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The Linguistic Study of Grammatical Metaphor

Article in International Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities · January 2023
DOI: 10.37648/ijrssh.v12i02.037

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 Volume: 12, Issue: 2, April-June 2022

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL

SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
An International Open-Access Peer Reviewed Refereed Journal

Impact Factor: 8.909 E-ISSN : 2249 – 4642 P-ISSN: 2454 - 4671

The Linguistic Study of Grammatical Metaphor

Prof. Dr. Abdulkarim Fadhil Jameel

University of Baghdad, College of Education Ibn Rushd

DOI: http://doi.org/10.37648/ijrssh.v12i02.037

Paper Received:

27th April 2022

Paper Accepted:

02nd June 2022

Paper Received After Correction:

20th June 2022

Paper Published:

23rd June 2022

How to cite the article: Jameel A.F.(2022). The Linguistic Study of Grammatical
Metaphor, International Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities, April-
June 2022 Vol. 12, Issue 2; 572-582 DOI: http://doi.org/10.37648/ijrssh.v12i02.037

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INTRODUCTION Procedures

There are several philosophers and The procedures that are followed in
linguists who use the word "cognition" to the study are as follows:
describe this area of research. It focuses on
1- Collecting enough resources about
the relationship between ideas and the
the topic.
rules that govern their usage that have not
yet been widely identified. There are 2- Dividing the research into three
several aspects of cognitive linguistics that sections. Section one is an
deal with the relationship between introductory section, section two is
languages on the one hand, and cognitive a theoretical account about the
units (structures), processes, and structures topic.
on the other (Keller, 1998: 69). When it 3- The last section presents the main
comes to cognition, there are many conclusions.
different disciplines that may help us
understand how the mind works. METAPHOR AS A FIELD OF

In cognitive linguistics, conceptual COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS

metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to

The field of cognitive linguistics
the understanding of one idea, or
was founded in the 1970s. A scientific
conceptual domain, in terms of another.
approach, it examines language and
An example of this is the understanding of
mental processes, as well as the
quantity in terms of directionality (e.g. "the
conceptual frameworks of language.
price of peace is rising") or the
Rosch's pioneering findings on human
understanding of time in terms of money
categorization provided the first
(e.g. "I spent time at work today").
motivation for cognitive linguistics. It has

Aims of the study enhanced other academic fields, such as

psychology, anthropology, philosophy,
This study aims at: and literary studies, with its insights. As
1. Showing the concept of the metaphor Janda (2000:2) points out, a lot of what
and its types in English. we know about the world is based on how
2. Showing the metaphor in English we experience it and how we interpret and
from a grammatical perspective. understand it.

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Cognitive linguistics gives us purpose of them is referential, i.e., offer a

an opportunity to reconnect cognitive description of “ a mental process
the threads of the history of or state, concept, an object, a quality or an
linguistics and heal the action” that is more comprehensive or
gashes that have marked our concise than that offered by literal
field in the twentieth century. language. Concomitantly, a pragmatic
There are two major tendencies of purpose is performed mainly for aesthetic
cognitive linguistics draw upon semantics, considerations. Its objective is to appeal to
the first one identifies the structure inside the senses to interest, to clarify
the cognitive construction; while the other (graphically), to please, to delight and to
replaces the idea of two-step models surprise (Newmark, 1988: 104).
(Keller, 1998: 69). Metaphor takes place among the
The theories of cognitive most subtle aspects of the semantics of any
linguistics generally, hold entities of natural language by which a figurative
perception, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, comparison holds between a couple of
intentions; one of these theories suggested things resulting in an image in the mind's
by Fauconnier (1985) which involves: eye. This metaphorical usage involves
1. Mental spaces some shift in meaning distancing the term
2. Cognitive models that structure those from its conventional understanding
spaces. (Carpenter,1997:28).
A mental space is a medium for Lakoff and Johnson (2003:3-4)
conceptualization and thought. Spaces are state that metaphor is pervasive in
conceptualized in nature. They are not a everyday life, not just in language but in
kind of thing based on the relationship thought and action (i.e. It is a property of
between symbols and things in the real concepts and not words). The idea
world, but there is a dynamic integration investigated by cognitive linguistics
processes that build up new blended referring to metaphor is the meaning that
mental spaces (i.e., conceptual blending) the humans recognize in language is
(Lakoff, 1987: 281). primarily based in semantics concepts.

Using Trask's (2008:98) definition,

THE DEFINITIONS OF METAPHOR
metaphor is a kind of cognitive semantics,
Generally speaking, metaphors are in which one conceptual domain is seen as
one of the most useful communicative a way to comprehend another. This
devices a language may have. The basic mapping between the source and

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destination conceptual domains is a of the traditional terms we use to describe

common feature of a typical metaphor, and our emotional experiences. The following
it serves as a useful tool for understanding are some examples:
and organizing the subject matter at hand. -.I’m up.
Metaphors may be found in every -.He is in high spirits.
language. Many of these may be found in
TYPES OF CONCEPTUAL
our own dialect. According to Searle
METAPHOR
(1985: 89), a "the metaphorical statement
and the corresponding similarity statement Cliché metaphors
cannot be equivalent in meaning because
Metaphors, such as proverbs and idiomatic
they have different truth conditions"
expressions, are widespread in our
Metaphors and parables and proverbs go
language. As far as widespread use goes,
hand in hand, as shown by the following:
they're a happy medium between the old
- A stitch in time saves nine. and the new. According to Newmark
S/he generally means it to apply (1982: 99), there are two types of
metaphorically to the situation in hand. colloquial expressions: The first branch is
Whatever explains the understanding of simplex metaphor which consists of an
these sorts of utterances is likely to explain adjective that has a figurative meaning; it
metaphor, and it will not be a semantic is called figurative adjective, and a noun
theory however constructed (Levinson, that has a literal noun such as:
1989:212).
e.g Filthy lucre.
Many emotional experiences are linked to
The word 'lucre' is a noun that occurs with
newborns' direct perception of their bodies
its literal meaning. And the word 'filthy' is
and of space, and this serves as the basis
an adjective that comes with its figurative
for metaphorical ideas like WELL-BEING
meaning. It is not intended for this dirty
or HAPPINESS. It is common for the
money on the truth, but rather intended to
youngster to be raised up to get additional
be collecting money to dishonest crooked
care and attention because of their focus on
ways, i.e., illegal gain. The second branch
faces and sounds that are up. HAPPY IS
which is called complex metaphor consists
ALWAYS UP is progressively taught to
of a verb of a figurative meaning i.e., a
the young kid through this method (Tolaas,
figurative verb, and a noun of a figurative
1991). In Gibbs (1994:414), he claims that
meaning, i.e., figurative noun such as:
this metaphorical mapping organises many

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- Explore all avenues. Extended metaphors

Complex Metaphor President Lyndon Johnson was been

described as "the star that is not reached
"Metaphor" refers to a comparison
and the harvest that's sleeping in the
between two or more objects. When it
unplowed ground," which is a
comes to this topic, for example: In this
metaphorical representation of the United
comparison, the light reflects off of
States' "uncrossed desert and unclimbed
something and merges with another
ridge.”.(Sommer,online:www.Lcc.Gatech.
metaphor that is the light itself. 'Brightens
Edu/gallery/rhetoric/terms/metaphor.html).
everything up' A synonym for "light" is to
use "light." as an analogy for interpretation Implicit Metaphors.
or explanation.
Metaphors that have a borrowed name to
(Shipley,onlinewww.Lcc.Gatech.Edu/galle it which is not authorized, but is
ry/rhetoric/ter ms/metaphor.html). understood implicitly, such as:

Dead Metaphors e.g I am burning.

Fossilized metaphors, frozen metaphors, 'passion' is implicitly understood and

lexicalized metaphors, and lexically-based estimate the speech is:
metaphors are all terms used to describe
-“I burn inside me”.
these frozen metaphors. Initially, these
phrases were used as metaphors, but with Structural Metaphors
time, they became part of the language and
They bring an experience in a structure, or
lost all of their technical qualities.
rather in a field of another experience and
Eventually, it's almost hard to distinguish
this is in the form of specific concepts, as
between the two. According to Newmark,
in the concept of: - Argument is war.
there are two halves to this metaphor
(2891: 91-99). Lifeless metaphors with Where we bring 'debate' in the 'war'. The
foreign assets like 'consider' appear in the similarity between them that a strong
first section. At its essence, this phrase is a debate occurs between two people in a
non-native English speaker. the word case, where they differ, and each has a
"consider" is a loan from Latin. point of view. They, then, end with a
victory or defeat, or end with a truce. All
of this is a field of war. In the daily debate
of the talk, Lakoff and Johnson (2003:14)

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refer to the structural metaphor as ''cases Orientational metaphor

where one concept is metaphorically
Their semantic notions "directionality" and
structured in terms of another''. In this kind
"specialization" are used metaphorically to
of metaphor; Kovecses (2002:3) claims
arrange metaphors of many ideas, one with
that the source domain provides a
the other, in forms that represent the
relatively rich knowledge structure for the
location. Examples of this include: -
target concept. In other words, the
"Directionality" and "specialization"
cognitive function of this type is to enable
speakers to understand target (A) domain - Don't force your meanings into the
by means of the structure source ( B) wrong words.
domain. Knowles and Moon (2006:17)
- Can you extract coherent ideas from
illustrate that the source domains in this
that prose?
type of metaphor supply frame work for
target domains and this will determine the The words that are used indicate
ways in which we think and talk about directionality and specialization which are
abstract entities and activities which the borrowed here in the abstract expressions
target domain refer. This process of the lingual that have nothing to do with
understands as conceptual mappings the place at all. These words are all
between elements of (A) and elements of included within the conceptual framework:
(B). For example, the concept of Time is
Ontological metaphor
structured according to Motion.
People often use metaphorical language to
-TIMES ARE MOTION.
make abstract and intangible things like
` One can understand the term time as intellectual activity, emotions, and ideas
the following element, physical objects, more concrete for the human mind.
their locations and their motion. Hence the
- We need to combat inflation and it is
following mapping will take place as
imperceptible act, an entity stands-alone,
following:
we must combat it. (Lakoff & Johnson,
-You are wasting my time. 1989: 11).

-Times are things. Sometimes linguists look at the metaphor

in terms of its verb, and sometimes in
-The passing of time is motion.
terms of its circulation, and at other times
-This gadget will save you hours. in terms of the concept indicated by. At the

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end, linguists come to one thing which is domains, the fundamental process that
the metaphor in itself. causes metaphorical usage in language.
This conceptualization links closely to
IMAGE SCHEMA THEORY
image schemas, mental representations
Cognitive semantics has defined an image employed in reasoning, via the expansion
schema as the most significant topic for of spatial and physical rules to increasingly
studying psychological development of complicated contexts.
embodied cognitive theory. (Evans and
A major principle of this theory is
Green ,2006:177). Because the mental
that metaphors are stuff of mind and not
image has a powerful connection to reality
only of language: therefore, the name
as a result of person's conscious
conceptual metaphor. The metaphor may
experiences and recalling for "visual
seem to consist of words or other linguistic
memory," while image schema are more
expressions that derive from the
abstract in nature and found in our
vocabulary of the more concrete
embodied experiences, the mental image
conceptual domain, but conceptual
appears when you close your eyes and
metaphors underlay a system of connected
imagine your father or mother.
metaphorical expressions that emerge on
MAPPINGS the language surface. Similarly, the
mappings of a conceptual metaphor are
There are two main roles for the
themselves inspired by picture schemas
conceptual domains posited in conceptual
which pre-linguistic schemas are
metaphors:
addressing space, time, moving,
Source domain: the conceptual domain controlling, and other essential features of
from which we draw metaphorical embodied human experience.
expressions (e.g., love is a journey).
Conceptual metaphors often utilize
Target domain: the conceptual domain a more abstract notion as aim and a more
that we try to understand (e.g., love is a real or physical concept as their source.
journey). For instance, metaphors such as 'the days
[the more abstract or goal term] ahead' or
A mapping is the method in which
'giving my time' depend on more concrete
a source domain tracks onto and
conceptions, thereby representing time as a
characterizes elements of the destination
journey into physical space, or as a
domain. Mappings represent the
substance that can be touched and
conceptual structure of information in

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presented as a gift. Different conceptual semantic model (Halliday & Martin, 1993)
metaphors tend to be employed when the have been proposed in SFL theory to
speaker is attempting to make a case for a explain GM (Halliday & Matthiessen,
given point of view or course of action. 1999). According to each model, the
For instance, one would equate "the days concept of stratal tension and semantic
ahead" with leadership, but the term junction are used to draw on diverse
"giving my time" conveys more overtones linguistic configurations that lead to the
of negotiation. Selection of such definition and kinds of GM. Though the
metaphors tends to be led by a stratal and semantic models of GM
subconscious or implicit habit in the mind theorise and define the concept differently,
of the individual applying them (Koveses, there is a strong connection between both.
2008:168). (Koveses, 2008:168). To be precise, the semantic model is a
refinement of the stratal model in this
GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR
respect. Furthermore, grammatical
SFL's key contribution to linguistics and metaphor may be seen as a consequence of
education is a concept known as the transfer and/or transcategorization of
grammatical metaphor (GM), first GM mentioned in the stratal model's
proposed by Halliday (1985a) as an semantic model (see Halliday, 1998). As
essential property of academic, part of the theoretical aspect, we'll look at
bureaucratic, and scientific discourses. how the models define and classify GM,
There are now two competing theories for followed by research in language
explaining gene-driven evolution since the development (Christie & Derewianka,
original hypothesis was put out. The 2008) and language education (Byrnes,
occurrence of GM varies greatly 2009) that investigate GM. One more
depending on which hypothesis is used by extensive research that sought to construct
researchers. As a result, the purpose of this an integrated model to conceptualise GM
work is to first examine GM from a will be discussed after the discussion of
theoretical standpoint before turning to stratal and semantic models in language
practical applications in language development and language instruction
development and education research. (Devrim, 2013). An integrated model that
incorporates both stratal and semantic
The stratal model (Halliday,
models may be useful in the teaching of
Halliday 1985a, Halliday 1988, Halliday
GM. The study will end with implications
1998; Martin, Martin 1992a, Martin
1993b; Halliday & Martin, 1993) and the

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for researchers and educators in genetics grammar, then the linguistic structure is
and genomics. called a GM instance.

TYPES OF GM Based on the congruent and metaphorical

realization of semantic categories, Halliday
The second model that theorizes GM is
and Matthiessen (1999:244) refer to the
known as the semantic model, which was
notion of semantic junction. Consequently,
suggested by Halliday & Matthiessen
Halliday and Matthiessen base their
(1999). Halliday & Matthiessen (1999), p.
categorization of GM in relation to the
238 account for the congruent and
joining of semantic categories.
metaphorical realization of semantic
categories in grammar:
CONCLUSIONS
When a sequence is realized as a clause In the context of conceptual metaphors,
complex, or a process as a verb, this is one notion (or conceptual domain) is seen
congruent: it is the clause complex, and in terms of another. This kind of metaphor
the verb, in the function in which it is known as a generative metaphor. It's
evolved. When a sequence is realized as called a source domain in cognitive
something other than a clause complex, linguistics when we pull our metaphorical
or a process as something other than a phrases from a different conceptual
verb, this is metaphorical. Some other domain. The target domain is the
grammatical unit is supplanting them in conceptual domain that is understood in
these functions. this manner. As a result, the destination
domain of life is often explained in terms
The highest in rank order in semantics is
of the journey's originating domain.
sequence, followed by figure and elements
of figures. The elements of figures are Conceptual metaphors are part of the
participant, process, circumstance and common language and conceptual
relator. The above explanation states that precepts shared by members of a culture.
sequence is realized congruently by clause These metaphors are systematic because
complex, and process (as a semantic there is a defined correlation between the
category) is realized congruently by a verb structure of the source domain and the
in grammar. Thus, according to the structure of the target domain. We
semantic model, if sequence is realized by generally recognize these things in terms
a clause or if a noun realizes a process in of a common understanding. For example,
in our culture, if the source concept is

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"death," the common target destination is science, ed. JR Martin and R Veel, 185–235.
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