Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life

MRev 01/2012
MIROS Review Report
Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life

in Malaysia
Azhar Hamzah
Abdul Rahmat Abdul Manap
Mohd Huzaifah Muntalip
Mohd Syazwan Solah
Wong Shaw Voon, PhD
MRev 01/2012
MIROS Review Report
Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life

in Malaysia
Azhar Hamzah
Abdul Rahmat Abdul Manap
Mohd Huzaifah Muntalip
Mohd Syazwan Solah
Wong Shaw Voon, PhD
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

MIROS © 2012 All Rights Reserved
Published by:
Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS)

Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Heavy commercial passenger vehicle service life in Malaysia /

Azhar Hamzah ... [et al.]
(MIROS review report ; MRev 01/2012)
Bibliography: p. 36
ISBN 978-967-5967-25-2
1. Commercial vehicles--Malaysia. 2. Transportation--Malaysia.
3. Vehicles--Malaysia. I. Azhar Hamzah. II. Series.
388.3409595
For citation purposes
Azhar H, Abdul Rahmat AM, Mohd Huzaifah M, Mohd Syazwan S & Wong SV (2012), Heavy Commercial
Passenger Vehicle Service Life in Malaysia, MRev 01/2012, Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Institute of Road
Safety Research.
Printed by: Publications Unit, MIROS
Typeface : Goudy Old Style

Size : 11 pt / 15 pt
DISCLAIMER
None of the materials provided in this report may be used, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including recording or the use of any information storage and retrieval
system, without written permission from MIROS. Any conclusion and opinions in this report may be subject
to reevaluation in the event of any forthcoming additional information or investigations.
Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life in Malaysia MRev 01/2012
Table of Content
Page
List of Figures v
List of Tables vi
Acknowledgement vii
Abstract ix
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Issues and Deficiencies of Old Commercial Vehicle 2

2.1 Vehicle quality 2
2.1.1 Noise and vibration 2
2.1.2 Operation reliability 3
2.2 Operating cost 3
2.2.1 Maintenance 3
2.2.2 Fuel consumption 4
2.3 Engine emission 5
2.4 Structural integrity 5
3.0 Optimal Operation with Respect to Service Life 8

3.1 Operation in higher mileage 8
3.2 Operating strategy 8
3.3 Operational cost and service reliability 9
3.4 Requirement for large number of buses 10
3.5 Mixed utilisation of old and new buses 10
4.0 Regulation and Current Practice 12

4.1 Malaysia's regulation 12
4.2 Vehicle design with respect to service life 13
4.3 Practices in other countries 13
4.3.1 Queensland, Australia 13
4.3.2 United States 15
5.0 Findings from Malaysian Crashes 17

5.1 Common structural integrity issues in Malaysian road crashes 21
5.1.1 Highlights of Lahad Datu case 21
5.1.2 Bukit Gantang 25
iii
MRev 01/2012 Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life in Malaysia
5.1.3 Kuala Kangsar 26

5.1.4 Cameron Highlands 30
6.0 General Discussion 32
7.0 Conclusion 34
8.0 Recommendations 35
References 36
iv
List of Figures
Page
Figure 1 Percent of operating cost due to petroleum products, and
parts and labour by age of bus 4
Figure 2 Component expected life for a 12-year bus category 6
Figure 3 Plot of a 12-year bus physical condition against age 7
Figure 4 Annual utilisation by age 9
Figure 5 Operating cost of a bus of age x in dollars per km 10
Figure 6 Optimal buy of vehicles operate and sell policies for fleets 11
Figure 7 Chart of bus aging cases severity comparison 20
Figure 8 Graph of structure status against service age 20
Figure 9 Ratio of fatality/case over age 21
Figure 10 Disintegrated floor pan (left) and rusted panel (right)
underneath the paint work 22
Figure 11 Rusted pillars and roof rail 22
Figure 12 Corroded chassis inside the right rear wheel as well 23
Figure 13 Severe frontal damages 23
Figure 14 Roof peeled off (left) and detached sliding door (right) 24
Figure 15 Failed anchorage and seat frame 24
Figure 16 Distorted seat frames 24
Figure 17 The survival space was greatly reduced 25
Figure 18 Heavily corroded bus body 26
Figure 19 Extremely rusted steel pillars, reduced strength 26
Figure 20 Severely crushed roof reduced the occupants space 27
Figure 21 SEM image of a grey cast iron surface 27
Figure 22 SEM image for sample A of structure bracket (unpolished) 28
Figure 23 SEM image for sample A (polished) 28
Figure 24 SEM image for sample C (polished) 29
Figure 25 Grain structure of sample A (polished) 29
Figure 26 Grain structure of sample C (polished) 30
Figure 27 Collapsed roof structure 31
Figure 28 Extensive corrosion of structure 31
v
List of Tables
Page
Table 1 Vehicle condition rating system 7

Table 2 Maximum age of bus 14
Table 3 Minimum versus average retirement age by vehicle category 15
Table 4 Summary of bus aging cases involving structural issues 18
Table 5 Summary of bus aging cases without significant structural
issues 19
Table 6 Percentage of structural condition with service age 20
vi
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to everyone who is
involved in realising this review reports, either directly or indirectly.
vii
Abstract
A recurring problem of road crashes and multiple injuries and fatalities

has boosted the need for effective and efficient plus reliable and safe public
transportation in Malaysia. Similarly, repeated discoveries of degraded physical
structures and integrities of vehicles have demanded a better system of
operation and management of Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicles (HCPVs)
in Malaysia.
Literature reviews of HCPVs’ operation and maintenance, structural safety

performance and service life accomplishment were comprehensively carried
out. In addition, an in-depth analysis was done on few case studies of road
accident cases concerning HCPVs conducted by the Malaysian Institute of
Road Safety Research (MIROS). A brief summary of these events for recent
years was tabulated as well.
In practice, few countries such as the United States and Australia have clearly
established in their practices and legislations on the design and vehicle
structural requirements, refurbishment procedures and even provide option for
vehicle renewal and extension of services. Based on the same set of principles,
Malaysian vehicles and industries have plenty of areas to move forward to, for
instance in vehicle design, operation and maintenance, and legislations. In fact,
these potentials could be evidently seen from the findings of in-depth crash
investigation studies conducted on major crashes associated with HCPVs, such
as the strength and integrity of superstructures, which failed to perform and
provide protection in a number of highlighted cases. Evidence of premature
deterioration of vehicles’ major components was also recorded, where in certain
cases they disastrously degraded due to environmental stresses.
In brief, HCPVs and the transportation industry are in need of special support
and assistance in order to improve their operations. On top of that, there
are also requirements for technical capability, expertise enhancement and
facilitation, and in financial boost as well.
ix
1.0 Introduction
As a developing nation, Malaysia is moving relatively fast in terms of growth

in land development and architectural infrastructures, constructions and
industrial fields. This rapid expansion increases demand for an efficient
and effective public transport system as well as reliable, safe, and reasonably
comfortable. To meet this great challenge, the land transport system fleet has to
be appropriately steered towards a positive safe system of operation.
Ideally, many service operators wish to run their vehicle fleet advantageously
—that is, with maximum return on capital investment and at the same time
prolonged cycle of investment period. Nevertheless, constraints such as budget
limitations and increasing competition and challenges may possibly detract
them from maintaining a safe fleet.
In-depth analyses on numerous heavy commercial passenger vehicles (HCPVs)

crashes by the Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS) found
that there was significant number of HCPVs suffering from degraded
superstructures that mechanically failed in collision. These collisions have
resulted in multiple fatalities and injuries. Some of the structures were found
to be designed not according to any standard design rules and their structural
integrity was seriously degraded. Almost all HCPVs in Malaysia were built
locally with imported chassis.
The present study attempts to establish possible relationships between years

of service and the structural integrity for HCPVs in Malaysia. In addition, an
extensive survey and review of well established literatures have been carried
out. The study also includes a discussion on possible implications and potential
approaches that could be considered to improve the situation.
1
2.0 Issues and Deficiencies of Old Commercial

Vehicle
It is apparent in the transportation sector that as vehicles aged, numerous

performance and safety concerns inevitably emerge and have to be dealt with.
In particular, some of the areas that require rather serious consideration would
be vehicle quality, operating cost, engine emission and structural integrity.
These issues are briefly discussed below.
2.1 Vehicle quality
Quality of vehicles in providing comfortable and decent rides is one of the

influencing criteria for commendable customers or users satisfaction rating. As
service year and service mileage accumulates, there is a natural tendency for the
vehicle to degrade. Among the concerns are vehicle noise and vibration and
vehicle operation reliability.
2.1.1 Noise and vibration
As a vehicle’s age increases, the levels of vibration and noise it produces also tend
to increase. This is usually due to the degradation of the vehicle’s dampening
components. For instance, in case of engine mounts, Gruenberg et al. (2001)
pointed out that the conventional engine mount mechanical properties,
normally made of elastomers, tend to change over time when subjected to
variables such as heat, light, fatigue, oxygen, and ozone. For instance, the
engine rubber mount will harden over time, reducing its damping ability, which
results in increased vibration and noise in the engine unit. Consequently, this
can lead to more degradation of the rubber mounting, and also affect other
components in the vehicle which lead to even more degradation, vibration and
noise.
When the vehicle is in operation, the increased magnitude of noise and

vibration will be inevitably transmitted to the entire body and structure of the
vehicle and simultaneously affect vehicle structure, handling and ride comfort.
This phenomenon will correspondingly create ride discomfort to the vehicle
occupants.
2
2.1.2 Operation reliability
Accumulation of service age obviously will translate into decrease reliability,

which may get worse if vehicle is inappropriately maintained. Occurrence of
frequent failures and breakdowns, inability to meet schedule and unscheduled
repairs are some of the issues that will naturally surface in the vehicle operation.
These concerns will eventually affect the operators’ service qualities.
2.2 Operating cost
Cost of operating new and old buses differs. Some of the contributing factor
to this increase is the maintenance and fuel consumption cost, which are
described in the following sections.
2.2.1 Maintenance
It is known that a good maintenance management and practice could extend

the service life limit of vehicles. Besides the normal wear and tear pattern as
a result of continual use, loads and environmental influence such as heat and
rain also play an influencing role in vehicle reliability. A New South Wales
audit office report (2002) suggests that there is a direct correlation between
vehicle age and volume of repair works—older vehicles tend to require higher
repair volume, which directly translates into bigger maintenance cost. On top
of that, poor maintenance management and practice may contribute to missed
defects during repairs, or may lead to repeated failure during service. This is
further supported by the study of Simms et al. (1980) in Figure 1 which shows
the increase in the percentage of cost of parts and labour when compared to
the cost of petroleum when in operation—the trend moves toward two-third of
the total operating cost. In short, as the bus ages, maintenance cost increases
considerably.
3
Percent of operating cost due to petroleum

product and parts and labour by age of bus
Caused by petroleum Caused by parts and labour
Figure 1 Percent of operating cost due to petroleum products, and parts and labour
by age of bus (Source: Simms et al. 1984)
2.2.2 Fuel consumption
Normal wear and tear of all moving parts and components practically has a
substantial contribution towards higher fuel consumption rate. For example,
misaligned wheels tend to increase tyre rolling resistance and subsequently
affect the vehicle drag. To overcome this, more power is needed, which is
reflected in the increase of engine speed (rpm) just to gain the equivalent
amount of work when no misalignment occurs. The same is true with worn
out wheel bearings which will increase frictional forces between drive shaft
and the tyre spindle. In short, any worn out parts that increase the resistance
of the vehicle to get in motion will cumulatively result in higher fuel demand.
The same analogy is applicable to vehicle engine and its internal components.
According to a research work conducted in US, Smith et al. (2001) discovered
that engine emission and fuel efficiency was strongly influenced by engine age,
oil age and oil drain interval.
4
2.3 Engine emission
Aged engine has a high tendency to produce emission problem. A study by

Anilovich and Hakkert (1996) on vehicle emissions related to age and periodic
inspection discovered that more than 50% of the vehicles in the age group of
over 12 years failed the emissions test. The standard requirement in the test was
CO (carbon monoxide) emission should not exceed 4.5%. Moreover, a similar
work in Southern California, US, Clark et al. (2003) summarised that particulate
matter of diesel engine emissions was found to be higher for older vehicles. In
general, particulate matter (PM) refers to diesel engine exhaust emissions which
consist of gases, vapours, liquid aerosols and substances made up of particles.
According to Health and Safety Executive Publication of UK (1999), this PM
has the potential of causing a range of health effects. In detail, PM includes
carbon (soot), nitrogen, water, carbon monoxide, aldehydes, nitrogen dioxide,
sulphur dioxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
2.4 Structural integrity
From the qualitative aspect, normally bus structure is designed and constructed
to specifications to meet the intended service life. In other words, the quality of
the whole structure and components are built to serve a predetermined period.
A study carried out by Laver et al. (2007) indicated that bus and van useful life
is very much determined by the lifespan of its structure, body and electrical
system, which tend to last the longest, as reflected in Figure 2. The rest of the
components are more likely to fail very much earlier, in some instances like
transmission and brakes, less than four years. This is logical since the structure
is the base for all other components to be attached to. In other words, the failure
of the structure marks the end of service life of the vehicle. They also pointed
out that service environment is one of the key determinants to a structure’s
useful life. Overtime, with continual use and exposure to stress inducing inputs
such as environmental factors and service loads, a weakened structure due to
corrosion, fatigue and stress will reduce the vehicle crashworthiness in any
road crash event, thus potentially and possibly increasing the risk of injury and
injury severity to the occupants.
5
Figure 2 Component expected life for a 12-year bus category (Source: Laver et al. 2007)
Furthermore, the study also detailed out the result of a physical inspection of
vehicles at various check points which illustrates the correlation of bus physical
condition and age, as plotted in Figure 3. This finding is extremely helpful
in understanding the relationship and may assist in predicting the physical
deterioration of the vehicles. One important note would be the accelerated rate
of decay for a 12-year bus category for the first five years of service age, which is
probably due to high utilisation rate combined with low or less maintenance.
After five to 14 years, the declining trend becomes gradual, most likely due
to continuous maintenance such as rebuilding of engine and transmission
coupled with component replacement and a reduction in utilisation. The
decay rate becomes slightly accelerated after year 14 onwards which may be
related to reduced maintenance and low service, and the operator may opt
for newer vehicle to cater to the demand. It is also noted that most fleet
operators schedule their vehicle replacement between 2.0 to 2.5 index values,
which indicates a substandard to partially adequate range of physical condition
(defective to moderately defective component, Table 1).
6
Figure 3 Plot of a12-year bus physical condition against age (Source: Laver et al. 2007)
Table 1 Vehicle condition rating system (Source: Laver et al. 2007)
Rating Condition Description
5.0 Excellent No visible defects, near new condition
4.0 Good Some (slightly) defective or deteriorated component(s)
3.0 Adequte Moderately defective or deteriorated component(s)
2.0 Fair Defective or deteriorated(s) in need replacement
1.0 Poor Critically damaged component(s) or in need of immediate

repair
7
3.0 Optimal Operation with Respect to

Service Life
It is not unusual for bus operators to operate their fleet in the most minimum
budget, or at least as close as possible. Nonetheless, many of them may have
little knowledge of the relationship between operational cost and service life.
An extended explanation would provide the means for better understanding
of the issue.
3.1 Operation in higher mileage
In general, newer buses operated higher mileage than old buses (Figure 4). The
travelling public is quite sensitive to the quality of service. One of the quality
parameters is the ‘newness’ of the vehicles and their relative comfort. This
economic rationale leads to higher demand of new buses from the public and
thus leads to higher mileage of new buses.
However this new-old strategy might not be true in Malaysia because some
companies might retrofit very old buses with new exteriors. The public and the
authority will see proportionately more ‘new’ buses but unaware of the actual
fleet mix of new and old buses in the market.
3.2 Operating strategy
The basic strategy for some bus companies is to use old buses for short distance
trip to cut operational cost. Considering that the old buses are kept only to
meet the peak demand period, these buses will only accumulate the minimum
number of route kilometre. Since currently there is no local research on fleet
policy especially on operating cost of fleet, there is not much data available to
conclude on what is the proportion of old buses used for long distance trip in
Malaysia. However it is to be noted that having higher mileage leads to higher
travel exposure and any accident involving old buses tend to be more severe
than new buses which are normally equipped with superior structure and safety
system.
8
Figure 4 Annual utilisation by age (Source:

Simms et al. 1984)
3.3 Operational cost and service reliability
Increased operational cost is synonymous with aged vehicles. As vehicle

performance decreases over time, so does the service it provides, if left
uncontrolled. Unforeseen delays, unscheduled stoppages or breakdowns during
in service are some of the common issues and these will undeniably increase
the operating expenditure and portray unreliable service image, which in the
long run will drive customers away for other dependable transport alternatives.
As a consequence, frequent happenings of delays and failures will seriously
affect the vehicles’ availability and reliability, and badly tarnish the operator
service image. Figure 5 depicts the linear function of increase of cost/km and
age of bus.
9
Figure 5 Operating cost of a bus of age x in dollars per km (Source: Simms et al. 1984)
3.4 Requirement for large number of buses
Figure 6 illustrates that the requirement for a large number of buses at any
particular time lead to older buses being kept on to satisfy demand from
public. The rationale of this demand is that newer buses are seen as being more
reliable and less costly to operate than older buses. This is especially so when
there is an extreme demand for public transport. The best example would be
the Hari Raya celebration time. Therefore, sometimes the company is left with
no option but to keep the old buses in order to meet this fluctuating demand.
3.5 Mixed utilisation of old and new buses
In the local context, a mixture of old and new vehicles in any transport fleet
is common. It has become a normal practice, largely due to reasons such as
requirement for a large number of buses at particular time (such as festive
seasons) led to older buses being kept on to satisfy overwhelming demand.
Furthermore, generally one would expect that the older buses would always
be replaced first and younger buses kept. However, for many reasons this is
not the case all the time. Older vehicle can hardly be re-sold or traded off.
10
They are usually worth only as much as scrap. So, one viable alternative is to
keep downgrading the use, such as travel a shorter route and use for school
transportation.
The graph in Figure 6 shows a study on daily demand for bus services. The
highlight of this graph is the relationship between new and old buses use with
the magnitude of the demand. Newer buses are normally used to supply the
base demand because of efficiency, reliability, and lesser operating cost. In
contrary, old buses tend to be utilised to match peak demands. The need for
a large number of buses at that particular time lead to older buses being kept
in order to satisfy these demand. The closest scenario for a local situation is
when Commercial Vehicle Licencing Board had approved 1,314 (Utusan 2008)
additional bus permits during Hari Raya festive season in order to meet a surge
in demand for transport services. In conclusion, an intermittently increased
demand in bus services can influence the number of old buses operating on
the road.
Figure 6 Optimal buy of vehicles operate and sell policies for fleets (Source: Simms et al.1984)
11
4.0 Regulation and Current Practice
Manufacturing of vehicles in Malaysia is guided by the Road Transport Act

and the Construction and Use Rules (C&U). Overview of the procedures and
current practices in HCPVs construction is outlined next.
4.1 Malaysia's regulation
Procedurally, before construction takes place, HCPVs technical drawings

require verification of Competent or Professional Engineers prior to
submission for authority approval. Once approved, manufacturing begins and
after completion, the HCPVs will go through compulsory physical inspection,
in accordance to the C&U, by the authorised technical service provider.
Following that, they are required to pass the Vehicle Type Approval (VTA)
assessment conducted by the Road Transport Department (RTD), prior to
registration and on the road use.
In late 2007, a bus accident occurred at Bukit Gantang, Perak and killed
23 people onboard. Since that incident, the Malaysian government had
strengthened the bus construction law to protect the consumers and the
coach builders. The UNECE Regulation R66-Uniform Technical Prescriptions
Concerning the Approval of Large Passenger Vehicles With Regard To the Strength of
Their Superstructure and R36 – Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Large
Passenger Vehicles With Regard To Their General Construction were adapted into
the Malaysia Road Transport Act. R66 was initiated to prevent severe damage
on buses during rollover event, thus ensuring the safety of bus occupants. By
definition, superstructure refers to the components of a bus structure that
contribute to the strength of the vehicle in the event of a rollover crashes. R36
specifies the requirements for general construction of single-deck or articulated
vehicle having capacity in excess of 22 passengers whether seated or standing.
In general, the regulation mentions the configuration overall including the
inside and outside of a bus to ensure safety and comfort for passenger onboard.
Additionally, regulation R80 – Uniform Provisions Concerning The Approval Of
Seats Of Large Passenger Vehicles And Of These Vehicles With Regard To The Strength
Of The Seats And Their Anchorages that is yet to be implemented in Malaysia.
This regulation provides for the specifications on the strength of seats and seat-
anchorages of buses and protection for occupants from being projected out of
their seats and ejected to outside the vehicle when involved in road crashes.
12
Briefly, UNECE regulation does not provide clear indication of vehicle service
life or disposal of time-expired vehicles. Although bus fleet companies comply
with the UNECE Regulation, the service life of their fleet is dependent on
many factors such as body manufacturing process, service type, service area,
maintenance and others.
4.2 Vehicle design with respect to service life
Currently in Malaysia, there is no requirement of HCPVs service life period

stipulated in the Road Transport Act. However, in the United Sates (US),
vehicle service life requirement is clearly defined. In general, it is typical that
a passenger vehicle such as bus to have an expected service life of 12 years or
500,000 miles (804,672 km) averaging 40,000 miles (64,373 km) per year. In
a study carried out in the US in 2005, it was disclosed that the ideal level of
vehicle age ranges between seven to nine years according to vehicle type.
One particular concern that restricts or limits the design is the structural
corrosion that takes place during in-service. Nevertheless, the advancement
in technology has increased the corrosion resistance of material and managed
to extend the service life limits. In some cases, with proper design and
manufacturing standards, a vehicles structure lifespan is expected to last 15
years.
4.3 Practices in other countries
For comparison purpose, practices and procedures in some regions in Australia

and the United States are highlighted.
4.3.1 Queensland, Australia
As practised in Queensland, Australia, the maximum age of a bus is set as

shown in Table 2. However, as an alternative to replacement of an aging heavy
bus, operators are given the option for Service Life Extension of their heavy
vehicles either through partial or full refurbishment. At this point, a commercial
decision is vital since it may involve a substantial financial investment.
13
Table 2 Maximum age of bus (Source: Queensland Government Bulletin 2005)
Open Regional Local

(no distance limit) (350 km radius) (40 km radius)
Heavy bus 15 years 25 years 25 years
Light bus 10 20 20
a. Basic or partial refurbishment
This option is applicable once (for a five-year duration) and the bus has to go
through a basic refurbishment work, Australian Design Rules (ADR) upgrade
and a certification by an Approved Person. The refurbishment works include
structural integrity and serviceability inspection, for damage and corrosion of
the chassis, body, suspension, steering and brake components. If structural
damage is observed or there is a sign of corrosion in the frame, a full panel
removal and frame inspection is required. On top of that, the vehicle also has
to comply with Australian Design Rules, such as roll over strength and seat
belts standards, prior to inspection. The brake system has to be overhauled and
physically tested. Upon completion, all these works are required to be certified
by a Competent Engineer. A bus operator has to submit the application when
a bus is between 13 to 15 years old for the Open category and before turning
25 years for the other two categories. In addition, there exists an option for a
conversion to the next classification once a maximum life is attained in the
original category, For instance, an Open category bus operator may choose to
continue the bus services (after 20 years in Open category) in the Regional or
Local categories up to the allowed maximum life.
b. Full refurbishment
This procedure, called Age Zero requirement, necessitates a complete

refurbishment of the rolling chassis inclusive of a totally new body fitment
and rebuild of all mechanical components such as engine, transmission,
etc. In addition, the structural components must be dismantled and visually
inspected and crack tested if necessary. The vehicle also has to be upgraded to
meet all currently applicable safety and emission requirements and standards.
Subsequently, a structural integrity and serviceability verification and
certification by a Competent Engineer for damage and corrosion of the chassis,
body, suspension, steering and brake components, and compliance with all
ADR applicable standards is compulsory prior to approval.
14
Buses that are completely refurbished and complied with all the relevant
requirements will be considered by Queensland Transport to qualify as Age
Zero.
In short, bus operators’ careful considerations from economical and practical

perspectives are highly crucial prior to deciding on the options as any
miscalculation may result in serious financial implication.
4.3.2 United States
The system in the United States works in reverse compared to the practice in
Queensland, Australia. The Department of Transport sets a minimum service
life policy for a fleet, divided into five distinct vehicle categories (refer to Table 3).
A recently completed study by Laver et al. (2007) found that vehicle retirement
age is relatively higher than the minimum set value. It is also important to note
that in average, the heavy bus (12-year category) retires beginning from one to
three years after achieving the intended minimum requirement age, at 15.1
years to be exact, as indicated in Table 3. The numbers reveal that for a 12-year
vehicle category, 19% operated one or more years than stipulated minimum
requirement age and the number reduced to only 9% for three or more years.
The study also noted that more than three quarters of bus retirement peaks at
age 14 through 17 years.
Table 3 Minimum versus average retirement age by vehicle category (Source: Laver et al.
2007)
Vehicle category/ Share of active vehicles that are :

Average
Minimum One or more years Three or more years
retirement age
retirement past the retirement past the retirement
(Years)
age minimum minimum
12-year bus 15.1 19% 9%
10-year bus * 7% 4%
7-year bus 8.2 12% 3%
5-year bus/van* 5.9 23% 5%
4-year van 5.9 29% 10%
* Average retirement age estimates for this vehicle category suffers from small sample issues.
15
a. Corrosion resistant requirements in USA
For the vehicles to be on the road safely and to ensure public safety is given
the appropriate attention, certain measures are imposed prior to operation
to ascertain no premature failure occurs or accelerated decay takes place on
the main structural components, earlier than the intended service period. In
detail, the measures are as follows:
• The bus shall resist corrosion from atmospheric conditions and road salts.
• It shall maintain structural integrity and nearly maintain original appearance

throughout its service life
• With the exception of periodically inspecting the visible coatings applied

to prevent corrosion and reapplying these coatings in limited spots, the
contractor/maintenance service provider shall not require the complete
reapplication of corrosion compounds over the life of the bus.
• All exposed surfaces and the interior surfaces of tubing and other enclosed
members shall be corrosion resistant.
• All materials that are not inherently corrosion resistant shall be protected
with corrosion-resistant coatings. All joints and connections of dissimilar
metals shall be corrosion-resistant and shall be protected from galvanic
corrosion.
• Representative samples of all materials and connections shall withstand a

two-week (336-hour) salt spray test in accordance with ASTM Procedure
B-117 with no structural detrimental effects to normally visible surfaces,
and no weight loss of over 1%.
(Source: Extracted from American Public Transport Association, Technical

Specifications 36 : 1/22/08)
b. Metropolitan Transport Authority, New York, USA
Transit Authority has a policy of using buses for no more than 12 years unless
they are rebuilt to a satisfactory condition.
16
c. Other practices–Pennsylvania, USA
State Rep. Pennsbury introduced the School Bus Service Lifetime Safety
Bill that requires Pennsylvania DOT (Department of Transport) to adopt a
maximum service lifetime of 12 years for all school buses used in the state.
5.0 Findings from Malaysian Crashes
Summaries of accident cases investigated by the MIROS Crash Investigation

Team in 2007 and 2008 are depicted in Tables 4 and 5 respectively. In
general, the objectives of the investigation are to determine the possible crash
configurations and define the root causes of accidents and injuries, and suggest
potential measures to improve the situation. It is achieved through accident
reconstruction technique utilising scientific evidence and analysis of involved
vehicles, crash sites and environment and driver perspectives.
Based on crash records, even though statistically inconclusive, there is a

potential correlation of age and structural decay of bus. The range of bus
age with structural issue could be as early as four years and extended to 23
years old. The number of fatalities in crashes involving buses older than 15
years represents more than half of the total number of fatalities. Some of the
probable factors that contribute to the high fatality and injury severity could be:
• bus design that is not according to any established standard;
• bus not designed to provide optimal protection especially in crash involving

rollover configuration;
• the structure is badly deteriorated as a result of heavy usage; or
• combination of components wear and tear and improper maintenance

practice.
These contributing factors may affect and reduce the bus structural integrity
to withstand heavy accident impacts. Despite that, there are cases where a
bus structure remained intact and essentially undisturbed after accident, as
reflected in Table 5. However, these accidents involved buses of six years and
below in age.
17
Table 4 Summary of bus aging cases involving structural issues
Company/
Bus plate Age of bus Fatality Injury
Date Case individual Summary of the case
number (years) (s) (s)
involved
Express Ipoh ACD 1936 Bus hit side guardrail, slid

09/03/07 Kuala Kangsar 16 6 22
Taiping (1992) the slope and overturned
Yasco DAB 5019 Bus hit side guardrail, slid

05/05/07 Cherating 12 1 22
Cooperation (1996) the slope and overturned
Kenderaan
ABK 79 Bus hit side guardrail, slid
13/08/07 Bukit Gantang Bukit Gantang 21 22 7
(1987) the slope and overturned
Sdn. Bhd.
JCX 1166 Bus hit enbankment and
11/09/07 Baling Halim b. Mat 15 7 34
(1993) overturned
Ocean Vista
AED 9188 Bus hit the rear of trailer at
11/12/07 Jelapang Adventure Sdn. 8 8 27
(2000) the toll booth
Bhd.
Pacific Style
K.Kubu ADW 6878
14/12/07 Holidays Sdn. 9 0 2 Bus hit rear of another bus
Bharu (1999)
Bhd.
Focal Time Sdn. WDL 6270
24/12/07 Pagoh 14 0 2 Bus hit rear of the trailer
Bhd. (1994)
Brake failure and bus
Universiti Sains PFF 760
06/01/08 Ipoh 6 0 15 overturned on the side of
Malaysia (2002)
highway
South Johore JHL 7758 Bus hit side guardrail, slid
22/01/08 Kulai 4 2 2
Omnibus (2004) the slope and overturned
KS 5599 Bus went to opposite lane

10/04/08 Sepang Krishna Kumar 23 1 0
(1985) and hit car
Transnasional WHX 8701 Bus hit 4WD and then got

30/04/08 Kuala Kangsar 8 1 7
Sdn. Bhd. (2000) hit by another bus
Resort World WGJ 9786 Bus hit side guardrail and
05/06/08 Karak 10 2 33
Tours (1998) went into ravine
PDE 2966 Bus hit side guardrail, slid
12/06/08 Slim River Super Nice 13 1 23
(1995) the slope and overturned
Cameron ABK 7331
13/06/08 Regal Co. 20 1 1 Bus head on with 4WD
Highlands (1988)
JBD 3920
04/08/08 Jasin Teow Ah Nee 24 1 24 Bus lost control into ditch
(1984)
Northen Silk
PED 7738 Bus hit side guardrail, then
29/08/08 K. Kubu Bharu Destination 10 1 15
(1998) hit culvert
Holidays
Syarikat
ST 2088 C Minibus head on with
02/10/08 Lahad Datu Pengangkutan 20 6 13
(1988) 4WD on overtaking
Noram
Mariapan A/L WFV 2008
04/10/08 Skudai 11 1 13 Bus hit barrier at toll plaza
Munusamy (1997)
18
Table 5 Summary of bus aging cases without significant structural issues
Company/ Age
Bus plate Fatality Injury
Date Case individual of bus Summary of the case
number (s) (s)
involved (years)
Talkar WKJ 2283
26/02/08 Rembau 6 0 6 Bus hit guardrail and overturned
Holidays (2002)
JHH 9188
08/04/08 Seremban KBES 4 1 28 -
(2004)
Kuala KKKL JKR 7299 Bus hit 4WD and another bus hit the
20/04/08 1 1 8
Kangsar Express (2007) rear of the bus
Orchid
JKQ 9683
25/05/08 Tangkak Dynasty 1 2 1 Lorry hit trailer and bus hit lorry
(2007)
Travel
Genting Eltabina WMR 1113 Bus violated right of way of car after
20/05/08 3 1 3
Sempah Jaya (2005) a brake malfunction, then hit car
Allison AFG 8001
24/06/08 Behrang 3 3 13 Bus hit median and overturned
Express (2005)
The graph in Figure 7 provides a summary of the cases attended by MIROS

relating to structural integrity issues. The pattern shows that for HCPVs aged
five years or less; their structures are still intact after the crash. However, for
the next range of year five to 10, most of them started to exhibit structural
deterioration. The trend indicates that for cases involving buses aged 15 years
and above, there are some moderate to serious structural integrity issues.
The percentage of structure status of HCPVs within the service age is reflected
in Table 6. Even though the sample is small, when plotted in Figure 8, it is
obvious that the rate of structural issue increases exponentially with service
age. The reverse pattern is visible for the intact structure status; it decreases
exponentially with service age. In short, it could be possibly stated that 50% of
the number of structures could be having integrity issues at the service age of
exceeding four years.
The plot in Figure 9 shows the fatality numbers against HCPVs’ age. It could
be demonstrated that the fatality ratio peaks at 8th, 15th, 16th and 21st
year. The overall trend seems to be a gradually increase from the eighth year
onwards. In other words, the fatality ratio per case increases significantly and
correspondingly with HCPVs service age. In general, it could possibly be stated
that as the HCPVs age, the decline in structural integrity is translated to higher
risk of fatality when they are involved in road traffic crashes.
19
Number of cases
Intact
Structural issues
0–5 5–10 11–15 >15
Figure 7 Chart of bus aging cases severity comparison
Table 6 Percentage of structural condition with service age
Service age 1 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20 21 23 24
Intact 100 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Structure issue 0 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
HCPVs structure status over service age
Intact
Structure
issue
Figure 8 Graph of structure status against service age
20
Ratio of fatality per case
Figure 9 Ratio of fatality/case over age
5.1 Common structural integrity issues in Malaysian

road crashes
There is substantial evidence that shows deteriorated structural integrity is quite

prominent in a number of HCPVs. The existence and appearance of heavy rust
and corrosion on many parts and jointed areas reflect the structures’ weakness
to withstand weathering influence. Besides, poor application or probably the
absence of anti-rust protection on the material may have caused the structure
to be defenceless against moisture attack. The situation could possibly worsen
when substandard or inferior material such as gray iron (which has lower
strength than steel) was used for the construction of the superstructure.
5.1.1 Highlight of Lahad Datu case
This frontal road crash involved a commercial passenger van against a four-wheel
drive vehicle, in a single carriageway road. As evidenced during post-collision
investigation and based on the record, the van was manufactured in year 1991
(approximately 17 years old at time of collision). A substantially deteriorated
structure was observed. Some corroded and rusted parts could be easily spotted
21
almost all around the vehicle body. For instance, images in Figures 10 and
11 indicate the disintegrated floor pan adjacent to the left entrance sliding
door and the rusted body panel buried under the cement work. Furthermore,
another seriously corroded point could be observed at the right rear chassis,
inside the wheel as well as reflected in Figure 12.
Figure 10 Disintegrated floor pan (left) and rusted panel (right) underneath the paint work
Figure 11 Rusted pillars and roof rail
22
Figure 12 Corroded chassis inside the right rear wheel as well
The van suffers serious frontal damage as a result of the collision where the
driver and front passenger compartment were badly ripped apart, as shown in
Figure 13. To make it worse, the entire engine block was reportedly detached
and fell on the pavement when the supporting frame failed in holding the
engine mounts in position. One of the factors contributing to the severe
instrution may be due to reduced structural strength of the van as a result of
excessive corrosion and rust.
In addition, plenty of corroded parts were also observed at the vehicle pillars;
body panels, roof rail and floor pan (Figure 14).
Figure 13 Severe frontal damages
23
Figure 14 Roof peeled off (left) and detached sliding door (right)
Failure of most of the seat anchorages to withstand the impact and internal
forces of unrestrained occupants and luggage is visibly evident in Figures 15
and 16. Almost all failed, and were sheared off, and these are suspected due to
structural weakening of the floor pan.
Front
Front
Figure 15 Failed anchorage and seat frame
Figure 16 Distorted seat frames
24
5.1.2 Bukit Gantang
The road crash killed 22 passengers while nine others sustained injuries. In this
case, the extensively corroded and aging structure of the bus (Figures 17 and 18)
failed to retain the occupants’ space, thus resulting in high number of fatalities
and injuries. The bus was registered in 1987 (20 years old) and is still being
used as an express bus. It could not withstand the impact when it collided with
a static rigid object. The roof completely collapsed into the body compartment
and major damaged was also observed at the frontal part of the bus. Inspection
of the bus revealed that almost all the metal parts and structure were badly
rusted and corroded. It was also evident that the bus did not have continuous
rings (loops) as the major pillars to support the roof structure. Instead, these
pillars were attached to the main structure by welds. This kind of jointing is
mechanically lower in strength compared to the continuous rings style (loops).
Figure 17
The survival space was
greatly reduced
25
Figure 18
Heavily corroded bus
body
5.1.3 Kuala Kangsar
This road accident resulted in six fatalities and 25 injuries. The accident
happened when a bus ran off-road and punched through a guardrail before
colliding with a tree stump and overturned. The impact caused the entire roof
to collapse and eventually flatten the occupants cabin (Figures 19 and 20).
Inspection on the bus registration history revealed that the bus was already
16 years old and the structure was badly rusted. Further inspection revealed
that one of the major factors that contributed to the structural failure was the
highly deteriorated roof structure material. The manufacturer used welding
technique to connect the pillars, instead of using a continuous ring system.
Other factors include the mechanical fracture due to rust, and the decay of
composite material (steel and wood) that formed part of the bus structure.
Figure 19
Extremely rusted steel
pillars, reduced strength
26
Figure 20
Severely crushed roof
reduced the occupants
space
The photos and discussions below are adapted from Kuala Kangsar Crash
Investigation Report
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Image analysis
“The SEM image analysis shows that the sample A (Figure 22) is identical to
the standard gray cast iron (Figure 21).”
Figure 21
SEM image of a grey
cast iron surface
27
Figure 22
SEM image for sample A
of structure bracket
(unpolished)
Figure 23
SEM image for sample A
(polished)
“From the material matching, sample C is aptly fit to be classified as gray iron
based on its properties though its characteristic is not exactly identical to gray
iron”.
28
Figure 24
SEM image for sample C
(polished)
The following are the image of grain structure of samples A and C.
Cavity
Figure 25
Grain structure of
sample A (polished)
29
Cavity
Figure 26
Grain structure of
sample C (polished)
“However, even though both material from samples A (Figure 22) and C
(Figure 24) contained high Ferum (Fe), the Carbon (C) contents are extremely
high to be classified as steel. Instead, they are closer to the properties of low
grade of gray iron. Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in
tension as a consequence of its microstructure. However, strength and ductility
are much higher under compressive loads. Grey irons are very effective in
damping vibrational energy compared to steel. They are also very malleable
which permits casting pieces having intricate shapes. Finally, gray irons are
among the least expensive of all metallic materials.
In this case, it can be stipulated that cast iron was chosen to make the bus
structure to save cost. In addition, there is no evidence to establish that the
bus structure had been coated to prevent rusting. It is also very unusual to
find chlorine (Cl) in sample C as it never had been used as an anti rust agent
to be included in cast iron. It can be concluded that the materials used in
constructing the bus were not suitable and defective.”
5.1.4 Cameron Highlands
This highland road crash occurred in daytime involving a stage bus and a 4WD
truck. The crash caused the death of the bus driver on the spot and serious
injury to the 4WD driver. The bus was about 20 years old and its body was in
extremely bad condition (see Figures 27 and 28). There were many rusted parts
discovered in the post-crash inspection. The roof structure collapsed due to
30
heavy impact when the bus overturned. In addition, the main roof pillars failed
completely due to extreme corrosion in the joints and the structure. The seats
were also not properly anchored to the base causing most of them to detach
from their original position upon impact.
Figure 27
Collapsed roof structure
Figure 28
Extensive corrosion of structure
31
6.0 General Discussion
It could be argued that operational optimisation is lacking or not given due

attention in Malaysian HCPVs fleet management and operation. This may
be due to shortage of technical experts or low knowledge level of existing
resources in the industry. Issues such as the increasing cost of operation and
maintenance, emissions and fuel and safety related matters are some of the
factors that require serious considerations. In addition, the absence of relevant
policy and regulation that warrants the implementation of this scientific
methods may have left the issues unattended. Numerous studies have proven
the importance of determining the optimum service life of vehicle with respect
to overall cost in order to remain competitive and profitable in the long run.
In developed countries, HCPVs structures are capable of achieving the

intended design life of 12 years or 800,000 km of travel. The introduction
of relevant policies has enabled the achievement of the objectives. This is
also made possible by incorporating the correct design, specifications and
warranty assurance in the initial stage of procurement. As a result, incidence of
premature rust and corrosion is rare, breakdown frequency is very low.
In-depth investigations of road crashes by MIROS reveal serious problems with

the HCPVs structural design and integrity in the industry. Significant structural
decay was observed in the six to 10 years group (33%) and 28% in the 11 to
15 years age group. In fact, higher fatality ratio per case of 6.17 was recorded
for HCPVs exceeding 15 years. With respect to bus structure, the design was
not traceable to any established design standards. Utilisation of multifold
short length steels joined by spot welds and with little reinforcement does not
provide the structure with the necessary strength to withstand road crashes
impacts. The welding and jointing techniques, if excessively and improperly
done may disturb the material properties and may accelerate corrosion rate.
Therefore the design lifespan may perhaps be undetermined even in the initial
stage. Most of the designs investigated were proven to be unable to withstand
roll over crash configuration. So, a combination of both factors may increase
the fatality risk and injury severity to occupants when involved in road crashes.
It is noted the structural integrity issue could be a concern as early as in year

four. However, the data presented is not statistically representative. It could
possibly be stated that higher service age tends to exhibit increased structural
32
deterioration and lower integrity, which may possibly translate to higher risk
of fatality in road crashes, even though crash severity may depend on other
parameters as well. However, good design and good maintenance practices may
preserve the HCPVs structure for the intended design lifespan.
It could be said that a number of HCPVs structures failed early in their service
life. It is predicted that there is a possibility that half of them will exhibit some
deteriorations in the structure at the age range of one to 10 years. However,
more data will make the analysis more representative. Another relevant issue
is the trend of bad practice by the coach building industry which is strongly
evidenced by the utilisation of sub-standard material (iron instead of steel) with
high impurities and unqualified for bus structure use, as the case was in Kuala
Kangsar road crash. This is a fine illustration of the shortcomings that existed
in the current practice.
Next, UNECE regulations such as R80, R66 and R36 are noted to primarily
focus on the construction guidelines and test methodology of commercial
passenger vehicles. The regulations do not address any system of assurance of
service life. Thus, there could be a misperception by the coach building industry
of these regulations, which obviously does not correlate with compliance and
service life. Perhaps, technical incompetency of the industry may need to be
addressed.
Lastly, the issues of legislation and regulation on HCPVs construction and

operation should be given due attention to commensurate the national road
safety target of reducing road accident fatality number. Issues that need to be
addressed urgently in relation to the service life would be as follows.
• Bus or fleet retirement decisions and the average retirement age of

Malaysian HCPVs.
• Magnitude of practice of service classification downgrade or conversion

options in Malaysia, in which an appropriate policy may be required to
define operating and travel distance, maximum service period, etc.
• Proper provision or regulation which may offer alternatives for refurbishment

or service life extension with appropriate inspection and verification of the
vehicle structure and overhaul procedure.
• Establishment of design or manufacture regulations that may have potential

impacts to service life.
33
• Establishment of service life policy for HCPVs.
• Procurement system and policy to facilitate replacement or refurbishment

exercise, if needed. This may and will temporarily prolong the service life
in view of the structural integrity but most probably not economically
viable to practice, once the design life span is reached.
7.0 Conclusion
It is apparent that the road transport industry is short of appropriate expertise in

implementing systematic practices such as optimisation system in its operation.
This is reflected, for instance, in the continual existence and utilisation of old
and poorly maintained vehicles in the transport fleet. On top of that, this
disadvantage may translate into poor economic decision in the long run and
may consequently affect the fleet operation efficiency and effectiveness in
providing a reliable service.
Next, service life and structural integrity are critical in road transport industry.
However, it is noted that these elements are not given serious attention by
the coach building industry. The revelation of poor and severely corroded
structures in a number of road crashes certainly implied the bad practices.
These crashes also exposed poor anti rust effort which lasted less than 12 years.
In general, HCPVs operators have to overcome issues and challenges from

various perspectives such as financial and technical including expertise and
capabilities. They have to identify the points where compromises in reliability,
service quality and safety are no longer acceptable to the public. Furthermore,
legislation and regulation on service life is highly necessary to guide the effort
and improvement initiatives. Lastly, to continually improve the road transport
safety, some recommendations are proposed.
34
8.0 Recommendations
• Technical knowledge is the key for the fleet operators; a knowledgeable

society is the way forward.
• Set and enforce the maximum service life period, to scrap and dispose
bus exceeding 20 years of age in a systematic way. To achieve this, proper
national road map establishment is necessary for the enforcement agency
and industry. There is a need to set up a proper design and mechanism
which could be utilised as guide or regulation for the industry.
• To set a proper mechanism and system to ensure a safe design for desired
service life of a minimum of 12 years or 800,000 km travelled.
• To set policy and rules to facilitate procurement for replacement or

refurbishment exercise.
• To undergo a full inspection and assessment of roadworthiness,

crashworthiness, etc upon reaching a pre-defined age (for instance 12
years).
• To downgrade the use when reaching a pre-defined age, and after a major
overhaul–for instance, limited to short distance trip, urban use, lowland
area, etc.
• Overhaul refers to a total refurbishment of a vehicle which may include

total structural inspection and test for crack. The structure has to be
completely free of rust or any sign of corrosion. Major component such
as engine, transmission and brake has to be rebuilt and physically tested.
All these works have to be verified and certified by a Competent Person
to ensure the vehicle roadworthiness and crashworthiness before being
allowed on the road.
• To encourage the industry to optimise their operation with respect to

various operational aspects in a systematic and scientific way.
• To ensure no structural damage or weakening due to corrosion, rust,

fatigue, or sub-standard material and repair works throughout their
operational lifespan.
35
References
Anilovich, I & Hakkert, AS (1996), Survey of vehicle emissions in Israel related

to vehicle age and periodic inspection, Science of the Total Environment, 189–
190: 197–203.
Clark, NN, Wayne, WS, Nine, RD, Buffamonte, T, Hall, T, Rapp, BL,
Thompson, G & Lyons, DW (2003), Emissions from diesel-fueled heavy duty
vehicles in Southern California, SAE International Technical Papers.
Diesel Engine Exhaust Emissions (1999), Health and safety executive publications,
UK.
Fathy El-Sayed A. Al-Tony & Sherif Younis Tawfik (2001), Examining the ideal
level of use for replacement of heavy goods vehicle for Middle and West Delta Mills
Company, SAE International Technical Papers.
Gruenberg, S, Blough, JR, Kowalski, D & Pistana, JM (2001), The effects of

natural aging on fleet and durability vehicle engine mount from a dynamic
characterization perspective, SAE International Technical Papers.
Guideline for heavy bus service life extensions (2005), Queensland Government,
VSA 10.11/05.
Guideline for public passenger vehicle type, age and use standard (2005), Queensland
Government, VSA 11.11/05.
Laver, R, Schneck, D, Skorupski, D, Brady, S, Cham, L & Hamilton, BA

(2007), Useful life of transit buses and vans, Federal Transit Administration,
US DOT.
Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS) (2008), Crash investigation

database.
Malaysia Motor Vehicles (Construction And Use) (Amendment) Rules 2007
Malaysia Road Transport Act (1987).
36
Performance report (2002), Bus maintenance, NSW Audit Office.
Simms, BW, Lammarre, BG, Jardine, AKS & Boudreau, A (1984), Optimal
buy, operate and sell policies for fleets of vehicles, Boudreau European Journal
of Operational Research, 15(2): 183–195.
Smith, TR, Kersey, VL & Bidwell, TR (2001), The effect of engine age, engine
oil age and drain interval on vehicle tailpipe emissions and fuel efficiency, SAE
International Technical Papers.
Utusan Malaysia (2008), 1,314 permit bas tambahan diluluskan, 18 September.
37
Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research
Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH
Tel +603 8924 9200 Fax +603 8733 2005
Website www.miros.gov.my Email dg@miros.gov.my
Designed by: Publications Unit, MIROS

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MRev 01/2012

MIROS Review Report

Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life

Heavy Commercial Passenger Vehicle Service Life

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH

Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS)

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Heavy commercial passenger vehicle service life in Malaysia /

For citation purposes

Printed by: Publications Unit, MIROS

Typeface : Goudy Old Style

2.0 Issues and Deficiencies of Old Commercial Vehicle 2

3.0 Optimal Operation with Respect to Service Life 8

4.0 Regulation and Current Practice 12

5.0 Findings from Malaysian Crashes 17

5.1.3 Kuala Kangsar 26

6.0 General Discussion 32

Table 1 Vehicle condition rating system 7

A recurring problem of road crashes and multiple injuries and fatalities

Literature reviews of HCPVs’ operation and maintenance, structural safety

As a developing nation, Malaysia is moving relatively fast in terms of growth

In-depth analyses on numerous heavy commercial passenger vehicles (HCPVs)

The present study attempts to establish possible relationships between years

2.0 Issues and Deficiencies of Old Commercial

It is apparent in the transportation sector that as vehicles aged, numerous

2.1 Vehicle quality

Quality of vehicles in providing comfortable and decent rides is one of the

2.1.1 Noise and vibration

When the vehicle is in operation, the increased magnitude of noise and

2.1.2 Operation reliability

Accumulation of service age obviously will translate into decrease reliability,

2.2 Operating cost

It is known that a good maintenance management and practice could extend

Percent of operating cost due to petroleum

Caused by petroleum Caused by parts and labour

2.2.2 Fuel consumption

2.3 Engine emission

Aged engine has a high tendency to produce emission problem. A study by

2.4 Structural integrity

Table 1 Vehicle condition rating system (Source: Laver et al. 2007)

Rating Condition Description

5.0 Excellent No visible defects, near new condition

4.0 Good Some (slightly) defective or deteriorated component(s)

3.0 Adequte Moderately defective or deteriorated component(s)

2.0 Fair Defective or deteriorated(s) in need replacement

1.0 Poor Critically damaged component(s) or in need of immediate

3.0 Optimal Operation with Respect to

3.1 Operation in higher mileage

3.2 Operating strategy

Figure 4 Annual utilisation by age (Source:

3.3 Operational cost and service reliability

Increased operational cost is synonymous with aged vehicles. As vehicle

3.4 Requirement for large number of buses

3.5 Mixed utilisation of old and new buses

4.0 Regulation and Current Practice

Manufacturing of vehicles in Malaysia is guided by the Road Transport Act

4.1 Malaysia's regulation

Procedurally, before construction takes place, HCPVs technical drawings

4.2 Vehicle design with respect to service life

Currently in Malaysia, there is no requirement of HCPVs service life period