LESSON 3: NUTRIENT ECONOMY OF SOILS

NITROGEN Economy of Soils

Nitrogen is like any of the other plant nutrients that cycle through soils. Plant roots take up nitrogen
from the soil principally as dissolved ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3- ). In addition to its possible loss
by erosion and runoff, nitrogen can be subject to the following:

Nitrogen fixation
This occurs either through an industrial process, as in the production of commercial fertilizers, or a
biological process, as with legumes such as alfalfa and clover. Nitrogen fixation requires energy, enzymes and
minerals.
a. Biological Nitrogen-fixation. This is an essential biological process and the initial stage of the nitrogen
cycle. In this process, nitrogen in the atmosphere (N 2) is converted into ammonia (NH 3) by certain
bacterial species like Rhizobium, Azotobacteris, Cyanobacteria and others.
 Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixation. It involves the symbiosis of legumes (microsymbiont) and
bacteria of the genera Rhizobia and Bradyrhizobia.
 Non-symbiotic. It is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen by microorganisms without an
associated host plant. These microorganisms include: Blue-green algae in rice paddies and some
species of fungi and bacteria.

b. Thru lightning discharge. Where the atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonium ions and nitrate
(NO3) that enter soil with rainfall.
From nitrogen gas N2 to ammonium ions NH4+ or nitrate NO3-
c. Industrially: People have learned how to convert nitrogen gas to ammonia NH3-

Nitrification
Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate and is another important
step in the global nitrogen cycle. Most nitrification occurs aerobically and is carried out exclusively by
prokaryotes. There are two distinct steps of nitrification that are carried out by distinct types of microorganisms.
The first step is the oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2-), which is carried out by microbes known as
ammonia-oxidizers which include the genera Nitrosomonas. The second step in nitrification is the oxidation of
nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-). This step is carried out by a completely separate group of prokaryotes, known as
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria which includes Nitrobacter.

Step 1
The reaction is as follows:
(NH3) + (O2) → (NO2-) + (3H+)
Nitrosomonas
Step 2
(NO2-) + (H2O) → (NO3)- + (2H+)
Nitrobacter

Mineralization
 Mineralization is the process by which chemicals present in organic matter are decomposed or oxidized
into easily available forms to plants. Since it is a biological process, rates of mineralization vary with soil
temperature, moisture and the amount of oxygen in the soil (aeration).
It readily occurs in warm (20-35 ⁰C) and well aerated and moist soils.

Immobilization
Reverse of mineralization. All living things require N; therefore, microorganisms in the soil complete
with crops for N. Immobilization refers to the process in which nitrate and ammonium are taken up by soil
organisms and therefore become unavailable to crops.
Incorporation of materials with a high carbon to nitrogen ratio (sawdust, straw) will increase biological
activity and cause a greater demand for N, and thus result in N immobilization.
Immobilization only temporarily locks up N. When the microorganisms die, the organic N contained in
their cells is converted by mineralization and nitrification to plant available nitrate.

Denitrification
This occurs when N is lost through conversion of nitrate to gaseous forms of N such as nitric oxide,
nitrous oxide and dinitrogen gas. This happens when the soil is saturated and the bacteria use nitrate as an
oxygen source. Denitrification is common in poorly drained soils. Denitrification most commonly occurs in wet
or waterlogged soils where the oxygen supply for respiration is restricted.

Volatilization
Volatilization are higher for manures and urea fertilizers that are surface applied and not incorporated
(by tillage or by rain) into the soil. Volatilization increase at higher soil pH and conditions that favor
evaporation (hot and windy).

Manure contains N in two primary forms: ammonium and organic N. If manure is incorporated within
one day, 65% of the ammonium N is retained; when incorporated after 5 days the ammonium N will have been
lost through volatilization. Organic N in manure is not lost through volatilization, but it takes time to mineralize
and become plant available.

Leaching
Pathway of N loss of a high concern to water quality. Soil particles do not retain nitrate very well
because both are negatively charged. As a result, nitrate easily moves with water in the soil. The rate of leaching
depends on soil drainage, rainfall, amount of nitrate present in the soil and crop uptake.
Well drained soils, unexpected low crop yield, high inputs (especially outside the growing season) and
high rainfall are all conditions that increase the potential for nitrate leaching.
Crop Uptake
The prime goal of N management on farms. The greatest efficiency occurs when adequate N is applied
at a time when the crop is actively taking it up. Efficient N use also depends on a number of other factors
including temperature, soil moisture, pest pressure and soil compaction.

PHOSPHORUS Economy of Soils

Phosphorus in soils originates from the weathering of residual minerals and from phosphorus additions
in the form of fertilizers, plant residues, agricultural wastes and/ or biosolids. Approximately 30 to 65 percent of
total soil phosphorus is in organic forms, which are not plant available, while the remaining 35 to 70 percent is
in inorganic forms. Organic forms of phosphorus include dead plant/animal residues and soil micro-organisms.
Soil micro-organisms play a key role in processing and transforming these organic forms of phosphorus into
plant available forms. The inorganic phosphorus forms can be classified to exist in three different pools:

 Plant-available (soil solution) phosphorus: This pool is comprised of inorganic phosphorus dissolved in
water/soil solution that is readily available for plant uptake.
 Sorbed phosphorus: This phosphorus pool is comprised of inorganic phosphorus attached to clay
surfaces, iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and calcium (Ca) oxides in soil. The phosphorus in this pool is
released slowly for plant uptake.
 Mineral phosphorus: This phosphorus pool is comprised of primary and secondary phosphate minerals
present in soil. Examples of primary phosphorus minerals include apatite, strengite, and variscite. The
secondary phosphorus minerals include calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and aluminum (Al) phosphates. The
release of phosphorus from this pool is extremely slow and occurs when the mineral weathers and
dissolves in soil water.

The release of soil phosphorus to plant roots and its potential movement to surface waters is controlled
by several chemical and biological processes. It’s abundance may cause harm to aquatic life (through
eutrophication where a reduction of dissolved oxygen in water bodies caused by an increase of minerals and
organic nutrients of rivers and lakes causing algal bloom).

Phosphorous in the soil can be subject to the following:

Mineralization and Immobilization

Mineralization is a process through which organic phosphorus in soil is converted into inorganic
phosphorus with the help of soil microbes. Immobilization, on the other hand, is the reverse of mineralization.
During immobilization, inorganic phosphorus forms are converted back to organic forms and are absorbed into
the living cells of soil microbes. Immobilization typically occurs when crop residues are incorporated in the
soil. As crop residues decompose, more phosphorus becomes available in the soil solution through
mineralization. Because mineralization and immobilization processes are biological processes, they are highly
influenced by soil moisture, temperature, pH, organic carbon to organic phosphorus ratio of crop residues,
microbial population, etc.

Adsorption and Desorption

 Adsorption is a process in which phosphorus present in soil solution is attached/bound to the surface of
soil particles. The phosphorus binding takes place on clay surfaces or the iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides
and hydroxides present in soil. Adsorption is a fast process and reversible in nature, meaning that adsorbed
phosphorus can be released into soil solution via a process known as desorption and will be available for plant
uptake.
Soils containing greater concentrations of iron and aluminum oxides have greater potential to adsorb
phosphorus than soils with relatively low iron and aluminum oxides. Another soil property that favors
phosphorus adsorption is the clay content. Soils with greater clay content have higher adsorption capacity than
coarse textured sandy soils.

Weathering, Precipitation, and Dissolution

Soil contains minerals that are rich in phosphorus. These minerals are classified into primary and
secondary minerals. Minerals break down over time (a process referred to as weathering) and release
phosphorus in the soil solution for plant uptake. Primary minerals such as apatite are very stable and resistant to
weathering. Hence, phosphorus is released very slowly compared to secondary phosphorus minerals such as
calcium, iron, or aluminum phosphates.

Precipitation on the other hand is a process by which metal ions such as Al 3+ and Fe3+ (these ions are
dominant in acidic soils) and Ca2+ (dominant in calcareous soils) react with phosphate ions present in the soil
solution to form minerals such as Al-, Fe-, or Ca-phosphates. Precipitation is a slow process and involves a
permanent change into metal phosphates. These metal phosphates can release phosphorus in soil solution upon
dissolution, but the release rate is very slow.

Dissolution is a form of weathering when the phosphate minerals dissolve and release phosphate back
into the soil solution.

Phosphorus Loss
Phosphorus is removed from soil by (a) crop/plant uptake, (b) runoff and erosion, and (c) leaching. Surface
runoff is the major pathway for phosphorus loss from soils. Runoff water carries away both soluble (dissolved)
phosphorus and particulate (eroded soil particles) phosphorus from soil surface. Leaching is the loss of soluble
phosphorus from sub-surface soil as water percolates vertically down the soil profile. In general, phosphorus
loss by leaching is minimal compared to surface runoff.

POTASSIUM Economy of Soils

Potassium is needed to make ATP and is needed in the DNA Structure of plants. Soils usually contain
large amounts of K. But most of K is fixed particularly in clay particles and unavailable to plants thus
supplement is needed. Clay minerals like vermiculite and illite traps the potassium making it unavailable to
plants.
Sands and organic soils tend to lose K through crop removal, erosion and run off. Though organic soils
have a high cation exchange capacity, it doesn’t hold on tight to potassium.
Soil potassium can be replenished only through crop residues or dead remains, commercial fertilizers
and weathering.