ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

ENVS1003
 Course Educational Objectives
• To develop expertise relevant to the historical context of human interactions with the
environment
• To make students aware of the concept of natural resources and their need for
protection
• To make students aware of the role of environmental legislation to protect the
environment
• To make students aware of a comprehensive knowledge of climate change and
sustainable development goals
 Course Outcomes
1. Gain insights into the international efforts to safeguard the Earth’s environment and
resources, ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation
2. Identify types of natural resources, their distribution, and use with special reference to
India
3. Discuss the factors affecting the availability of natural resources, their conservation
4. An overview of national and global efforts to address climate change adaptation and
mitigation efforts
5. Understand different approaches to assess environmental quality and associated risks
 MODULE: 1
HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT,
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: LOCAL, REGIONAL
AND GLOBAL
The man-environment interaction: Humans as hunter-gatherers; Mastery of fire;
Origin of agriculture; Emergence of city-states; Great ancient civilizations and the
environment, Indic knowledge and Culture of sustainability; Middle Ages and
Renaissance; Industrial revolution and its impact on the environment; Population
growth and natural resource exploitation; Global environmental change.
Environmental Ethics and emergence of environmentalism: Anthropocentric and
ecocentric perspectives; The Club of Rome- Limits to Growth; UN Conference on
Human Environment 1972; World Commission on Environment and Development
and the concept of sustainable development; Rio Summit and subsequent
international efforts.
 The man-environment interaction

• It refers to how humans interact with the environment to fulfill their needs (e.g.,
cutting down a tree).
• The human-environment interaction also describes how humans have adapted to
their environment for survival.
• Human social systems and environments are considered adaptive systems because
of their feedback systems and ability to support survival under changing conditions.
• Although a lot of attention is placed on the negative impacts of human-
environmental interactions (e.g., deforestation), there are also a lot
of positive human-environmental interactions (e.g., upcycling or recycling).
 The 3 Types of Human Environmental Interactions
Human-environment interactions can be categorized into three types:
1. Dependence on the Environment
To get essential resources, humans depend on the environment for survival (e.g., air,
water, food, and shelter). Humans cannot survive without some form of interaction with
the environment.
2. Modification of the Environment
Humans modify the environment to fulfill their own goals and needs. Human activities
can impact the environment in both positive and negative ways.
Humans have modified the physical environment by clearing land for agriculture or
building dams and continue to change the climate through industrialization and home
development.
3. Adaptation to the Environment
Humans can change and adapt to various environmental conditions to survive and
meet their needs. They have settled and adapted to natural settings worldwide (e.g.,
the Arctic) and created advanced systems (e.g., heating) to help them survive and
thrive.
 How Humans Can Have Positive Environmental Interactions
Not all interactions are negative. Humans can contribute to the environment by
sustaining it. Sustainability means meeting the needs of today without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Examples of positive human-environment interactions include:
 Renewable energy: solar, wind, and geothermal energy sources
 Urban green projects: planting trees and urban gardens
 Eco-tourism: purchasing carbon credits for air travel or engaging in activities
that reduce the environmental impact
 Protection of natural parks and areas: preserving areas and ecosystems
 Waste Management: recycling and composting
2. Humans as Hunter-Gatherers
 2. Humans as Hunter-Gatherers

• Hunter-gatherer culture is a subsistence lifestyle that relies on hunting, fishing, and

foraging for wild vegetation and other nutrients, like honey, for food. Until
approximately 12,000 years ago, all humans practiced hunting-gathering.
• Anthropologists have discovered evidence for the practice of hunter-
gatherer culture by modern humans (Homo sapiens) and their distant ancestors dating
as far back as two million years. Before the emergence of hunter-gatherer cultures,
earlier groups relied on scavenging animal remains that predators left behind.
• Because hunter-gatherers did not rely on agriculture, they used mobility as
a survival strategy. Indeed, the hunter-gatherer lifestyle required access to large land
areas, between seven and 500 square miles, to find the food they needed to survive.
This made establishing long-term settlements impractical, and most hunter-
gatherers were nomadic. Hunter-gatherer groups tended to range in size from
an extended family to a larger band of no more than about 100 people.
• With the beginnings of the Neolithic Revolution about 12,000 years ago, when
agricultural practices were first developed, some groups abandoned hunter-
gatherer practices to establish permanent settlements that could provide for much
larger populations. However, many hunter-gatherer behaviors persisted until modern
times. As recently as 1500 C.E., there were still hunter-gatherers in parts of Europe
and throughout the Americas. Over the last 500 years, the population of hunter-
gatherers has declined dramatically. Today very few exist, with the Hadza people of
Tanzania being one of the last groups to live in this tradition.
 3. Mastery of Fire
• Early humans figured out how to create fire. Given archaeological evidence, this
likely occurred no earlier than 700,000 years ago and no later than 120,000 years
ago. Some ancient tools required glues that could only have been made using fire.
Therefore, the presence of such tools at various archaeological sites suggests the
mastery of fire. It is worth noting that fire was not discovered once; instead, it was
discovered multiple times by early humans in various locations worldwide.

• Fire played an integral role in the evolution of our species. Intriguingly, humans are
the only animals that know how to control and create fire. Though we have used fire
for both tremendous good and profound evil, it is one key way mankind is separate
from all other species.
What is the role of fire in the hominin (human) evolution?
1. Played a major role in transforming the human diet.
2. Protection from predators, especially at night.
3. It has become socially embedded; religious significance.
4. Fires are used as tools in the technological process.
5. Creating fire allowed human activity to continue into the dark and colder
hours of the evening.
Hominin: Great apes or their ancestors. Only one species exists today—Homo
sapiens.
How does Hominin control fire?
This was a gradual process proceeding through more than one stage.
Stage 1: Change in habitat, from dense forest (where wildfires were rare but
difficult to escape) to savanna (mixed grass/woodland), where wildfires were
common but easier to survive.
Stage 2: The next stage involved interaction with burned landscapes and foraging
in the wake of wildfires.
Stage 3: Use residual hot spots that occur after wildfires.
Stage 4: Transporting it from burned to unburned areas and lighting it on fire.
Statge5: Maintaining a fire over an extended period of time, building a fire
enclosure such as a circle of stones.
Exposure to artificial light during later hours changed humans' circadian rhythms,
contributing to a longer waking day. The modern human's waking day is 16 hours,
while many mammals are only awake for half as many hours. Additionally,
humans are most awake during the early evening hours, while other primates'
days begin at dawn and end at sundown. Many of these behavioral changes can
be attributed to the control of fire and its impact on daylight extension.
4. Origin of Agriculture
 5. Emergence of City-States

A city-state is an independent sovereign city that serves as the center of political,

economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many
parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such
as Rome, Carthage, Athens, and Sparta, and the Italian city-states during the Middle
Ages and Renaissance, such as Florence, Venice, Genoa, and Milan.
Farming generated more complex societies
As settlements grew, people began to see themselves as part of communities larger than
the family, clan, or tribe. With increasing surpluses and populations, villages grew into the
first cities. Cities established the foundation for the rise of states, trade networks, and
writing

The rise of new technologies

The development of metallurgy for farming tools and weaponry helped shape the
increasingly complex societies. Soft, easy-to-work copper was the first metal used for tools
and weapons. West Asian metal craftsmen created bronze. Bronze and iron made better
tools but also more deadly weapons.
Urbanization and the First Cities
Settled life with increasing population.

Catal Huyuk grew into prosperous towns, centers of long-distance trade, and then cities-
Central Turkey, mud-bricked buildings, plastered walls, bakery, brewery, greater wealth and
size allowed cities to control adjacent farmlands that provided surplus needed to sustain
city dwellers. As farming became more efficient, urbanization became the next great
transition in human social organization, fostering networks of communication and trade.
Çatalhöyük (Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük) from Turkish çatal "fork"
+ höyük "tumulus") is a tell (a mounded accretion due to long-term human
settlement) of a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in
southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 6400 BC and
flourished around 7000 BC. In July 2012, it was inscribed as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
The Rise of States, Economies, and Record-Keeping
The need to control surplus-producing farmlands and to govern urban populations created
the first governments. Diverse urban societies generated enough wealth to permit
substantial division of labor, and social, cultural, and religious hierarchies and cities became
extensive trade networks. Increased trade created the need for record-keeping, which led to
the development of writing literacy usually reserved for the privileged.
The Rise of Pastoral Nomadism
PN is an economy based on breeding, rearing, and harvesting livestock. Trade and conflict
between farmers and herders became common, and some PN exercised a strong influence
on societies with much greater populations. Some pastoral societies maintained egalitarian
social structures-women warriors, others headed by chiefs.
Indo-European- various tribes who all spoke related languages deriving from the original
common tongue and who eventually settled in Europe, Iran, and Northern India spread
their language and culture, imposed military power profound changes across Eurasia
 6. Great ancient civilization and the environment

A civilization refers to a group of sovereign places united by a common culture. There

are the 7 Greatest Ancient civilizations.
Sumerian Civilization (4500 – 1900 BC)

A painting depicting an ancient Sumerian ruler on his way to fight a war with
his band of army men
The Sumerian civilization is one of the greatest ancient civilizations.
1) It was the first civilization (that we know of) and 2) because the Sumerian civilization
left a massive impact on the religion and cultural thought of the world in a way that
no other civilization has since.
The ancient Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia, located in modern-day Iraq. Because of
its location near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the Sumerians could forgo the hunting
and gathering lifestyle and begin farming, which later formed some of the Earth's first
cities. One such city was known as Ur and is the birthplace of the Biblical character
Abraham who is credited with founding not one but three world religions: Islam,
Judaism, and Christianity.
 Indus Valley Civilization (3300 – 1300 BC)

A bullock cart toy from the Indus Valley Civilization in a museum

This ancient civilization got its name from its location in the Indus Valley, which
comprises modern-day India and Pakistan. The Indus Valley Civilization boasted some
fantastic feats of architecture and is famous for its sophisticated sewer and water
systems. While it might seem odd today, plumbing was a real challenge for ancient
civilizations, and the systems developed here are ingenious. The Indus Valley
Civilization also developed an alphabet, and interestingly enough, their writings are
yet to be deciphered. A lot about this ancient civilization is thus locked behind these
ancient writings.
 The Egyptian Civilization (3100 – 30 BC)

Colossi of Memnon in Luxor, Valley of Kings, Egypt. These two massive stone statues
are of the Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh, Amenhotep III.
Much like the Sumerian Civilization, the ancient Egyptian Civilization found success in a
river, the Nile River to be precise. As settlers arrived in the area some 8,000 years ago,
they discovered that the Nile River floods every year, and as the waters returned to
normal, the Nile left a deposit of fertile soil perfect for crop growth. As centuries
accumulated into millennia, these small settlements became the foundation of the
Egyptian Civilization. They accomplished many impressive feats, such as complicated
writing systems, acupuncture, herbal medicines, and incredible architecture (The
Pyramids at Giza), and were the first civilization to perform surgery.
 Ancient and Early Imperial China (2070 BC-AD 220)

The famous Terracotta Army

A series of ancient sculptures of an army of men and buildings buried with the first emperor of
China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect him in his after life. The entire collection is now part of a museum.
This civilization sprouted up on the lush banks of the Yellow River Valley. Ancient
Chinese farmers first settled in this area around 5000 BC, which became the backbone of
the Ancient Chinese civilization. In addition to silk, the Chinese also brought us: the
compass, acupuncture, countless herbal medicines, and, of course, the Great Wall of
China, which is still one of the World's Wonders.
Ancient Maya Civilization (1000 BC-AD 1520)
About 9,000 years ago, the Native Americans in Mexico and Central America
began cultivating Maize, or something similar to corn. They also began growing
beans. With these activities, small communities began to be built around
farming. However, the Maya Civilization wouldn't emerge for another 6000
years. The Ancient Maya Civilization was obsessed with the night sky and built
massive and impressive observatories to watch the stars and planets. They had a
deep understanding of the night skies and tracked celestial bodies, and were
able to make predictions about the alignments and positions of planets. They
are, however, most famous for the Mayan calendar.
 The Ancient Greek Civilization (1100 BC-AD 140)

The theater of Herodion Atticus in the ruins of Acropolis, Athens, Greece

Few civilizations in history have shaped modern Western Civilization in such a
profound way as the Ancient Greek Civilization. Settlers first began farming on the
nutrient-rich soils along the Aegean Sea around 7000 BC, and it was, again, the
activity of farming that would give birth to yet another civilization. The Greek's
contributions to our modern way of life have been significant. The likes of Homer
and Hesiod paved the way for modern literature. And, of course, it was the ancient
Greeks, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, to name a few, who pioneered Western
philosophy and many other Greek thinkers who massively contributed to modern-
day math, medicine, and science. Indeed, the Ancient Greek Civilization helped to
shape the lives of all of us living in the West.
 The Ancient Roman Civilization (750 BC-AD 470)

An ancient Roman bath in the city of Bath in the United

Kingdom.
The Ancient Roman Civilization started as a small and seemingly unassuming city on
the Italian Peninsula. Legend says it was founded by twin decedents of the prince
of Troy, who fled to Italy when Troy was destroyed. While the Roman Civilization
was massively successful, what it excelled at was taking and improving upon the
ideas of others. The Romans were not the first people to build bridges, archways,
aqueducts, or roads. However, they did perfect them. The Romans were open-
minded, and as their civilization expanded into an empire, they assimilated the
culture, religions, and any ancient advancements they came across as they went.
 7. Indic knowledge and culture sustainability

Indic knowledge and culture have a rich history of sustainability practices deeply
rooted in traditional wisdom and environmental harmony. Here are some key aspects:
1. Traditional Agricultural Practices
 Crop Rotation and Mixed Cropping: These methods help maintain soil fertility and
reduce pest infestations.
 Organic Farming: Use of natural fertilizers like compost and manure instead of
chemical fertilizers.

2. Water Management
 Ancient Irrigation Systems: Techniques like the stepwells (baoris) and tanks (kunds)
have been used for centuries to manage water resources efficiently.
 Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural and
domestic use.
India`s Step Wells
3. Forest Conservation
 Sacred Groves: Certain forest areas are considered sacred and protected by local
communities, preserving biodiversity.
 Community Forest Management: Local communities manage and protect forest
resources sustainably.

4. Sustainable Architecture
 Vastu Shastra: Traditional Indian architecture principles that emphasize harmony with
nature.
 Use of Local Materials: Building with locally sourced materials like mud, bamboo, and
stone to reduce environmental impact.
5. Cultural Practices
 Festivals and Rituals: Many Indian festivals and rituals are centered
around nature and agricultural cycles, promoting environmental
awareness.
 Ayurveda: Traditional medicine system that uses natural resources
sustainably for health and wellness.
6. Knowledge Transmission
 Oral Traditions: Knowledge is passed down through generations via stories, songs,
and rituals.
 Role of Elders and Women: Elders and women play a crucial role in maintaining
and transmitting traditional knowledge.
These practices not only highlight the sustainable use of natural resources but also
emphasize the importance of community involvement and cultural values in
maintaining ecological balance.
 8. Middle ages and Renaissance
The Middle Ages and the Renaissance are two distinct periods in European history, each with its
own unique characteristics and contributions.
Middle Ages (5th to late 14th century)
 Timeframe: This period began after the fall of the Roman Empire and lasted until the
beginning of the Renaissance.
 Society: The Catholic Church was the most powerful institution, influencing all aspects of
life. Feudalism was the dominant social system, with a strict hierarchy of lords, vassals, and
fiefs.
 Culture and Art: Art and architecture were heavily centered around the Church, with styles
like Romanesque and Gothic. Cathedrals were the largest buildings in medieval towns.
 Challenges: This era faced numerous challenges, including wars, famines, and pandemics like
the Black Death.
Feudalism was a political, economic, military, legal, and cultural system prevalent in
Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. It was based on the relationship between lords
and vassals, where the lord would grant land, known as a fief, to a vassal in exchange
for military, administrative, and personal services. These services included homage,
wardship, and forfeiture. The lord would also provide protection to the vassal.
Renaissance (14th to 17th century)
 Timeframe: The Renaissance followed the Middle Ages and is often described as a period
of “rebirth” in European culture, art, politics, and economy.
 Humanism: A cultural movement called humanism emerged, emphasizing the value of
human achievements in education, classical arts, literature, and science2.
 Innovations: The invention of the Gutenberg printing press in 1450 revolutionized
communication, allowing ideas to spread more quickly2. This period also saw significant
advances in international finance and trade.
 Art and Literature: The Renaissance produced some of the greatest artists and thinkers in
history, including Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare.
The Renaissance is often credited with bridging the gap between the Middle Ages and
modern civilization, leading to significant cultural and intellectual advancements.
 9. Industrial revolution and its impact on the environment

The iron and steel industry increased and prospered. Britain imported iron from
Sweden and Russia, and production increased to 250,000 tons by 1805. The
Industrial Revolution saw an increase in chemical production. They mass-produced
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium carbonate, potash, bleaching powder, etc.

Fertility rates increased, and the population grew exponentially. The American
Industrial Revolution improved communication and banking systems. Agricultural
practices became more refined and highly productive. We made a lot of
improvements during this era, and it is reflective of our current state.

However, the industrial revolution has severe environmental impacts. This article
explores the environmental impacts of the Industrial Revolution on developed and
developing nations.
 History of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution started in England in the late 18th century and expanded into the
early 19th century. The first industrial revolution began in 1760 and ended in 1840. You can
define the Industrial Revolution as the period of evolution from human and animal labor to
machinery.
The Industrial Revolution refers to transitioning from animal and human labor to machinery,
new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, and high steam power usage.
We also got improved water energy and the development of machine tools. The first most
used machinery was the steam engine. Thomas Newcomen invented it. Its sole power source
is coal burning.
In 1776, a Scottish mechanical engineer known as James Watt improved the design of the
steam engine. His improvement changed the early textile, mines, transport, and steel
industries. We used to travel on foot or by horses and mulls, but steam engine
transportation moved faster.
These new changes brought about socio-economic growth in England. Inventors and
businessmen created new industries. We stopped weaving fabric with our hands
because the Industrial Revolution provided cloth-making machines.
England experienced a slow economic development through capitalism. It became the
wealthiest country in the world in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
The Industrial Revolution led to many social, cultural, political, and geopolitical
changes. The father of economics, Adam Smith, published the Wealth of Nations in
1776. England had extensive availability of water and coal to power factories and iron
ore to build machines and buildings.
Rich people invested enormous amounts in new inventions in the manufacturing
industries. England even developed a banking system to make investment possible.
This rapid growth created massive job opportunities for the British people.
 Environmental Impact of Industrialization

Although industrialization has benefited the world’s economy, we can’t ignore its
environmental degradation. Here are some of the environmental effects of the
Industrial Revolution on the environment:

1. Air pollution
The Industrial Revolution began because of the rise of mass production. The need for
mass production led to the invention of machinery fueled by energy converted from
various natural resources. We found a way to convert burning coal into energy to power
a steam engine.
The introduction of steam engines led to the constant coal burning, which produced
black smoke in the air. It constantly pollutes the air, and citizens avoid industrial areas as
the air is too thick and dangerous to inhale.
As the industrial revolution grew, we figured out more ways to use other types of fossil
fuel to power ships, trains, and other industrial machinery. However, human activities that
involve burning fossil fuels release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gas emissions are chemical compounds that cause health and environmental
damage. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.
The unending demand for mass production caused by the rapid population growth
increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the air. These greenhouse gas emissions
include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases.
Scientists noticed an increase in nitrogen and carbon dioxide levels between 1750 to 1950.
However, the air pollution was around industrial regions and their surrounding areas.
Now, carbon emissions are thick in the atmosphere. London and Edinburgh were
known as the Smoke and Auld Reeki because of their terrible air quality. In 1952,
12,000 people died from the harmful air quality in London. Air pollution also affects
plants and other life forms.
Carbon emissions caused global warming, and some countries like the US, Canada,
and Norway experienced acid rain- damaging wildlife habitats. The acid rainfall of the
1980s in Europe led to a sharp decline in forest habitats. Global climate change led to
a series of human health problems and environmental damages, which we are still
experiencing today.
2. Water pollution
Another environmental impact of rapid urbanization is water pollution. Industrial
wastewater and mining activities pollute water sources (rivers, streams, groundwater,
estuaries). The United Kingdom’s water sources experienced a lot of pollution as the home
of the Industrial Revolution. Various industries release wastewater that contains harmful
compounds and chemicals.
Colored dyes and waste from the textile industry and toxic metals and plastics from the
engineering and tanneries industry pollute the water. Oil spills from mineral oil refining
and petrochemicals, animal waste processing, and food and paper mills factories also
pollute water sources.
The pollution can occur with an instant or gradual deposit of wastewater. An example is
the BOD load from a yeast factory discharged in the 1990s to the head of the estuary of
the River Forth in Scotland. The presence of these harmful chemical compounds in
water endangers the lives of marine animals.

As a result, some animals become extinct. Or they are on the verge of extinction.
Aquatic plants also experience the negative impacts of polluted water.

It is also dangerous to human health because we are susceptible to the toxins in

contaminated water, especially when we drink the contaminated water directly and
consume marine animals that ingest industrial waste. Industrial wastewater damages
the agricultural sector because the damaged water is dangerous to the plant's health.
The Mettupalayam Industrial Estate on the fringe of Puducherry contaminated
groundwater with heavy metals, salts, and fluoride effluents. Its pollution spread to
the Mettupalayam well field that holds the main wells for Puducherry’s drinking
water supply.
The increase in the use of plastics also contributes to marine pollution because we
don't have proper plastic waste channels. It causes waste throughout its lifetime,
from the point of manufacture to the post-consumer stage.
3. Soil pollution
Another significant negative impact of the industrial revolution is soil pollution. There
are a lot of studies that show that the Industrial Revolution changed the soil's
composition. The process of urbanization and human activities like using fertilizers and
pesticides, sewage irrigation, and wastewater lead to significant levels of environmental
pollution.
Industrial wastes contain chemicals like copper, zinc, lead, mercury, aluminum, and
acids that pollute the soil and its fauna. Soil pollution is dangerous because it can cause
toxicity, cancer, and gene mutations. The environmental quality drops because the basic
soil properties and compositions are changing.
In addition to the effects of industrial waste on soil, improper agricultural practices
like the wrong application of herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides further damage
the soil fauna. Apart from the manufacturers’ waste products, the waste from
product usage also has environmental impacts on the land.
Another cause of soil pollution is the mining of raw materials. Most fossil fuels we
convert to energy are from beneath the ground. Coal mines disrupt the soil fauna
ecosystem by changing the landscape pattern. It also contaminates groundwater
sources with heavy metals and toxic chemicals and causes soil erosion.
Food production reduces drastically when the soil loses water retention capabilities
and the presence of microbial activities. Food scarcity has become a problem,
especially in developed nations. Also, consuming food grown on contaminated soil
can affect animal organs like the liver, heart, skin, and kidneys.
Increased demand leads to the depletion of natural resources
Another environmental impact of the industrial revolution is the reduction of natural
resources. There are different types of natural resources in the environment. They are
mineral, energy, soil, water, and biological resources.
We started using all of them after the Second Industrial Revolution and kept using more
as the population increased demand for mass production. Most of the energy we use is
from fossil fuels and coal mining. So, the more we use them, the less they become. There
might not be any left for future generations if we don't use renewable energy for
industrial activities.
The World Bank recorded that our energy source relies on 66% of fossil fuels. The
extraction of these materials is responsible for 90% of the global water stress. The
extraction and processing of materials, fossil fuels, and food contribute to half of the
global greenhouse gas emissions. Population growth increased greenhouse gas
emissions, heralding global warming.
There's also the scarcity of raw materials because of the environmental damage
caused by industrial pollution (i.e., climate change and global warming). An example of
this is water resources. Industrial pollution contaminates water sources, making it
harmful for drinking. It causes water scarcity in a region.
The natural disasters caused by climate change can also lead to the depletion of our
resources. For instance, drought causes water scarcity. If we don't cut back on our
industrialization rates, global material use could double to 190 billion tonnes (from 92
billion), while greenhouse gas emissions could increase by 43% by 2060.
5. Climate change
Climate change refers to climate alterations caused by human activities, i.e., the
Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanization. Industrial revolution causes global
temperatures to rise because of the high demand for fossil fuels and other natural
resources that produce global emissions. The released greenhouse gases trap heat in
the atmosphere, slowly increasing global warming. It alters the state of the global
climate, and weather patterns start fluctuating. Every industry created during the
industrial revolution contributes to global emissions.
Climate change increases drought. It changes the water composition of a region,
making it scarce. It is drier in developing countries that are already experiencing water
scarcity problems. The long-lasting droughts lead to low success rates in our
agricultural practices. It also increases the vulnerability of the ecosystems, making
them more susceptible to damage.
Global warming also causes severe storms. Frozen regions start melting, increasing
the water quantity in the environment. It can lead to extreme rainfall and flooding
because water evaporation is high. Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons start
destroying the environment.
The extreme weather patterns lead to food and habitat loss for animals and humans.
It also leads to the loss of many species. Forest wildfires are a consequence of climate
change. Wildfires in the western United States increased between 1984 and 2015. In
California, the burned areas increased five times between 1972 and 2018.
Loss of human structures and properties plunges millions into poverty. It will force us
to direct all our economic resources toward saving the environment and the dying
economy.
6. Habitat destruction
Throughout the centuries, the Industrial Revolution has destroyed animal habitats.
This, with other human activities, led to the extinction of 869 species in the last five
hundred years, according to IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature).
We destroy their habitats with deforestation to make space for our human structures
and activities. However, the lack of habitat puts these animals in danger. It is why
many animal species are extinct or on the verge of extinction. A new study shows
that the Industrial Revolution also had an environmental impact on marine life. We
disrupt the marine environment with our ships, mining, and overfishing. It is causing
a reduction in the species of marine animals.
Unethical labor
Unethical labor was around during the early years of the Industrial Revolution, the
1800s. It includes child labor, improper treatment of factory workers, and enslavement
of human labor. With the rapid economic growth, children under 14 had to work in the
agriculture and mining industries. Children had to work because their parents were
underpaid. They did not have enough to survive. Over 20,000 children die from work-
related hazards and stress.
Conclusion: Environmental Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Although we gained tremendous benefits and opportunities from the industrial

revolution, we cannot ignore its destruction of the planet. The Industrial Revolution is
responsible for much of the environmental pollution we experience. Burning fossil fuels
result in the constant production of carbon dioxide (a form of natural gas), causing global
warming, which leads to a cascade of natural disasters.
Governments must set strict environmental regulations to reduce the effects of the
industrial revolution. These regulations should focus on renewable energy and proper
waste management. We should also make our activities greener to protect the planet.
May we all continuously move forward with sustainable development in our minds.
 10. Population growth and natural resource exploitation
Throughout history, and especially during the twentieth century, environmental
degradation has primarily been a product of our efforts to secure improved standards of
food, clothing, shelter, comfort, and recreation for growing numbers of people. The
magnitude of the threat to the ecosystem is linked to human population size and
resource use per person. Resource use, waste production, and environmental
degradation are accelerated by population growth. They are further exacerbated by
consumption habits, certain technological developments, and particular patterns of
social organization and resource management.
As human numbers further increase, the potential for irreversible changes of far
reaching magnitude also increases. Indicators of severe environmental stress include the
growing loss of biodiversity, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing
deforestation worldwide, stratospheric ozone depletion, acid rain, loss of topsoil, and
shortages of water, food, and fuel-wood in many parts of the world.
While both developed and developing countries have contributed to global
environmental problems, developed countries, with 85% percent of the gross world
production and 23% of their population, account for the largest part of mineral and
fossil-fuel consumption, resulting in significant environmental impacts. With current
technologies, present levels of consumption by the developed world will likely lead to
serious negative consequences for all countries. This is especially apparent with the
increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and trace gases that have accompanied
industrialization, which have the potential for changing global climate and raising sea
level.
In rich and poor countries, local environmental problems arise from direct pollution from
energy use and other industrial activities, inappropriate agricultural practices,
population concentration, inadequate environmental management, and lack of attention
to environmental goals. When current economic production has been the overriding
priority and inadequate attention has been given to environmental protection, local
environmental damage has led to serious negative impacts on health and major
impediments to future economic growth. Restoring the environment, even where still
possible, is far more expensive and time- consuming than managing it wisely in the first
place; even rich countries have difficulty in affording extensive environmental
remediation efforts.
The relationships between human population, economic development, and the
natural environment are complex. Examination of local and regional case studies
reveals the influence and interaction of many variables. For example, environmental
and economic impacts vary with population composition and distribution, and with
rural-urban and international migrations. Furthermore, poverty and lack of economic
opportunities stimulate faster population growth and increase incentives for
environmental degradation by encouraging the exploitation of marginal resources.
Both developed, and developing countries face a great dilemma in reorienting their
productive activities towards more harmonious interaction with nature. This challenge
is accentuated by the uneven stages of development. If all people of the world
consumed fossil fuels and other natural resources at the rate now characteristic of
developed countries (and with current technologies), this would greatly intensify our
already unsustainable demands on the biosphere. Yet development is a legitimate
expectation of less developed and transitional countries.
THE EARTH IS FINITE
The growth of population over the last half century was for a time matched by similar
world-wide increases in utilizable resources. However, in the last decade food production
from both land and sea has declined relative to population growth. The area of
agricultural land has shrunk, both through soil erosion and reduced possibilities of
irrigation. The availability of water is already a constraint in some countries. These are
warnings that the earth is finite, and that natural systems are being pushed ever closer
to their limits.
QUALITY OF LIFE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Our common goal is improving the quality of life for all people, those living today and
succeeding generations, ensuring their social, economic, and personal well-being with a
guarantee of fundamental human rights; and allowing them to live harmoniously with a
protected environment. We believe that this goal can be achieved, provided we are
willing to undertake the requisite social change. Given time, political will, and intelligent
use of science and technology, human ingenuity can remove many constraints on
improving human welfare worldwide, finding substitutes for wasteful practices, and
protecting the natural environment.
 11. Global environmental change
Global environmental change is the alterations in the planet’s climate, ecosystems and
geology either naturally or driven by humans. The human activities like deforestation,
pollution, use of fossil fuel, chemicals etc. have increased multifold and linked to the
environmental changes. These alternations in the environment signal the possible
challenges like global temperature rise, sea-level rise, and biodiversity loss which
ultimately impacts both natural and human systems locally and globally. Understanding
the causes and effects of such transformations in the environment is vital in developing
strategies to minimize or mitigate and to adapt the inevitable impacts on human lives and
the environment.
What is global environmental change?
Refers to significant change in the global environment that can impact on the capacity of the
Earth to support the life system on it. These changes could be natural or human-induced affecting
the land, air, water and ecosystems. The scope of global environmental change is very vast in
multi-dimensions including climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, water scarcity,
and pollution.
Historical Perspective on Global Environmental Change:
A traceback to the historical perspective of global environmental change reveals how both natural
processes and human activities have reshaped the environment over the millennia. Each period,
starting from the Ice Ages to the Industrial Revolution, impacted the environment. Significant
environmental changes at global level have been documented starting from the natural shifts
in climate to the recent human-induced alterations. For example, around 10,000 years ago, the
introduction of agricultural practices led to deforestation and caused land-use changes, marking
the early signs of human influence on the environment.
Industrial Revolution:
A transformative moment in history, the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in
human impact on global environmental change. The massive increase in fossil fuel
combustion for energy led to unprecedented levels of air pollution and the beginning of
significant changes in the atmosphere’s composition, contributing to climate change.
Anthropocene: Many scientists argue that we have entered a new geological epoch termed
the Anthropocene, due to the significant global environmental impacts caused by human
activities. This term highlights how humans have become a key force in shaping the Earth’s
processes and landscapes.

Relating to or denoting the current geological age, viewed as the period during
which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the
environment.
Environmental Consequences of Global Climate Change
Global climate change is not just about temperature increases. It extends to a range of environmental
consequences that significantly impact Earth's ecosystems, biodiversity, and human societies.
Impact on Ecosystems and Biodiversity
The delicate balance that sustains ecosystems and biodiversity is being disrupted by global climate
change. As temperatures rise, habitats are altered, and species struggle to adapt, leading to shifts in
biodiversity patterns.
Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns affect plant growth cycles and animal migration
and breeding, resulting in altered ecosystem structures and functions.
Example: For instance, coral reefs, often called the 'rainforests of the sea', are experiencing mass
bleaching events due to rising sea temperatures, significantly impacting marine biodiversity and the
ecosystems that rely on them.
Polar ecosystems, particularly sensitive to temperature changes, are experiencing some of the most
dramatic shifts, impacting species like the polar bear.
A Coral reefs
Tropical Rainforests are not only experiencing changes due to direct human activities such as deforestation
but also from the broader effects of climate change. These changes include increased tree mortality rates
due to higher temperatures and droughts, which in turn affect the carbon cycle. Rainforests are crucial for
biodiversity, housing more than half of the Earth's plant and animal species.
Environmental Changes Due to Global Warming
Global warming leads to multifaceted environmental changes that go beyond rising air and sea
temperatures. These changes encompass shifting weather patterns, increased frequency of extreme
weather events, and rising sea levels, each affecting the planet in profound ways.
 Shifting weather patterns can lead to prolonged droughts or increased flooding, affecting water
supplies and agriculture.
 Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, heatwaves, and wildfires, become more frequent and
intense, posing threats to ecosystems, human health, and property.
 Rising sea levels threaten coastal habitats and human settlements through increased erosion, saltwater
intrusion, and flooding.
Definition: Global Warming is the long-term rise in Earth's average surface temperature, predominantly
due to human activities releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This phenomenon is a major
driver of global climate change, affecting ecosystems, weather patterns, and sea levels.
Example: An example of the direct impact of global warming is the accelerated melting of the
world's glaciers and ice caps. This not only contributes to rising sea levels but also reduces freshwater
resources for millions of people.
The Arctic is warming twice as fast as the global average, leading to the rapid decline of sea ice.
Ocean Acidification is a less discussed but significant consequence of global warming. As CO2 levels rise,
the ocean absorbs more of this greenhouse gas, becoming more acidic. This disrupts the balance
of marine ecosystems, affecting coral reefs, shellfish populations, and the broader marine food web.
Role of Agriculture in Global Environmental Changes
Agriculture affects the environment in numerous ways. It is both a victim and a contributor to global
environmental change, impacting land use, water resources, and biodiversity. Additionally,
agricultural practices contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.
Deforestation for agricultural expansion is a leading cause of habitat loss and biodiversity decline.
Moreover, the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides can lead to soil degradation and water
pollution, affecting ecosystems far beyond the agricultural fields.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture include methane from rice paddies and livestock, and
nitrous oxide from fertilized soils. These gases contribute to global warming, emphasizing
agriculture's role in climate change.
The clearing of the Amazon Rainforest for cattle ranching and soy production exemplifies
agriculture’s impact on deforestation and biodiversity loss, showing how agricultural expansion can
have devastating environmental effects.
Water Use in Agriculture: Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater resources, accounting
for around 70% of global withdrawals. Irrigation practices, necessary for food production, can lead
to water scarcity, affecting both human populations and ecosystems. Sustainable water
management practices are vital to balancing agricultural needs with those of the environment.
Predicting Future Environmental Changes Due to Agricultural Practices
Predicting the future impacts of agricultural practices on the environment requires sophisticated
models that take into account various factors, including climate change, technological
advancements, and shifts in dietary preferences.
Models can help forecast changes in land use patterns, water demand, and the carbon footprint of
agriculture. They can also assess how adaptive strategies, such as crop diversification or regenerative
farming, could mitigate negative environmental impacts.
Regenerative Farming is an approach to food and farming systems that regenerates topsoil, enhances
biodiversity, improves water cycles, and increases resilience to climate change. This method contrasts
with more extractive practices that deplete resources and degrade the environment.
A study forecasting the adoption of no-till farming, a practice that can reduce soil erosion and water
loss, suggests significant potential to decrease agriculture's environmental impact while maintaining
crop yields.
The potential for vertical farming and other urban agriculture innovations to reduce the transport
emissions associated with food production is an area of growing interest.
 12. Environmental ethics and the emergence of environmentalism

What are Environmental Ethics?

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethical thought that focuses on the relationship
between humans and their natural environment. It is a holistic approach to
understanding and evaluating our moral obligations to protect and preserve the
environment. Environmental ethics seeks to bring together the interests of both
humans and the environment, recognizing that both are interdependent and have
intrinsic value.
Various ethical theories, including consequentialism, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics,
define environmental ethics. These ethical theories provide a framework for
understanding the moral obligations we have to the environment and how we should
act to protect it. Environmental ethics also draws upon the fields of philosophy,
economics, ecology, and law, providing a comprehensive approach to understanding
and evaluating the moral implications of human actions.
Types of Environmental Ethics
 Libertarian Extension: Libertarian extension is an environmental ethics that focuses on an individual’s right
to do whatever they want with the environment and its resources. This concept also stresses that an
individual should not impose their values on others and should instead respect the choices of others.
 Ecological Extension: Ecological Extension is a type of environmental ethics that focuses on preserving the
natural environment and its resources to maintain the balance and health of the ecosystem. This concept
stresses the importance of humans working with nature to sustain it for future generations.
 Conservation Ethics: Conservation Ethics is a type of environmental ethics that focuses on preserving
natural resources for future generations by ensuring that current resources are not depleted or damaged
beyond repair. This concept encourages individuals to use natural resources responsibly and judiciously so
there will be enough for future generations.
In short, Libertarian extension promotes an individual’s right to use natural resources, Ecological Extension
encourages humans to work with nature, and Conservation Ethics emphasizes sustainable use of natural
resources. Each of these types of environmental ethics has its benefits and should be considered when
considering how to best protect the environment.
Importance of Environmental Ethics
 Environmental ethics is essential for protecting the environment, species, and resources.
 It promotes sustainable practices and encourages people to become more aware of the
impact their actions have on the environment.
 It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living things and the need to respect them. It
encourages us to think about our place in the world and how we can contribute to
preserving the natural environment.
 Environmental ethics helps to build better relationships with nature, recognizing its
intrinsic value, not just its instrumental value.
 It encourages us to think beyond our immediate needs and consider the long-term
implications of our actions.
 It teaches us responsibility towards our environment, advocating for environmentally
friendly practices that help protect natural resources.
 Environmental ethics also promotes better public policies and laws, which help ensure
that our environment is properly cared for.
What Exactly is Environmentalism?
Environmentalism is a vital movement that works to lessen our harm to Earth and all
its life forms. Its members have an essential job:
They find ways to fight climate change.
They also look for plans to let us live well on our changing planet.
This kind of care for the world around us can show up everywhere, from big cities to
small towns. This side of environmentalism is sometimes called Civic
Environmentalism. Groups or just one person work hard at home, school, or where
they work to make their place better.
There’s another part of environmentalism that comes from native cultures worldwide.
These groups have been caring for nature long before modern times and still do
today! This shows how deep and wide environmentalism goes.
The West has also seen more people taking up the cause recently. Western
environmentalism began because people noticed issues with how humans used the
Earth’s resources without considering the future.
However, it hasn’t fully addressed past injustices’ impact on indigenous people’s role
in caring for nature.
The Importance of Environmentalism
Environmentalism is crucial for protecting our planet. It sets rules and regulations that safeguard our
environment from harm. It ensures we use the Earth’s resources sustainably without depleting them.
Moreover, environmentalism plays a pivotal role in mitigating climate change by promoting practices that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The survival of all species, including humans, is in danger without
environmentalism. This is because there could be catastrophic changes like global warming, severe
weather, loss of biodiversity, and other devastating impacts from human activities on Earth.

Protection and Regulation

We need rules to keep our Earth safe. These rules or laws help control harm caused by human actions.
This is what we call “environmental regulation.” It ensures clean air and water for us all.
Big companies must follow these rules, too.
This idea is not new! For example, the Paris Agreement of 2016 was signed by many countries
worldwide. They agreed to work together to fight climate change. But sometimes, businesses don’t play
fair.
Shell and Exxon concealed climate change facts for profit from fossil fuels.
That’s why protection and regulation are vital parts of environmentalism. Without them, there could be
more damage to nature than we can fix.
Sustainability and Resource Management
Sustainability means using things so we don’t run out of them. It’s a wise method to
save resources for future use. Resource management is its collaborator. It helps us
decide how to use our natural supplies like water, land, and minerals.
Environmentalists work hard on these ideas. They promote wise consumption and
better ways to manage materials. Also, they push for the use of renewable resources
instead of ones that can run out, like oil or coal.
Together, sustainability and resource management help safeguard nature for all
living beings now and later.
Climate Change Mitigation
Climate change is a significant threat to our planet. It causes troubles like poor air and
water, tree cutting, and plant and animal loss. We need to stop climate change. Some
people, like native communities, have always cared for the Earth.
They help keep many plants and animals alive. Burning coal or oil can also put
bad stuff in the air, hurting our planet more. The Paris Agreement was a promise made
by almost every country worldwide to fight against climate change together.
Various Forms of Environmentalism
Explore environmentalism, including liberal environmentalism, which focuses on
government regulation, radical environmentalism, which calls for societal changes,
and political ecology, which combines social and ecological theories.
There’s so much more to explore!
Liberal Environmentalism
Liberal environmentalism aims to lessen harm to our planet. It encourages group
effort in fixing issues that harm the Earth and its people. Climate change is a
significant target of this type of environmentalism.
This issue leads to pollution, water scarcity, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.
This movement also values the wisdom of indigenous peoples. These groups have
long known how to care for their environment sustainably, and they show us how to
preserve diverse life despite colonization challenges.
Radical Environmentalism
Radical environmentalism calls for significant changes in how people treat the Earth. It is
a part of local green movements that take action to protect our environment. Women
are often leaders in these movements.
This type of green work is just like social justice or native rights work. It wants us to do
more than recycle and save energy. It pushes us to change how we live daily for the
planet’s sake.
Political Ecology
Political ecology ties in with caring for our planet. It looks at how we use land, animals,
and plants. We learn from this how to keep nature balanced and healthy. Ecology shows
us the big part humans play in this balance.
In political ecology, people protect nature by talking to lawmakers. They advocate for
clean air and safe water rules and educate others on their importance.
This is essential to looking after our Earth now and for future generations.
 13. Anthropocentric and Ecocentric Perspectives
Anthropocentric approach to environmental law
Anthropocentrism is a branch of philosophy and jurisprudence that treats man as the
most important being in the world. Everything that exists in this world, has the prime
purpose to serve humankind. Nature exists for the welfare of humankind and humans
are supposed to be above all of nature’s organisms.
Various stories are related to the inception of anthropocentrism. One of the most
famous ones is written in the Judeo Christian Bible. According to this story, human
beings represent the image of God on earth and are supposed to subdue all other
forms of nature, for fulfilling their own needs.
This text has often been interpreted to establish the superiority of humans over all
living creatures on this planet. Value is accredited to nature only when it is utilised
for the benefit of mankind. This implies that nature exists instrumentally to serve
mankind.
Jurists with an anthropocentric approach never admit that an increase in the
population of humans or any human activity is the reason for the depletion of
natural resources. Therefore, they feel that there is no need for any legal measures
to curb environmental exploitation by humans.
Ecocentric approach to environmental law
Ecocentrism is a branch of thought that finds intrinsic value in all living organisms.
It takes a holistic view of the Earth, as opposed to the narrower approach adopted
by anthropocentrism.
Ecocentrism has a larger view than even biocentrism and zoocentrism. Biocentrism
sees intrinsic value in all living being; on the other hand, Ecocentrism, in addition to
this gives due weightage to abiotic aspects and perceives environmental systems as
wholes. Similarly, Zoocentrism sees intrinsic value in animals only.
 14. The Club of Rome-Limits to Growth

Most influential organizations begin with the meeting of a few like minds. In 1965,
Aurelio Peccei, an Italian industrialist, made a speech that proved inspirational to
Alexander King, the Scottish Head of Science at the OECD. The two found that they
shared a profound concern for the long-term future of humanity and the planet,
what they termed the modern ‘predicament of mankind’.
Three years later, King and Peccei convened a meeting of European scientists in
Rome. Although this first attempt failed to achieve unity, a core group of like-
minded thinkers emerged. Their goal: to advance three core ideas that still define
the Club of Rome today: a global and a long-term perspective, and the concept of
“problematique”, a cluster of intertwined global problems, be they economic,
environmental, political or social.
At the group’s first major gathering in 1970, Jay Forrester, a systems professor at MIT,
offered to use computer models he had developed to study the complex problems
that concerned the group more rigorously. An international team of researchers at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began a study of the implications of
unbridled exponential growth. They examined the five basic factors that determine
and, in their interactions, ultimately limit growth on this planet – population,
agricultural production, non-renewable resource depletion, industrial output and
pollution.
In 1972, the Club’s first major Report, The Limits to Growth, was published. It sold
millions of copies worldwide, creating media controversy and impetus for the global
sustainability movement. This call for objective, scientific assessment of the impact
of human behavior and the use of resources still defines the Club of Rome today.
While Limits had many messages, it fundamentally confronted the unchallenged
paradigm of continuous material growth and the pursuit of endless economic
expansion. Fifty years later, there is no doubt that the ecological footprint of
humanity substantially exceeds its natural limits every year. The concerns of the Club
of Rome have not lost their relevance.
Today, the Club remains at the forefront of challenging and controversial global
issues. Propelled by a new mission and organizational structure, which today
includes 35 National Associations, the Club of Rome has now published over 45
Reports. They continue to challenge established paradigms and advocate for policies
practically addressing the many emergencies facing society and the planet today.
The Club remains true to its historical intent, while it attempts to lay the foundations
for long-term systemic shifts in global social, environmental and economic systems.
In short, it is an established, respected, international think-tank positioned to face
the core challenges of the 21st Century.
The organization includes around 100 active full members with a full-time
secretariat in Winterthur, Switzerland, with a satellite office in Brussels, Belgium.
The limits to Growth: 2022 marked the 50th anniversary of the Club of Rome’s
landmark report, ‘The Limits to Growth’. This report – first published on 2 March
1972 – was the first to model our planet’s interconnected systems and to make clear
that if growth trends in population, industrialisation, resource use and pollution
continued unchanged, we would reach and then overshoot the carrying capacity of
the Earth at some point in the next one hundred years.
Some fifty years on, the call for a change in direction was more urgent than ever. The
report’s modelling was remarkably accurate and prescient as the world declares the
climate emergency to be real and global ecosystems to be at breaking point. Fifty
years offered an excellent opportunity to look back, and forward, at the trends it
examined and listen to leading international thought leaders, scientists and
politicians on how we create a new critical framework for living and thriving within
the limits on Planet Earth.
 15. UN conference on Human environment 1972

The first world conference on the environment

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm was the first world
conference to make the environment a major issue. The participants adopted a series of principles for
sound management of the environment including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the
Human Environment and several resolutions.
The Stockholm Declaration, which contained 26 principles, placed environmental issues at the forefront
of international concerns and marked the start of a dialogue between industrialized and developing
countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of the air, water, and oceans and the well-
being of people around the world.
The Action Plan contained three main categories: a) Global Environmental Assessment Programme
(watch plan); b) Environmental management activities; (c) International measures to support
assessment and management activities carried out at the national and international levels. In addition,
these categories were broken down into 109 recommendations.
One of the major results of the Stockholm conference was the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP)
 16. World Commission on Environment and Development

The General Assembly, in its resolution 38/161 of 19 December 1983, inter alia, welcomed
the establishment of a special commission that should make available a report on
environment and the global problematique to the year 2000 and beyond, including proposed
strategies for sustainable development. The commission later adopted the name World
Commission on Environment and Development. In the same resolution, the Assembly
decided that, on matters within the mandate and purview of the United Nations Environment
Programme, the report of the special commission should, in the first instance, be considered
by the Governing Council of the Programme, for transmission to the Assembly together with
its comments, and use as basic material in the preparation, for adoption by the Assembly, of
the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond.
17. Concept of Sustainable Development
 18. Rio summit and subsequent international efforts

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as
the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit (Portuguese:
ECO92), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) from 3 to 14 June
1992. 172 governments participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or government.
Rio Summit
Some 2,400 representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) attended, with 17,000
people at the parallel NGO “Global Forum” (also called Forum Global), who had Consultative
Status. A significant accomplishment of the summit was an agreement on the Climate Change
Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Another agreement
was “not to carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that would
cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate”.
Rio Summit 1992 – Important Outcomes
The Rio Summit 1992 is also called the Earth Summit. This summit led to the development of
the following documents:
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
Agenda 21
Forest Principles
The first document called the Rio Declaration, in short, contained 27 principles that were
supposed to guide countries in future sustainable development.
Agenda 21 is an action plan concerning sustainable development, but it is non-binding.
The Forest Principles is formally called ‘Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of
Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable
Development of All Types of Forests’. It makes many recommendations for conservation and
sustainable development forestry and is non-binding.
The Johannesburg Summit 2002, also known as the World Summit on Sustainable
Development, was held in Johannesburg, South Africa from August 26 to
September 4, 200212. The summit brought together tens of thousands of
participants, including heads of State and Government, national delegates, and
leaders from non-governmental organizations, businesses, and other major
groups1. The summit aimed to focus the world's attention and direct action toward
meeting difficult challenges, including improving people's lives and conserving our
natural resources in a world that is growing in population, with ever-increasing
demands for food, water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services, and economic
security
The 2012 Hyderabad Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), also known as COP11, was held in Hyderabad, India. Environment
ministers and forests ministers of about 194 countries attended the conference;
international organizations like World Bank and the Asian Development Bank also
participated. Nearly 10,000 delegates discussed issues relating to biodiversity and
biosafety.
The 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the UN
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was a conference held in Montreal,
Canada, which led to the international agreement to protect 30% of land and
oceans by 2030 (30 by 30) and the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global
Biodiversity Framework.