Features:Mid ocean ridges, young rocks Activity:Earthquake,Volcanic Eruption
Activities: Volcanic eruptions, tsunamis,
earthquakes Oceanic to Continental:
Features:Mountain,Trench,Volcanic Island
arcs Tsunamis
Activities:Earthquake,Volcanic eruption, - Those greater than magnitude 7 and whose
Tsunami focus is less than 30km produce a significant
movement that generates large ocean waves

Earthquakes

Earthquake Electromagnetic waves

-refers to the shaking of Earth as a result of the
-are produced by accelerating electrons
breaking or shifting of the rocks of tectonics
plates, -are a combination of electric and magnetic
-results to the release of seismic energy fields that oscillate perpendicular(right angle sa
-occurs along the boundaries of tectonic plates reference point ) to each other and to the
-occurs because of the pressure underneath direction of the propagating wave. (both must be
Earth’s crust that pushes blocks of rocks to
present) (always perpendicular/right angle)
move along fault lines
(same as a transverse wave)
Seismic waves -travel through a vacuum at a speed of
-During an earthquake,energy travels through 3x10^8m/s, the speed of light
Earth in this form
-defined by speed,frequency,wavelength
Focus or hypocenter
- The point within Earth where the rocks Parts of a EM wave:
break and where seismic energy is first
released
Epicenter
- Point on the crust directly above the
focus
- Earthquakes are strongest at the
epicenter than at any other point on
Earth’s surface since it is directly adobe
the source of rupture

Crests-highest point, distance is measured by

> The focus of an earthquake is found at
different depths and is classified as wavelength in meters (expressed in Hertz)
shallow,intermediate,or deep. (lambda)
Trough-lowest point, distance measured by
>Earthquakes from shallow epicenters originate
wavelength in meters
from a much closer distance to Earth’s crust.
>one cycle= Hz
They cause the most damage since energy is
more concentrated and seismic waves travel >the higher wave,the higher the amplitude, the
faster through a shorter distance in all directions bigger energy it possesses
to the surface
Equation:
>Underwater earthquakes associated with
oceanic-continental subduction cause a vertical The speed,frequency,and wavelength are
movement of the seafloor. related by the equation:
 >Whatever is the color, they are actually a result
of the release or oscillation of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Can be classified as:
>Uses of medium to be propagated: media or
vacuum
>accelerating charges (velocity), speed getting
bigger and bigger, is a result of changing electric
and magnetic fields
>wavelength of frequency (waves found in the
V=speed of light (3x10^8m/s)
spectrum of electromagnetic waves, there is a
𝝺=wavelength (meters per cycle) (m)
proper arrangement)
f= frequency (number of cycles per second) (Hz)
>all EM waves have the same speed, if
wavelength is big, it is weak
>if wavelength increases=frequency decreases
>a lot of energy=less wavelength + more
frequency= stronger
(more wavelength means it will take some time
to transmit energy and the no. of cycles will
lessen) Ron’s Mother Is Visiting Uncle Xavier’s Garden
*Radio waves-lowest energy/longest wavelength
James Clerk Maxwell *Gamma Rays-most energy/shortest wavelength
-British *Radio Waves/Microwaves-non ionizing
-presence of EM waves *UV rays,X-Rays,Gamma Rays-ionizing
-looking in radio waves present in the air *decreasing wavelength=Radio-Gamma
-found evidence of radio waves present *increasing wavelength=Gamma-Radio
*decreasing energy=Gamma-Radio
Heinrich Hertz *increasing energy=Radio-Gamma
-german physicist
-came up with his other studies in relation to EM Radio Waves
waves -The longest of all EM waves, ranging from
-West counties discuss discoveries, Hertz picked 10^-1 to 10^4 m.
up on Maxwell’s work -The frequency ranges from 300 to 3000 MHz.
This is divided into specific bands for wireless
communication.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum -The sun and Jupiter are extraterrestrial sources
-continuous range of electromagnetic waves of radio waves
arranged in order of frequency or wavelength Applications:
-divided into regions based on a certain Radar
frequency or wavelength interval Automatic doors
Wi-Fi -Frequency: 4x10^14 to 8x10^14 Hz
Bluetooth -Wavelength: 4x10^-7 to 8x10^-7 m
GPS and RFID -The sequence of colors of visible light from
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) longest to shortest wavelength may be
remembered through the acronym ROYGBIV.
Microwaves Applications:
James Clerk Maxwell (1864) Traffic lights, commercial displays, headlights,
LCD in devices that have a viewable screen
-Lies between 300 MHz to 300 GHz, with a Photosynthesis
wavelength ranging from 10^-3 to 10^-1 m. Visible Light Communication using LED
-High-frequency radiowaves mainly used for Laser
communication.
Applications:
Long-distance telephone calls
Used in remote sensing for disaster
management and mapping
Doppler radars
Microwave oven
Microwave ablation and imaging

Infrared Waves
-"below red"
-discovered by Sir William Herschel Ultraviolet Radiation
-has a lower frequency than the red part of the Discovered by Johann Wilhelm Ritter
visible light Frequency: 8x10^14 to 10^17 Hz
-frequency ranges from 3x10^11 to 4x10^14 Hz, Wavelength: 6x10^-10 to 4x10^-7 m
with a wavelength ranging from 7.5x10^-7 to
10^-3 m.
-cannot be seen by the naked eye, but can be
felt as heat.
Applications:
Remote controls
Burglar alarm systems
Thermometers
Night vision cameras
Infrared-data association ports in computers and
printers
UVC
Medical infrared imaging
-almost completely absorbed by the atmosphere
-does not reach the surface of the Earth
Visible Light
UVB
-is filtered by the ozone in the atmosphere
-affects the topmost layer of the skin (epidermis)
UVA Problem Solving:
-accounts for 95% of the solar UV reaching the
Earth.
-penetrates the skin more deeply up to the
dermis
Applications:
UV light and sterilizers
X-Rays
-Roentgen Ray" - Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
-Wavelength: 10^-12 to 10^-8 m

Applications:
-To detect abnormalities in the skeletal system.
-Dental imaging
-Airport security checks
-Study on the arrangement of atoms in a crystal

Gamma Rays
-Discovered by Paul Villard
-Wavelength: 10^-14 to 10^-10 m.
-Are given off by radioactive elements such as
cobalt-60 and cesium-137.
Applications:
-Used to detect cracks in metals and to sterilize
equipment and products.
-Food irradiation
-Helps breed new seed variety with higher yields
f[g x ] = f 3x + 1
= 3x + 1
2 = 9x
2 + 6x + 1