Lesson 3

DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS

Introduction
Good tests do not happen overnight. In order to assure the test quality, a
teacher has to prepare the test at least two weeks before the scheduled
examination.

A teacher who wants to make high quality assessment tool should be

familiar with the step-by-step procedures in writing tests. He or she has to be
skilled in writing test objectives to clarify the learning targets; and in choosing and
developing different assessment methods in order to achieve its appropriateness
with the learning targets.

This lesson will introduce to you the nature of teacher-made tests and give
you the bird’s eye view of the whole process of developing tests. The succeeding
two lessons, namely Lessons 4 and 5, will discuss elaborately the development of
different item formats to match the learning targets that you want to assess.

bjectives

After completing this lesson, you are expected to:

 enumerate the steps in constructing teacher made tests;

 describe the advantages and disadvantages of objective tests and essay tests;
 construct Table of Specification (TOS) for an achievement test;
 write test objectives under the cognitive domain; and
 translate lesson objectives to test questions.
TEACHER-MADE TESTS

Teacher-made tests are the ones prepared by classroom teachers and generally
refereed to as paper-and-pencil tests. These tests usually focused on assessing the
cognitive aspects of student learning. These are the type of tests that teachers employ to
measure achievement in the form of quizzes, unit test or periodical examinations.

Two Types of Teacher-Made Tests

Most teacher-made tests fall into two categories: objective tests and essay tests.

Objective tests require the student to supply a specific and brief answer, usually
one or two words; essay tests require the student to organize and express an answer in his
or her own words and do not restrict the student to a list of responses. Objective tests
require only one possible correct answer while essay tests may have several correct
responses.

An essay test usually consists of a few questions, each requiring a lengthy answer.
An objective test consists of many questions, each taking little time to answer. Content
validity and reliability are likely to be observable in objective tests. Essay tests provide
an opportunity for high-level thinking skills while most objective tests emphasize low-
level thinking or memorization. The quality of an objective test depends primarily on the
skill of the test writer, while the quality of essay test depends mainly on the skill of the
person grading the test (Ornstein, 1990).

1. Essay tests
a. Restricted type
b. Extended type
2. Objective tests
 Recall type
a. Simple recall
b. Completion
 Recognition type
a. Alternative Response/Binary Test
b. Multiple Choice
c. Matching Type
d. Rearrangement
e. Analogy
f. Identification
 The summary of relative advantages and disadvantages of objective and essay
tests is presented below.

Objective Tests Essay Tests

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to correct  Difficult to  Easy to  Low validity
or score construct construct  Low reliability
 Eliminates  Encourages  Economical  Low usability
subjectivity cheating and  Trains the core  Encourages
 Adequate guessing of organizing, bluffing
sampling  Expensive expressing and  Difficult to correct
 Objectivity in  Encourages reasoning or score
scoring rote power  Disadvantageous
 Eliminates memorization  Minimize for students with
bluffing  Time guessing poor penmanship
 Norms can be consuming  Develops
established critical thinking
 Saves time and  Minimizes
energy in cheating and
answering memorizing
questions  Develops good
study habits

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING TEACHER-MADE TEST

Test construction does not only involve writing the test items, give to students
and score the papers. It requires several procedures that require reflective and creative
thinking to ensure quality assessment. The following are the general steps in
constructing teacher-made tests.

Step 1. Planning the test Step 6. Evaluating the test

Step 2. Preparing the test Step 7. Interpreting test results
Step 3. Reproducing the test
Step 4. Administering the test
Step 5. Scoring the test
STEP 1. PLANNING THE TEST

In planning the test, these are the things to be considered:

 Purpose of the test

 Objectives of the particular subject
 Availability of facilities and equipment
 Nature of students/ condition under which the test is to be administered
 Length and time of the test
 Preparing Table of Specification (TOS) or Test Blueprint

a. Writing the Test Objectives

Teachers who are already in the service for years may already have an item bank
which may be an accumulation of the tests already made in the past. The item bank is a
great help for them because it can be a direct source of items for the test. However, for a
beginner test writer like you, it is always important that you consider the objectives of
each lesson included in the test. From the list of objectives of each lesson, you will be
able to make Table of Specification (TOS) more easily.

The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives offers six levels of

thinking skills which you may use as pattern in writing the objectives of each lesson.
Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of thinking skills organized by level of complexity.
It gives teachers and students an opportunity to learn and practice a range of thinking and
provides a simple structure for many different kinds of questions and thinking (Pohl,
2000).

The six levels are categorized into two: lower order thinking skills (LOTS)
namely, remembering, understanding and applying; and higher order thinking skills
(HOTS) which include analyzing, evaluating and creating (Pohl, 2000).

The LOTS begin with :

1. Remembering which requires the learners to recall information. LOTS makes use of
the behavioral verbs like recognize, list, describe, retrieve, name and find.

2. Understanding entails explaining ideas or concepts; thus, making use of the

behavioral
verbs such as interpret, summarize, paraphrase, classify and explain.
3. Applying means using information in another familiar situation which is exemplified
by the behavioral verbs like implement, carry out, use and execute.

The HOTS, on the other hand, start with;

4. Analyzing which means breaking information into parts to explore understandings

and relationships. It uses behavioral verbs like compare, organize, deconstruct,
interrogate and find.

5. Evaluating means justifying a decision or course of action which is expressed

through behavioral verbs like check, hypothesize, critique, experiment and judge.

6. Creating means generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things which is
illustrated by the behavioral verbs like design, construct, plan, produce and invent.

Summarized below are the behavioral objectives under each level of thinking
skills.

Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating

tell explain solve analyze judge create

list interpret show distinguish select invent
describe outline use examine choose decide compose
relate discuss illustrate compare justify debate predict
locate distinguish construct contrast verify plan
write predict complete investigate argue construct
find restate examine categorize recommend design
state translate classify identify assess imagine
name compare choose explain discuss propose
identify describe interpret separate rate devise
label relate make advertise prioritize formulate
recall paraphrase put take apart determine combine
define convert together differentiate critique hypothesize
match demonstrate change subdivide evaluate originate
reproduce visualize apply deduce criticize add to
memorize produce weigh, value forecast
draw translate estimate
select calculate defend
recite manipulate
modify
 From time to time, we keep to consulting on this list of behavioral objectives
especially when we are writing the objectives of the lessons we teach. This gives us
assurance that we are on the right track when it comes to the development of cognitive
domain. This also helps us develop different levels of thinking skills. In this way, our
tendency to make objectives that are mostly under LOTS will be prevented.

Sample Test Objectives

Lesson/Topic: Volcanoes and Earthquakes***

*** The K-12 curriculum makes use of spiral progression in the concept development of
each lesson. Meaning, the topics on Volcanoes and Earthquakes are discussed from Grade 6
up to Grade 10, from simplest to complex concepts, with additional information and complexity
as the grade level progresses.

Assessment is aimed at helping students learn more and perform well in relation to the
learning standards. Learning standards are concise, written descriptions of what students are
expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education.Learning standards
comprises the a) content standard, b) process standard and c) learning competencies. Each
lesson has content and process standards and learning competencies.

Content standards identify and set the essential knowledge and understanding that the
learners should know. It answers the question, “What should the learners know?”

Process standards, on the other hand, describe the abilities and skills that learners
are expected to demonstrate in relation to the content standards and integration of 21st-
century skills. It answers the following questions: 1. "What can learners do with what they
know?"; 2. "How well must learners do their work?"; 3 "How well do learners use their
learning or understanding in different situations?"; 4. "How do learners apply their
learning or understanding in real-life contexts?“; and 5. "What tools and measures should
learners use to demonstrate what they know?"

Learning competencies refer to the knowledge, understanding, skills, and attitudes that
students need to demonstrate in every lesson and/ or learning activity.
Here are examples of behavioral objectives under each level.

Remembering (3 items, 1-3)

1. identify a volcano
2. give the different parts of a volcano
3. recall the different types of volcano

Understanding (3 items, 4-6)

4. explain the reason why volcanoes erupt
5. classify a given volcano
6. interpret an intensity in the Richter Scale

Applying (3 items, 7-9)

7. use the safety measures during eruption of volcanoes
8. apply the concept of rescuing during earthquakes
9. complete the given characteristics of a dormant volcano

Analyzing (11 items, 10- 20)

10-16 analyze the given events according to the intensity of earthquake
17-20 identify the types of volcanoes based on characteristics

Evaluating (7 items, 21-26)

21. choose the best action to do during earthquakes
22. choose the best action to do during volcanic eruption
23. evaluate the importance of readiness during natural calamities
24-26. decide which is the most appropriate action to take during volcanic
eruption

Creating (3 items, 27-30)

27-30. predict the future events given the situations

b. Preparing the Table of Specification

The Table of Specification (TOS) or test blueprint guides the item writer in
writing the test. It ensures content validity and the alignment of objectives with the items
in the test.
 For elementary tests, the 60-30-10 principle, meaning 60 easy, 30 moderate and
10 difficult questions, is followed. However, it would be more convenient if the levels of
thinking skills will be used in specifying the items in the test. In the first place, these
levels were considered in writing test objectives, therefore, it is deemed appropriate to
use them again in ascertaining whether the objectives are achieved or not. If test
objectives are already done, it is easier to construct TOS because you will just filter out
the number of objectives to be included in the test and from which you will base your
questions on.

As a guide, we may consider the idea of creating more LOTS for younger pupils
and more HOTS for older ones. In the following example, the percentage of items for
elementary is 70-30, meaning 70% LOTS and 30% HOTS.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT A TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS (TOS)?

First, decide for the number of items to be included in the test. You may also
consider the time allotment and the coverage of the test. For example, you have decided
to create a 30-item test which covers three chapters.

Next, you have to divide 30 by the percentage you will allot for LOTS and HOTS.
If you are preparing elementary tests using the 70-30 principle, you have to:
a. Multiply 30 by 0.70 = 21 items. Distribute 21 items among remembering (R),
(U) understanding and (Ap) applying. For instance, you have allotted 11, 7
and 3, for R,U and Ap, respectively.
b. Under R, distribute 11 items among 3 chapters, considering the coverage or
scope of each chapter. In the example, the number of asterisks marks the
coverage of each chapter; the more asterisks the broader the coverage. For
instance, the 11 items that will assess remembering is distributed to Chapter 1
(4 items), Chapter 2 (6 items) and Chapter 3 (1 item). Do the same procedure
in distributing number of items for U and Ap.
c. Next, multiply 30 by 0.30 = 9 items. Distribute the 9 items under Analyzing
(An), Evaluating (E) and Creating (C). For example, you have equally divided
the 9 items among the three levels, giving you 3, 3 and 3. Distribute the items
based on the coverage of each chapter. Similarly, distribute the items to each
chapter coverage. In the example, 1 item is assigned to each chapter.
d. Sum up the number of items under each level of thinking skills. This will give
you the number of items under each level.
e. Sum up the number of items across each chapter. This will give you the
number of items under each chapter.
 f. Get the percentage of items per chapter by simply dividing the number of
items by 30.
g. For the item placement, decide where in the test the items will be placed. As
a general rule, easy items should come first . Using the Revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy, easier items are the lower-order thinking skills.

The sample TOS below follows 70-30 principle. The asterisks indicate that Chapter 2 has
the broadest coverage, followed by Chapter 1; and Chapter 3 has the shortest coverage.

Levels of Thinking Skills Total % of

Contents no. of items
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create items
Chapter 1 ** 4 2 1 1 1 1 10 33.33
Chapter 2 *** 6 4 1 1 1 1 14 46.67
Chapter 3 * 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 20.00
Item placement 1-11 12-18 19-21 22-24 25-27 28-30

Number of 11 7 3 3 3 3 30
items
% of items 70% 30% 100%

Another example of a TOS below consists of 30 items and intended for high school
students. It follows the principle of 30-70, which gives 30% LOTS and 70% HOTS. This
puts more emphasis on the development of higher order thinking skills among high
school learners.

Levels of Thinking Skills Total % of

Contents Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create no. of items
items
Chapter 1 ** 1 1 1 4 2 1 10 33.33
Chapter 2 *** 1 1 1 5 4 1 13 43.33
Chapter 3* 1 1 1 2 1 1 7 23.33
Item 1-3 4-6 7-9 10-20 21-27 28-30
Placement
Number of 3 3 3 11 7 3 30
items
% of items 30% 70% 100%
 If the objectives of the lessons are already available, the planning for the number of
test items for each level will be easier. Once the TOS is prepared, the teacher is now
ready to write the items for the test.

b. Translating Objectives into Questions

After the test objectives and TOS are prepared, we will now translate the
objectives into questions. This ensures appropriate match of questions with the objectives
set. As Pohl (2000) stressed out that questions should be used purposefully to achieve
well-defined goals. He categorized questions into two levels: lower level and higher level.
Lower level questions are those at the remembering, understanding and lower
level application of the taxonomy. Usually questions at the lower levels are appropriate
for:
Evaluating students’ preparation and comprehension
Diagnosing students’ strengths and weaknesses
Reviewing and/or summarizing content

Higher level questions, on the other hand, are those requiring complex application,
analysis, evaluation or creation skills. Questions at higher levels of the taxonomy are
usually most appropriate for:

Encouraging students to think more deeply and critically

Problem solving
Encouraging discussions
Stimulating students to seek information on their own
 On the table that follows are the sample questions under the two levels. You may
use these as pattern in phrasing your test questions:

Lower Level Questions

Remembering Understanding Applying
- What happened after...? - Can you explain why…? - Do you know of another
- How many...? - Can you write in your own instance where…?
- What is...? words? - Can you group by
- Who was it that...? - How would you explain…? characteristics such as…?
- Can you name ...? - Can you write a brief outline...? - Which factors would you
- Find the definition of… -What do you think could have change if…?
- Describe what happened happened next...? - What questions would you
after… -Who do you think...? ask of…?
- Who spoke to...? -What was the main idea...? - From the information given,
- Which is true or false...? - Can you clarify…? can you develop a set
- Can you illustrate…? of instructions about…?
- Does everyone act in the way
that …….. does?

Higher Level Questions

Analyzing Evaluating Creating
- Which events could not - Is there a better solution to...? - Can you design a...to...?
have happened? - Judge the value of... What do - Can you see a possible
-If. ..happened, what might you think about...? solution to...?
the ending have been? - Can you defend your position - If you had access to all
- How is...similar to...? about...? resources, how would
- What do you see as other - Do you think...is a good or bad you deal with...?
possible outcomes? thing? - Why don't you devise your
- Why did...changes occur? - How would you have own way to...?
- Can you explain what must handled...? - What would happen if ...?
have happened when...? - What changes to..would you - How many ways can you...?
- What are some or the recommend? - Can you create new and
problems of...? - Do you believe...? How would unusual uses for...?
- Can you distinguish you feel if. ..? - Can you develop a proposal
between...? - How effective are. ..? which would...?
- What were some of the - What are the consequences..?
motives behind..? - What influence will....have on
- What was the turning our lives?
point? - What are the pros and cons
- What was the problem of....?
with...? - Why is ....of value?
 Now that you have already read the sample questions under the different levels of
thinking skills, we can now write the questions for the objectives we made previously for
the topic “Volcanoes and Earthquakes”.

OBJECTIVES SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Remembering (3 items, 1-3)

1. identify a volcano 1. Which of these describes a volcano?

2. give the different parts of a volcano 2. What do you call the part of volcano
where magma flows out?
3. recall the different types of volcano 3. Which volcano erupts continuously?

Understanding (3 items, 4-6)

4. explain the reason why volcanoes 4. Why do you think volcanoes erupt?
erupt

5. classify a given volcano 5. What do you call the volcano which no

longer erupts?
6. interpret an intensity in the Richter 6. If the earthquake is too weak and cannot be
Scale felt by people, what intensity is that in the
Richter Scale?

Applying (3 items, 7-9)

7. use the safety measures during 7. Which of the following should be the first
eruption of volcanoes thing to do during eruption of volcano?

8. apply the concept of rescuing during 8. How can you rescue a person who was
Earthquakes sandwiched between collapsed concrete
wall and floor?
9. complete the given characteristics of 9. The Mt. Arayat in Pampanga was found to
a dormant volcano have erupted hundreds of years ago. Is there
a possibility that it will erupt again?

Analyzing (11 items, 10- 20) For 10-16, identify the intensity of earthquake
described in each statement:

10-16 analyze the given events 10. The earthquake does not felt by people
according to the intensity of 11. The buildings collapsed. The roads
earthquake cracked. Trees fell down. The whole
cities are destroyed.
12. The walls of the houses fell down.
13. The ground shook as if a big truck had
gone past.
 14. The grounds cracked. Some buildings fell
down.
15. The earthquake was felt by lots of people.
16. The earthquake did not disturb anyone.
Some cockroaches went out of the
ground cracks.

17-20 identify the types of volcanoes For 17-20, identify the type of volcanoes
based on characteristics described.

17. Mt. Mayon continuously erupts.

18. Mt. Pinatubo erupted in 1991. It did not
show any sign of eruption until now.
19. The Punchbowl Crater in Hawaii is old
volcano and it will never erupt again.
20. Mt. Etna erupts for more than half a
million years now.

Evaluating (7 items, 21-26)

21. choose the best action to do during 21. Which is the best action to do during
earthquakes earthquake?
22. choose the best action to do during 22. Which is the best action to do during
volcanic eruption volcanic eruption?
23. evaluate the importance of readiness 23. Which is the most important value of
during natural calamities readiness during natural calamities?
24-26. decide which is the most 24-26. Decide on the appropriateness of action
appropriate action to take during taken during volcanic eruption.
volcanic eruption (sample actions/measures during
volcanic eruption)

Creating (3 items, 27-30) For 27-30, based on the observed phenomena,

predict the things that likely to happen.

27-30. predict the future events given the 27. The rain never stops from falling down the
situations whole night and day.
28. The cockroaches and rats seemed to be
disturbed and went out of their hiding
places.
29. The volcano continuously blows out heavy
smoke and the ground shakes from time to
time.
30. The earthquake shook the ground heavily.
The water in the sea seemed to dry for a while.
c. Selecting the Appropriate Item Format

According to Mehrens and Lehmann (1973), there are six factors to consider in
choosing between objective and essay tests.

1. Purpose of the test. Which do you want to measure? Critical thinking or

written expression: use essay. Broad knowledge of the subjects or results of
learning: use objective test.
2. Time. Essay is easy to prepare but needs longer time to check. Objective test
needs longer time to prepare but shorter time to check.
3. Number of students to be tested. If the class is small, say 10-15 students, the
essay test is practical. If the class is big, use objective test.
4. Typing and reproduction facilities. If typing and reproduction facilities are
limited, the teacher may be forced to use essay. Though some objective tests can
be administered by reading aloud, it is best that all objective tests be typed,
reproduced and put in front of the students so that they can respond to it at their
own pace.
5. Age of the students. Essay test must not be required to be given to younger
elementary pupils. Likewise, variety of types of objective tests is confusing to
them as well due to changing item format and different directions.
6. Teacher’s skill in writing the test. Some teacher may prefer easy-to-prepare
test formats. But according to Mehrens and Lehmann, test writing is a skill that
can be improved with practice.

Ornstein (1990) stressed that in order to write an appropriate test the teacher must
obviously know the course content. But knowledge of content is not enough. The teacher
must be able to translate the objectives of the course into test items that will distinguish
between students who know the material and who do not, and that will measure
qualitative differences (preferably in higher-order thinking) related to the course as well
as knowledge.
 In guiding you to choose the best item formats to use, here is the summary of
relative advantages of essay and objective tests over the other (Ornstein, 1990):

Reasons Objective Essay

Tests Tests
1. Provides good item pool 
2. Adequate sample of objectives and broad content 
3. Independent of writing ability (quality of handwriting, 
spelling) and verbal fluency
4. Discourages bluffing by writing or talking “around the topic” 
5. Easy and quick to score 
6. Reliable for scoring and grading 
7. Has potential diagnostic value 
8. Measures application in novel situation  
9. Calls for higher levels of cognitive thinking  
10. Measures student’s ability to select and organize ideas 
11. Easy and quick to prepare 
12. Useful to test writing ability 
13. Eliminates guessing or answering by process of elimination 
14. Useful for measuring problem-thinking skills and originality 

STEP 2. PREPARING THE TEST

 First draft should be prepared as early as possible

 Include more than one type of items
 Items should be arranged from the easiest to the most difficult
 The first and final draft should be revised and refined
 The whole content should function in determining the answer
 Items of similar type should be placed together
 Avoid pattern of answers

Tips to Become Good Item Writer

1. Know the subject matter thoroughly

2. Know and understand the pupils/students being tested
3. Be skilled in verbal expression
4. Be thoroughly familiar with various formats
5. Carefully define your instructional objectives
6. Prepare a test blueprint, keep it before you and continually refer to it as you write
the test items
 7. Formulate well-defined questions
8. Write each test item on a separate card
9. Prepare a scoring key or guide, preferably as the item is being written
10. Prepare more items than are actually needed
11. Write the test item as soon as possible after the material has been taught
12. Prepare the items well in advance to permit reviews and editing
13. Be careful when rewording a faulty item.

Putting Tests Together

After you have developed test items, they need to be put together in the form of a
test. The following guidelines should be considered:

a. Directions- test directions may include the purpose, time allowed for completing the
test, basis for responding, procedures for recording answers, what to do with guessing
and how constructed-response items will be scored. The direction should be brief, clear
and complete with the information needed by the students to properly respond to each
item format of the test.

Examples:

1. TRUE OR FALSE. On your answer sheet, write T if the statement is true or F if false.
Do not guess, right-minus-wrong scheme will be employed. (10 points)
2. MULITPLE CHOICE. On the space provided before each item write the letter of the
correct answer. Avoid erasures. Erasures will be considered incorrect. (1 point for
every correct answer = 20 points)

b. Test arrangement – arranging the items from easiest to most difficult has little effect
on the results. The most important consideration is item type. Items answered more
quickly would generally come first, and keep all items in one section of the whole test.

c. Physical layout of the test- test items should be formatted in such a way that they are
easy to read and answer. Do not crowd too many items in a single page.

STEP 3. REPRODUCING THE TEST

 Duplicating machines should be available at the school
 If machines are not available at school, refer to school authorities for possible
funding for photocopying services or if students’ payment are allowed.
STEP 4. ADMINISTERING THE TEST
 Environment should be familiar to the students
 Students should sit apart, free from books and notebooks or devise a 2-set test
 Typographical errors should be corrected before the test begins
 Give complete and clear directions before the test starts; questions about the
direction should not be entertained while the test is in progress
 Plan the distribution of test materials
 Write the time the test was started and the time it will end
 Do not allow the examinee to leave the examination room unless for personal
necessities
 Collect the test materials carefully and quickly

The following rating scale may be used to evaluate the administration of test.

Rating Scale to Evaluate the Administration of Test

Direction: Using the scale 1-5, 5 as the highest and 1 as the lowest, please rate the performance
of the test examiner by putting a check (/) under appropriate scale.

Legend: 5 = Excellent
4= Very Good
3 = Good
2 = Fair
1 = Needs Improvement

Scale 1 2 3 4 5
1. Pleasant in physical appearance
2. Speaks fluently and loudly; enough to be heard by the students
3. Administers the test in a place familiar to the students
4. Provides comfortable environment conducive to testing (checks
lights, fans, sitting arrangement, floors)
5. Arranges the students one-sit-apart and free from books and
notebooks
6. Gives complete and clear direction before the test starts
7. Corrects typographical error, if there is any, before the test begins
8. Has a systematic plan in the distribution of test materials
9. Writes on the board the time the test was started and the time it will
end
10. Does not allow the students to leave the examination room unless
for personal necessities
11. Does not entertain questions about the direction while the test is in
progress
12. Courteous in dealing with the students and the teacher
13. Collects the test materials carefully and quickly after the test
14. Leaves the room clean and orderly.

STEP 5. SCORING THE TEST

 Prepare scoring key/answer key (even for essay tests)
 Give point of credit for each correct answer
 In case correction formula is employed, such as right minus wrong, students
should be informed

STEP 6. EVALUATING THE TEST

 Item analysis
 Establish reliability of the test
 Establish validity of the test

STEP 7. INTERPRETING THE TEST RESULTS

 Criterion-referenced interpretation
 Norm-referenced interpretation