Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology

Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Atoms are tiny units that make
up all matter in the universe, and energy is what holds the nucleus together. There is a huge
amount of energy in an atom’s dense nucleus. In fact, the power that holds the nucleus together
is officially called the “strong force.”

Nuclear energy can be used to create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom. In the
process of nuclear fission, atoms are split to release that energy.

A nuclear reactor, or power plant, is a series of machines that can control nuclear fission to produce
electricity. The fuel that nuclear reactors use to produce nuclear fission is pellets of the element
uranium. In a nuclear reactor, atoms of uranium are forced to break apart. As they split, the atoms
release tiny particles called fission products. Fission products cause other uranium atoms to split,
starting a chain reaction. The energy released from this chain reaction creates heat.

The heat created by nuclear fission warms the reactor’s cooling agent. A cooling agent is usually
water, but some nuclear reactors use liquid metal or molten salt. The cooling agent, heated by
nuclear fission, produces steam. The steam turns turbines, or wheels turned by a flowing current.
The turbines drive generators, or engines that create electricity.

Rods of material called nuclear poison can adjust how much electricity is produced. Nuclear
poisons are materials, such as a type of the element xenon, that absorb some of the fission
products created by nuclear fission. The more rods of nuclear poison that are present during the
chain reaction, the slower and more controlled the reaction will be. Removing the rods will allow
a stronger chain reaction and create more electricity.

Benefits of Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear energy offers many advantages as the emissions -free workhorse of our
energy grid. Its unique value cannot be found in any other energy source.
• Nuclear protects national security. U.S. leadership in nuclear energy maintains
safety and nonproliferation standards globally, supports a resilient electrical grid at
home, and fuels a strong navy.
• Nuclear fights climate change. Nuclear energy provides large amounts of 24/7
carbon-free electricity now, which is irreplaceable in protecting the environment.
• Nuclear ensures U.S. leadership in technology. The United States pioneered nuclear
energy for the world and, with continued leadership, can respond to growing clean
energy demand worldwide with advanced reactors.
• Nuclear produces electricity reliably. Around-the-clock electricity is a must for our
nation to prosper in the 21st century. Clean, reliable nuclear energy is a critical part
of U.S. infrastructure because it runs nonstop for 18 -24 months at a time.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
• Nuclear generates jobs. Nuclear energy provides more than 100,000 well -paid, long-
term jobs and supports local economies with millions of dollars in state and local tax
revenues.
• Nuclear protects our air. Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter and
mercury: all things you don’t want in the air you breathe. Nuclear energy provides
power 24/7 without a trace of those pollutants.
• Nuclear boosts international development. Nuclear energy helps developing nations
meet sustainable development goals.
• Nuclear power electric vehicles. Electrified transportation promises to reduce
carbon emissions. When powered by carbon-free nuclear energy, electric vehicles
can reach their full potential.

Nuclear Energy in India

Introduction
Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and
renewable sources of electricity.As of 2016, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear
power plants, having an installed capacity of 6780 MW.

Arguments for Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear power remains an important part of our strategy to minimise carbon
emissions in the long run.
• As a clean energy source, nuclear is best suited to gradually replace coal
• Lack of cheaper storage options for solar and wind energy
• This is essential to fulfil the Paris climate agreement as well as maintain high rates
of economic growth.
• From a long-term perspective India needs nuclear power. This is because we are
short of oil, gas and even coal. More than 70 per cent of petroleum products, 40
percent of gas and 20 percent of Coal consumption is based on imports.
• From a long-term perspective, renewable energy is inevitable and nuclear option
should be retained as an insurance.
• India’s potential for hydro power is unevenly distributed across months. The
generation from runoff-the river plants during the lean month may be as low as 10
percent of generation during the peak month.
• Having some nuclear power helps diversify the system and adds to energy security.
• If we can install the nuclear plants without delay and within budget, they are
economically attractive.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
• If India has to grow at 7 to 8 percent, energy security plays an important role and
nuclear energy adds to it.

Arguments against Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear energy as a preferable option is changing and the global mood is against it.
• Comparative costs of nuclear production are high. As solar energy costs are
decreasing, this difference is increasing further.
• Capital investment for job generation is very high for nuclear energy.
• If cost benefit analysis is announced, Non conventional sources like solar energy
have less capital requirement and capital becomes productive quite soon. It is not
the case with nuclear energy.
• Delays make costs escalate further.
• Disposal of radioactive material and danger of nuclear accidents makes it further
prohibitive.
• Risks and costs of nuclear energy are overwhelmingly borne by the poor. There is
always a lot of resistance from local communities against reactors.
• Beyond the risks associated with radioactive wastes, the threat of nuclear weapons
looms large.
• Nuclear energy uses Uranium which is a scarce resource and is not found in many
countries. Once all extracted, the nuclear plants will not be of any use

Components of a nuclear power plant

Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
There are several components common to most types of reactor:

Fuel
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form
fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.* In a 1000 MWe class
PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

Moderator
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more
fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Control rods or blades

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are
inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.

Coolant
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the
water moderator functions also as primary coolant

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Steam generator
Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-pressure
primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine, in a
secondary circuit.

Types of Reactors
Light-water reactors
Light-water reactors (LWRs) are power reactors that are cooled and moderated with ordinary
water. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) and the boiling-water
reactor (BWR).

In the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and is
transported to a steam generator. There the heat from the primary loop is transferred to a lower-
pressure secondary loop also containing water. The water in the secondary loop enters the steam
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
generator at a pressure and temperature slightly below that required to initiate boiling. Upon
absorbing heat from the primary loop, however, it becomes saturated and ultimately slightly
superheated. The steam thus generated ultimately serves as the working fluid in a steam-turbine
cycle.

Pros:

• Strong negative void coefficient — reactor cools down if water starts bubbling
because the coolant is the moderator, which is required to sustain the chain
reaction
• Secondary loop keeps radioactive stuff away from turbines, making maintenance
easy.
• Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs and
procedures have been largely optimized.

Cons:

• Pressurized coolant escapes rapidly if a pipe breaks, necessitating lots of back -

up cooling systems.
• Can’t breed new fuel — susceptible to “uranium shortage”

Pressurized-water reactor
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
A BWR operates on the principle of a direct power cycle. Water passing through the core is
allowed to boil at an intermediate pressure level. The saturated steam that exits the core region is
transported through a series of separators and dryers located within the reactor vessel that
promote a superheated state. The superheated water vapour is then used as the working fluid to
turn the steam turbine.

Pros:

• Simpler plumbing reduces costs

• Power levels can be increased simply by speeding up the jet pumps, giving less
boiled water and more moderation. Thus, load-following is simple and easy.
• Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs and
procedures have been largely optimized.

Cons:

• With liquid and gaseous water in the system, many weird transients are possible,
making safety analysis difficult
• Primary coolant is in direct contact with turbines, so if a fuel rod had a leak,
radioactive material could be placed on the turbine. This complicates maintenance
as the staff must be dressed for radioactive environments.
• Can’t breed new fuel — susceptible to “uranium shortage”
• Does not typically perform well in station blackout events, as in Fukushima.

CANDU reactors (pressurized heavy water reactor)

It uses un enriched Uranium as its fuel while Heavy water serves as coolant and neutron
moderator. The heavy water is kept under high pressure, allowing it to be heated to higher
temperatures without boiling, like in pressurised water reactor

Pros:

• Requires very little uranium enrichment.

• Can be refueled while operating, keeping capacity factors high (as long as the
fuel handling machines don’t break).
• Are very flexible, and can use any type of fuel.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Cons

• Some variants have positive coolant temperature coefficients, leading to safety

concerns.
• Neutron absorption in deuterium leads to tritium production, which is
radioactive and often leaks in small quantities.
• Can theoretically be modified to produce weapons-grade plutonium slightly
faster than conventional reactors could be.

Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor

These reactors are cooled by liquid sodium metal. Sodium is heavier than hydrogen, a fact that leads to
the neutrons moving around at higher speeds (hence fast). These can use metal or oxide fuel, and burn
a wide variety of fuels.

Pros:

• Can breed its own fuel, effectively eliminating any concerns about uranium
shortages (see what is a fast reactor?)
• Can burn its own waste
• Metallic fuel and excellent thermal properties of sodium allow for passively safe
operation — the reactor will shut itself down safely without any backup -systems
working (or people around), only relying on physics.

Cons:

• Sodium coolant is reactive with air and water. Thus, leaks in the pipes results in
sodium fires. These can be engineered around but are a major setback for these
reactors.
• To fully burn waste, these require reprocessing facilities which can also be used
for nuclear proliferation.
• The excess neutrons used to give the reactor its resource -utilization capabilities
could clandestinely be used to make plutonium for weapons.

Fast reactors
Fast reactors are a class of advanced nuclear reactors that have some key advantages over
traditional reactors in safety, sustainability, and waste. While traditional reactors contain
moderators to slow down neutrons after they’re emitted, fast reactors keep their neutrons moving
quickly (hence the name). Fast neutrons can unlock the energy in the dominant isotope of uranium
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
(U238) and thus extend known fuel resources by around 200x. Your average thermal neutron
moves around at about 2200 m/s while a fast neutron might be cruising well above 9 million m/s,
which is about 3% of the speed of light.

Pros

• Fast reactors get more neutrons out of their primary fuel than thermal reactors, so
many can be used to breed new fuel, vastly enhancing the sustainability of nuclear
power.
• Fast reactors are capable of destroying the longest -lived nuclear waste,
transforming it to waste that decays to harmlessness in centuries rather than
hundreds of millennia.
• Fast reactors typically use liquid metal coolants rather than water. These have
superior heat-transfer properties and allow natural circulation to remove the heat
in even severe accident scenarios. The result: if something goes very wrong at the
plant, and none of the operators are awake, AND none of the control rods work, the
reactor can just naturally shut itself down. This comes with a con (see cons).
• Fast reactors can employ metallic fuel rather than oxides (thanks to chemical
compatibility with the liquid metal coolant). Since metal has very high thermal
conductivity, the reactor can shut itself down without surpassing temperature
limits. This enhances the safety of these reactors significantly.

Cons

• While fast reactors are up to 200x more resource efficient, they require 3x or more
fissile atoms to start up initially. This is the main reason why thermal reactors were
developed first.
• Time scales in fast reactors are typically faster than those in thermal reactors
(mostly because there are fewer delayed neutrons in fast reactors). Thus they can go
through unpredicted changes faster than thermal reactors.
• Bubbles in fast reactor coolant can cause the reactor to heat up rather than cool
down, as in a traditional reactor. Higher heat makes more bubbles, which make more
heat, and so on. This positive feedback is scary (but manageable, thanks to
overpowering negative feedback).
• To keep the neutrons moving quickly, fast reactors require exotic coolants derived
from heavy atoms. The most common coolant is liquid sodium, which is well known
but highly reactive with air and water. Another is liquid lead -bismuth eutectic, which
isn’t the most pleasant material either. These bizarre materials require extra c are
and lower tolerance in many systems (such as piping), possibly bringing costs up.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
India three stage nuclear programme

The critical shortage of fissile material has prevented the large-scale deployment of thorium-
fuelled reactors in India. Due to this, the construction of the advanced heavy-water reactor
(AHWR) has also been put off several times since it was first announced in 2004.

India has very modest deposits of uranium and some of the world’s largest sources of thorium.
Keeping this in mind, in 1954 Homi Bhabha envisioned India’s nuclear power programme in three
stages to suit the country’s resource profile.

India’s three stage nuclear power programme:

The Indian nuclear power programme, launched in 1954, envisaged a three-stage development of
nuclear power generation from the country’s uranium and thorium resources.

1. In the first stage, heavy water reactors fuelled by natural uranium would produce
plutonium.
2. The second stage would initially be fuelled by a mix of the plutonium from the first
stage and natural uranium [It contains 0.7% uranium-235, 99.3% uranium-238, and a
trace of uranium-234 by weight (0.0055%)]. This uranium would transmute
(Transmutation is the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another
through nuclear reactions. Induced nuclear transmutation is transmutation which is
induced by scientists by striking the nuclei with high volume particles ) into more
plutonium and once sufficient stocks have been built up, thorium would be
introduced into the fuel cycle to convert it into uranium 233 for the third stage.

In the final stage, a mix of thorium and uranium fuels the reactors. The thorium transmutes to U-
233 as in the second stage, which powers the reactor. Fresh thorium can replace the depleted
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
thorium in the reactor core, making it essentially a thorium-fuelled reactor even though it is the U-
233 that is undergoing fission to produce electricity.

With 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, India is finally ready to start
the second stage. However, experts estimate that it would take India many more Fast Breeder
Reactors and at least another four decades before it has built up a sufficient fissile material
inventory to launch the third stage.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
How to overcome the shortage of fissile material (plutonium)?
India can overcome the shortage of fissile material by procuring it from the international market.

Are there any hurdles in procuring plutonium?

• There is also no law that expressly forbids the procurement of this fissile material.
Most nuclear treaties such as the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
Material address only U-235 and U-233, presumably because plutonium has so far
not been considered a material suited for peaceful purposes.
• Even the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) merely mandates that special fissionable
material — which includes plutonium — if transferred, be done so under safeguards.
• Thus, the legal rubric for safeguarded sale of plutonium already exists. The physical
and safety procedures for moving radioactive spent fuel and plutonium also already
exists.

How this procurement would help other countries?

If India were to start purchasing plutonium and/or spent fuel, it would immediately alleviate the
pressure on countries like Japan and the U.K. who are looking to reduce their stockpile of
plutonium.

Why there is an emphasis on thorium technology:

• Thorium reactors produce far less waste than present -day reactors.
• They have the ability to burn up most of the highly radioactive and long -lasting
minor actinides that makes nuclear waste from Light Water Reactors a nuisance to
deal with.
• The minuscule waste that is generated from these reactors is toxic for only three or
four hundred years rather than thousands of years.
• Thorium reactors are cheaper because they have higher burnup.
• Thorium reactors are significantly more proliferation -resistant than present
reactors. This is because the U-233 produced by transmuting thorium also contains
U-232, a strong source of gamma radiation that makes it difficult to work with. Its
daughter product, thallium-208, is equally difficult to handle and easy to detect.

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and
renewable sources of electricity. However, recent incidents like the Fukushima incident have
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
raised concerns over the safety of nuclear reactors. Concerns are also being raised over the nuclear
waste which the plant generates. Hence, before the government proceeds further, it is necessary
to address all these concerns.

Evolution of India’s nuclear policy

India’s first successful nuclear weapon test was in 1974. Due to this test conducted by India, the
nuclear suppliers group (NSG) was formed in 1974 to prevent nuclear proliferation and to curb
export of materials and technology that could be used to build nuclear weapons. In 1998, India
further conducted a series of 5 nuclear tests and after its successful completion it declared itself a
de facto nuclear weapon state.

Eventually, in the year 1999, India adopted a draft nuclear doctrine based on “NO FIRST USE”
(NFU) policy. Certain key aspects of the draft were:

India would not initiate a nuclear attack on any country.India would not use nuclear weapons on
non-nuclear states.

India’s nuclear arsenal was for the sole purpose of defence and would serve as a deterrent against
external nuclear attacks.

India would adopt the nuclear triad model. As per this model a nuclear weapon state should have
capability of launching nuclear attacks on 3 fronts i.e. land, air, and water. In this model the
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) would act as the ace in the hole if the other two
were to fail

However, this draft did not receive official recognition.

In 2003, India officially accepted a Nuclear Doctrine based on NFU policy. Certain key features
of this are:

Nuclear weapons will only be kept as a credible minimum deterrence against nuclear attacks.

NFU policy would be followed and India would use nuclear attack only as retaliation against a
nuclear attack on India or on Indian forces anywhere.

India would not launch a nuclear weapon attack against any non-nuclear state. However, in the
event of a major attack on India or on Indian forces anywhere by chemical or biological weapon,
India will have the option of retaliating with nuclear weapons.

The retaliatory 2nd strike to a first nuclear attack would be massive and would inflict unacceptable
damage on opponent

Presently India follows the 2003 Nuclear Doctrine. India’s policy is based on nuclear deterrence
and 2nd strike ability plays a vital role in deterrent policy.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Do we need a change in Doctrine?
No change is necessary:

• India’s current doctrine has helped India secure crucial international deals, such the
Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG) waiver as part of the Indo -U.S. nuclear deal in 2008.
• More recently, India signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with Japan, which is
quite surprising as Japan is known for its staunch anti -nuclear stance and India is
not a signatory of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
• India is currently also seeking to join the NSG as a permanent member which is a
doctrinal shift and is only going to give China more reason to delay India’s entry.
This posture would also play into the hands of Pakistan, which has long accused
India of duplicity over its no first use policy and called India’s expanding arsenal a
threat to the region’s stability.
• No First Use works well:
• It builds stability into deterrence by credibly promising nuclear retaliation in the
face of extreme provocation of a nuclear first strike by one’s adversary.

Change instance will create issues:

• All the gains enjoyed by India in the international community by the restraint of
India nuclear posture would be frittered away if there is change in stance of nuclear
doctrine
• It would enormously complicate and increase the expenditure incurred by us in
regard to our command and control mechanisms which would have to be
reconfigured to engage in calibrated nuclear war fighting.
• It would weaken the possibility of our engaging in conventional warfare insulated
from the nuclear overhang.
• It would encourage the use of tactical nuclear weapons under the illusion of no
massive response.
• It would facilitate the painting of South Asia as a nuclear flashpoint and thereby
encourage foreign meddling.

Change is needed
No first use :-

Such an approach unnecessarily kept India on the back foot and on the defensive and made it
axiomatic that India would have to face the consequences of a first strike before being able to
respond. Moreover, it prevented India from keeping a potential adversary off balance.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Despite being party to formulating the no-first use policy in 2003, the time has come to re-examine
it. It has been 15 years since we adopted the doctrine, a lot has changed since then

There is increasing evidence of Pakistan’s proclivity to use tactical nuclear weapons against India.

Emphasising this change in India’s strategic environment, the proponents of doctrinal review argue
that India’s existing doctrine is ill-suited to deter Pakistan from using TNWs against India

China:
China is also witnessing a debate between traditional advocates of a “minimum deterrence” and
new arguments for a more flexible “limited deterrence”.

The latter envisages counterforce operations and supports building nuclear war-fighting
capabilities, including a greater and diverse arsenal.

Advocates of a change in India’s NFU policy would like its nuclear doctrine mimic those of most of
the established Nuclear Weapon States which contemplate the use of nuclear weapons even in
sub nuclear conflicts.

Way forward:
Periodic statements about the nurturing and upgradation of India’s nuclear arsenal and systems
including alternate command structure.

An indication that India’s nuclear arsenal will be large enough to take care of all adversaries and
will have to be in the mid triple digits.

Appointment of a Chief of Defence Staff and upgradation of the NTRO as a capable apex technical
organization which would in a fool proof manner provide indicators of any attack on us and ensure
swift and massive nuclear retaliation inflicting unacceptable damage.

Nuclear testing:
Two things need to be done to configure and laboratory-test sophisticated thermonuclear
weapons designs.

The laser inertial confinement fusion facility at the Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore, needs
to be refurbished on a war-footing, and a dual-axis radiographic hydrodynamic test facility
constructed.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
IAEA
Set up as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” organization in 1957 within the United Nations family.

Reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council. Headquarters in
Vienna, Austria.

Functions:
Works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe, secure and
peaceful use of nuclear technologies.

Seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose,
including nuclear weapons.

Board of Governors:22 member states (must represent a stipulated geographic diversity) — elected
by the General Conference (11 members every year) – 2 year term.

At least 10 member states — nominated by the outgoing Board.Board members each receive one
vote.

Functions:
Recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget.

Responsible for publishing IAEA standards.

Responsible for making most of the policy of the IAEA.

Appoints the Director General subject to General Conference approval.

Programs:
Program of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT).

Human Health Program.

Water Availability Enhancement Project.

International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles, 2000.

Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Civil Nuclear Liability Act
• The Bill fixes no-fault liability on operators and gives them a right of recourse
against certain persons. It caps the liability of the operator at Rs 500 crore. For
damage exceeding this amount, and up to 300 million SDR, the central government
will be liable.
• All operators (except the central government) need to take insurance or provide
financial security to cover their liability.
• For facilities owned by the government, the entire liability up to 300 million SDR
will be borne by the government.
• The Bill specifies who can claim compensation and the authorities who will assess
and award compensation for nuclear damage.
• Those not complying with the provisions of the Bill can be penalised.

Key Issues and Analysis

• The liability cap on the operator (a) may be inadequate to compensate victims in the
event of a major nuclear disaster; (b) may block India’s access to an international
pool of funds; (c) is low compared to some other countries.
• The cap on the operator’s liability is not required if all plants are owned by the
government. It is not clear if the government intends to allow private operators to
operate nuclear power plants.
• The extent of environmental damage and consequent economic loss will be notified
by the government. This might create a conflict of interest in cases where the
government is also the party liable to pay compensation.
• The right of recourse against the supplier provided in the Bill is not compliant with
international agreements India may wish to sign.
• The time-limit of ten years for claiming compensation may be inadequate for those
suffering from nuclear damage.
• Though the Bill allows operators and suppliers to be liable under other laws, it is not
clear which other laws will be applicable. Different interpretations by courts may
constrict or unduly expand the scope of such a provision.

Conclusion
India has attempted to allay the concerns of suppliers by limiting their liability under the CLND
Rules and creating the nuclear insurance pool. However, as aforesaid: (i) the limitation of supplier
liability would not apply to situations covered under Section 17(b) and Section 17(c) of the CLNDA
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Act; (ii) there is no specific prohibition in CLNDA on claims against suppliers under the general law
of torts; (iii) nuclear insurance pool covers liability up to only Rs. 1500 crore which may not be an
adequate cover especially for tortious liability; and (iv) petitions challenging various provisions of
the CLNDA Act and CLND Rules diluting / limiting supplier liability are pending before the Indian
courts.

We would require more certainty in the legal regime (which would be possible only after the
petitions pending before the Supreme Court are decided), a larger insurance pool and further
legislative steps to boost the confidence of the suppliers.

The Convention on Supplementary Compensation (CSC) aims at establishing a minimum national

compensation amount and at further increasing the amount of compensation through public funds
to be made available by the Contracting Parties should the national amount be insufficient to
compensate for the damage caused by a nuclear incident. The Convention is open not only to
States that are party to either the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage or the
Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (including any amendments
to either), but also to other States provided that their national legislation is consistent with uniform
rules on civil liability laid down in the Annex to the Convention.

Section 17b-talks about supplier liability,if they provide substandard devices to Operator

Section 46b-talks about absolute liability on Supplier in some cases

Because of these provisions,there were no nuclear technology investment in India so India Ratified
CSC and tried to pass amendments lo law which did not take place

Applications
1) Medical professionals use diagnostic techniques such as radiopharmaceuticals, scans or
radioisotopes, and apply radiotherapy treatments that include X rays as well as radiation from
radioactive elements or radiation-producing equipment such as accelerators.

Beyond diagnostics and the treatment of diseases, nuclear technology is used to sterilize medical
equipment, learn about biological processes with the use of tracers or study the properties of
tumorous cells

2) Isotope hydrology is a nuclear technique that uses both stable and radioactive isotopes to
follow the movements of the water in the hydrologic cycle. These isotopes can be used to research
subterraneous fresh water sources and determine their origin, their type of charge, whether there
is a risk of intrusion or contamination by salt water and whether it is possible to use them in a
sustainable manner.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
3) In the field of agriculture, radioisotope and radiation techniques are applied to improve the
quality of food by inducing mutations in plants and seeds to obtain the desired crop varieties
without having to wait out the long process of natural mutation. Nuclear technology is also very
useful in pest control, increasing food production and reducing the amount of necessary fertilizers.

4) The use of isotopes and radiation in modern industry is highly important to the development
and improvement of processes, measurement, automatization and quality control. Currently,
almost all branches of science use them in different ways.

5) ART: The use of isotopes and radiations in modern industry is highly important to the
development and improvement of processes, measurement, automatization and quality control.
Currently, almost all branches of science use them in different ways.

6) SPACE: One of the main applications of nuclear batteries is space navigation. It involves feeding
the instrumentation of terrestrial satellites and planetary probes with more powerful generators
so that they can reach nearby planets and send information to Earth.

NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty)

Introduction

• The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as

the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is
to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote
cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of
achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament
• Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation
Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in
Geneva, Switzerland
o But, the treaty entered into force in 1970.
• More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and
disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty’s significance
• Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or
are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition,
South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology
Important Treaty Articles

Articles Provision

The nuclear-weapon states (NWS) agree not to help non-nuclear-weapon

Articles
states(NNWS), develop or acquire nuclear weapons, and the NNWS permanently
I and II
forswear the pursuit of such weapons

Article This article tasks the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with the inspection
III of the non-nuclear-weapon states’ nuclear facilities

It acknowledges the “inalienable right” of states-parties to research, develop, and use

Article nuclear energy for non-weapons purposes. It also supports the “fullest possible
IV exchange” of such nuclear-related information and technology between NWS and
NNWS

It commits states-parties to “pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures

Article relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear
VI disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control

Treaty structure

• The treaty is interpreted as a three-pillar system, the details of which are as follows:

1. Non-proliferation

▪ The five NWS agree not to transfer “nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive
devices” and “not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce” a non -nuclear
weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I)
▪ Further, NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to “receive”, “manufacture”, or
“acquire” nuclear weapons or to “seek or receive any assistance in the
manufacture of nuclear weapons” (Article II)

2. Disarmament

▪ Under this, all Parties undertake to pursue good -faith negotiations on effective
measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament,
and to general and complete disarmament
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3. Peaceful use of nuclear energy

▪ This provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties
for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in
those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear
programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons

India and the NPT

• Before the Treaty Decision

o Even when initial disarmament negotiations in the early years of the 1960s
veered around issues like ‘non-spread’ and ‘non-dissemination’ of nuclear
weapons, the Indian quest was largely for a comprehensive disarmament
instrument that could also address issues like nuclear test-ban, ending
production of fissile materials as well as delivery systems, reducing stockpiles
and facilitating their total elimination
▪ However, the Indian approach began to change on the eve of the
impending Chinese nuclear test in 1964
o So, India’s position on the NPT was probably set in concrete when it became
clear that the treaty would recognise NWS only those countries that had
exploded a nuclear device prior to January 1, 1967.
▪ That meant China would be included and India excluded; and this
would be discriminatory on India’s part who had contributed so much
to Nuclear development earlier

• Why India hasn’t signed the treaty yet?

o India argues that the NPT creates a club of “nuclear haves” and a larger
group of “nuclear have-nots” by restricting the legal possession of nuclear
weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never
explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid
o India considers NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for
universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment
o Further, the demonstration of a nuclear weapons capability in the 1974
explosion guaranteed India the ability to effectively hedge in an asymmetric
international system
▪ India’s assertion to maintain a degree of Political Autonomy has
shaped better foreign policy choices as well
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Has not signing NPT, cost India?

• Reduced accessibility to Nuclear Energy

o If India had signed the Treaty, it would probably have had ten times more than
the 6,780 MW of nuclear power that it has today.
o Nuclear power, if one goes strictly by the book, is safe and also clean and cheap;
and this could have had a multiplier effect on economy as well
o Good example is the 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor that India began
building in 2004, at Kalpakkam and is yet to complete apparently, because of the
fear of handling the tricky coolant, liquid sodium

• Despite India testing its Nuclear bomb first, it has lost its superiority with
Pakistan
o In 1998, Pakistan first tested it Nuclear weapon
▪ Now, India and Pakistan both are nuclear weapon owners, but this
rendered India’s conventional military superiority irrelevant
o Had India signed NPT after its first Nuclear test in 1974, it would be difficult to
see Pakistan being assisted by China; which would retain the military edge with
India

Concessions, India has secured in Nuclear perspective

• India despite being a non-signatory to NPT has secured the following concession
form nuclear perspective:
o In 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of
criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear
technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22
nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA
safeguards
o In 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India Peaceful
Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal, which allows for the
transfer of civilian nuclear material to India
o In 2011, Australia announced to allow Uranium exports to India, with strict
safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end
up in nuclear weapons
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Criticism against NPT

• Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as
“a conspiracy of the nuclear ‘haves’ to keep the nuclear ‘have-nots’ in their place”
• India has criticized the NPT, because it “discriminated against states not possessing
nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967
• The “NPT has one giant loophole“:
o Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the “inalienable right” to
pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.
o The United Nations has argued that they can do little to stop states using
nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons
• Further, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made
by NPT signatories, notably the United States

Should India join NPT now?

• Yes, why?
o Being the non-signers of the NPT, several trade sanctions were imposed on
India, straining several international relations.
o One of the biggest reasons for India to join the NPT was the access to
“peaceful nuclear technology” from the nuclear countries to the non -nuclear
countries so the latter could develop their programs.
o The restricted international trade prevented India from obtaining nuclear
resources to develop their nuclear program, leading to a temporary dead end.
o Also, India wishes to be on a member of the UNSC (United Nations Security
Council). And all the members of the UNSC are members of the NPT, it is
speculated that this might be the source of some friction for India.

• No, why?
o The spirit of the NPT creates a divide, between countries that did develop
nuclear power before 1967 and those that didn’t develop nuclear power
before 1967. It only gives the ‘Permanent 5’ the right to hold weapons.
o Although it permits the use of nuclear energy for constructive purposes, it
puts all the other nations at risk.
o India, despite being a nuclear weapons state, would have had to sign the
treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state, and in addition has to
undergo inspections. The NPT, in India’s opinion doesn’t explain the need for
this distinction and loss of national sovereignty
o So, India should rather keep up with its ”no first use” treaty, going ahead
Chapter-3 Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Suppliers Group

What is NSG?

• Brought in 1974– in response to the Indian nuclear test (smiling Buddha).

• It is a Multilateral export control regime.
• It is a Group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation
by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used
to manufacture nuclear weapons.
• The NSG first met in November 1975 in London, and is thus popularly referred to
as the “London Club”.
• It is Not a formal organization, and its guidelines are not binding. Decisions,
including on membership, are made by consensus.
• Membership: 48 supplier states.

Criteria for membership:

• The ability to supply items (including items in transit) covered by the annexes to
Parts 1 and 2 of the NSG Guidelines;
• Adherence to the Guidelines and action in accordance with them;
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• Enforcement of a legally based domestic export control system which gives effect
to the commitment to act in accordance with the Guidelines;
• Full compliance with the obligations of one or more of nuclear non -proliferation
agreements.
• Support of international efforts towards non-proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction and of their delivery vehicle.

Why is membership important for India?

Membership will increase India’s access to state-of-the-art technology from the other members of
the Group.

Access to technology and being allowed to produce nuclear equipment will give a boost to the
Make in India program. That will, in turn, boost the economic growth of our country.

As per India’s INDC under the Paris Climate agreement, we have committed to reducing
dependence on fossil fuels and ensuring that 40% of its energy is sourced from renewable and
clean sources. In order to achieve this target, we need to scale up nuclear power production. This
can only happen if India gains access to the NSG.

Namibia is the fourth-largest producer of uranium and it agreed to sell the nuclear fuel to India in
2009. However, that hasn’t happened, as Namibia has signed the Pelindaba Treaty, which
essentially controls the supply of uranium from Africa to the rest of the world. If India joins the
NSG, such reservations from Namibia are expected to melt away.

India will get an opportunity to voice it’s concern if in case of change in the provision of the NSG
guidelines.

Other Benefits associated with NSG membership- Once admitted, an NSG

member state gets:

• Timely information on nuclear matters.

• Contributes by way of information.
• Has confirmed credentials.
• Can act as an instrument of harmonization and coordination.
• Is part of a very transparent process.