Manufacturing Process

Code: ES-119
Rakesh Dhaka
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical &
Automation Engineering
Delhi Technical Campus, Greater Noida
 COURSE CONTENT

• Unit 1 Introduction and Casting

• Unit-I Introduction: Definition of Manufacturing,Importance of Manufacturing
towards technological and social economic development, Introduction of
Manufacturing processes and their classification, Basic Metals & Alloys :
Properties and Applications. Properties of Materials: Strength, elasticity, stiffness,
malleability, ductility, brittleness, toughness and hardness.
• Metal Casting Processes: Sand casting, Sand moulds, Type of patterns, Pattern
materials, Pattern allowances, Types of Moulding sand and their Properties, Core
making, Elements of gating system. Description and operation of cupola. Working
principle of Special casting processes - Shell casting, Pressure die casting,
Centrifugal casting. Casting defects.
• UNIT-II Joining Processes: Welding principles, classification of welding processes, Fusion
welding, Gas welding, Equipments used, Filler and Flux materials. Electric arc welding, Gas
metal arc welding, Submerged arc welding, Electro slag welding, TIG and MIG welding
process, resistance welding, welding defects.
• Unit-III Deformation Processes: Hot working and cold working of metals, Forging
processes, Open and closed die forging process. Typical forging operations, Rolling of
metals, Principle of rod and wire drawing, Tube drawing. Principle of Extrusion, Types of
Extrusion, Hot and Cold extrusion. Sheet metal characteristics -Typical shearing operations,
bending and drawing operations, Stretch forming operations, Metal spinning.
• Unit-IV Powder Metallurgy: Introduction of powder metallurgy process, powder
production, blending, compaction, sintering.
Manufacturing Of Plastic Components: Types of plastics, Characteristics of the forming and
shaping processes, Moulding of Thermoplastics, Injection moulding, Blow moulding,
Rotational moulding, Film blowing, Extrusion, Thermoforming. Moulding of thermosets-
Compression moulding, Transfer moulding, Bonding of Thermoplastics.
 BOOKS
Text Books:
✔[T1]. Manufacturing Process by Raghuvanshi.(Dhanpat Rai and Co.)
✔[T2]. Manufacturing Technology by P.N.Rao (TMH publications)
✔[T3].Manufacturing Technology: Foundry, Forming and Welding Volume 1, P. N Rao, ,
McGrawHill, 5e, 2018. 2.
✔[T4].Elements of Workshop Technology Vol. 1 and 2 by Hajra Choudhury, Media
Promoters Pvt Ltd.,2008.

Reference Books:

✔[R2]. Production Engineering by R.K.Jain (Khanna Publishers)

✔[R3]. Workshop Technology by Chapman (Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann)
✔[R4]. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Mikell P. Groover (Wiley India Edition)
✔[R5]. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials by Kalpakjian and Schmid
(Pearson)
Further Reference:
✔ National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)
 COURSE OBJECTIVE
• The objective of the paper is to facilitate the student with conventional
techniques being used in industry for production purposes
• To know the basic concept of metal casting/moulding and applying it in
production of various products.
• To develop concepts about joining (welding) and forming operations.
• To understand how to select different material for pattern making, forming
welding etc.
• To impart students with idea of powder metallurgy and manufacturing of
plastic components.
• To create an understanding of forging and sheet metal works.
• To impart knowledge about latest technological topics on manufacturing
and promoting opportunities for taking up advanced topics in the field of
study.
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this course, students should be able to :

• Apply comprehensive knowledge of science, technology and engineering to

manufacturing engineering.
• Have basic understanding of manufacturing processes, and applications of
engineering materials.
• Select appropriate design of moulds, patterns etc. and also design new
pattern, mold etc., if needed.
• Apply the concept of plastic deformation for metal and alloys to convert
them into useful shapes for intended engineering applications.
• Differentiate various metal forming technology and choose best alternative
for requires engineering applications.
• Fabricate and assemble various components using different welding methods.
Course Outcomes (CO):

• CO 1 Interpret the Casting process, its various types and

specific terminology
• CO2 Understand the welding process and its types
• CO3 Understanding of various deformation based
processes in manufacturing
• CO4 Basic understanding of different steps of Powder
Metallurgy and types of plastic processing
techniques.
Marking Scheme

1. Teachers Continuous Evaluation: 40 Marks

2. Tem End Theory Examination: 60 Marks
Teachers Continuous Evaluation
40 Marks are divided as follows
• 30% of 40 (12 marks) = 40% of Marks obtained in Mid Term
Sessional Exam(Max. Marks 30)
• 30% of 40(12 marks) = 40% of Marks obtained in End Term
Sessional Exam(Max. Marks 30)
• 20% of 40(8 marks) = Class Tests
• 20% of 40(8 marks) = Four Assignments, One from each COs
Marking Scheme
Term End Theory Examination
1. There should be 9 questions in the term end examinations question paper.
2. The first (1st) question should be compulsory and cover the entire syllabus. This
question should be objective, single line answers or short answer type questions
3. Apart from question 1 which is compulsory, rest of the paper shall consist of 4 units as
per the syllabus. Every unit shall have two questions covering the corresponding unit of
the syllabus. However, the student shall be asked to attempt only one of the two
questions in the unit.
4. The questions are to be framed keeping in view the learning outcomes of the course /
paper. The standard / level of the questions to be asked should be at the level of the
prescribed textbook.
5. The requirement of (scientific) calculators / log-tables / data – tables may be specified
if required.
Introduction
Manufacturing can be defined two ways:

• Technologically – The set of chemical or physical processes used for

imparting the desired shape, size, properties etc. to the material.
• This process to accomplish manufacturing involve a combination of
machinery, tools, power and manual labor.

Profit
• Economical way
• Production/Manufacturing is a value addition process.
• The raw material which is of low value or no value is processed by
different manufacturing methods into desired product (high value).

Value
added
Raw material Processed
Material
 Need of manufacturing
• To produce goods/services for use of human being
• To improve the standard of living

Productivity = Output/Input

• Output can be goods and services required whereas input can be in the
form of men, machine, methods etc.
• Manufacturing technology can thus be defined as science and
technology of producing goods with distinct features on the basis
of attributes:
• Efficiently
• Effectively
• Economically
• Environmental friendly
“economic terms for making goods and services available to satisfy customer”
• – (by T. Black, 1991)
Definition
• What is “ Production”?
• “the process of converting raw materials into tangible and intangible goods”

• The word “manufacturing” is delivered from the Latin manus and factus, meaning made
by hand.
• “the conversion of stuff into things” – (by DeGramon, 1998)
• “economic terms for making goods and services available to satisfy customer”
• – (by T. Black, 1991)
• Production (Manufacturing) generally means “producing goods for use
by human beings”
• These produced goods for delivering the desired services its necessary
that they have
✔Desired shape and size
✔Desired properties
✔Desired surface finish and close tolerances
 Sizing/Shaping
• These processes are categorized into
⮚ Primary forming/shaping
✔ Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
✔ Deformation based processes (Forming)
Application of force (compressive generally) for plastically deforming the material.
✔ Powder metallurgy
Materials are made up of powders
 Sizing/Shaping: Contd

⮚Joining processes

✔Welding
✔Soldering
✔Brazing
✔Adhesive joining
 Sizing/Shaping: Contd

⮚Material removal process

Material removal process is a type of manufacturing process in which the
final product is obtained by removing excess metal from the stock.

✔Conventional or traditional material removal process like, Milling,

Grinding, Shaping, Drilling etc.
✔Non-conventional or non-traditional material removal process : like
EDM, ECM, USM, etc. which remove material from exotic materials
slowly by electro-physical, electro-chemical processes.
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 Desired surface finish
⮚Super finishing Processes
✔Honing
✔Lapping
✔Polishing
✔Buffing
Engg Materials and Mechanical Properties
 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Broadly Engineering Materials are classified as:

Engineering Materials

Polymers Composites

Metals &Alloys Ceramics

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers

Polymers Polymer
 METAL
• A solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable,
fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal
conductivity
• (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminum, and alloys such as steel)
 NON-METALS-
Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due
to principally their low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat and
electricity. Though there are many suitable non-metals, the
following are important few from design point of view:
Timber- This is a relatively low cost material and a bad conductor
of heat and electricity. It has also good elastic and frictional
properties and is widely used in foundry patterns and as water
lubricated bearings.
Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and
wear resistance. It is widely used for belt drives, washers and such
other applications.
Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements,
sealing, vibration isolation and similar applications.
Plastics are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired
shapes under pressure with or without application of heat. These
are now extensively used in various industrial applications for their
corrosion resistance, dimensional stability and relatively low cost.
 ALLOY
• An alloy is a material composed of two or more metals or a metal and a
nonmetal.
• Alloys acquire completely new characteristics, which differ from the ones
of their components: more favorable mechanical properties, increased
corrosion resistance, color change, improved processing ability, etc.
Metals & Alloys are further classified as:

Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Steels Cu-Alloys Al-Alloys

Cast Irons
Ni-Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels White Cast Iron
Alloy Steels Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
S.G. Cast Iron
Chilled Cast Iron
 Composite
• Composite materials form a material system composed of mixture or a
combination of two or more macroconstituents that differ in form and
chemical composition and are insoluble in each other.
Komanduri,1997

• Composite materials are macroscopic combination of two or more distinct

materials having a discrete and recognizable interface separating them.
Reinhart,1998
•Examples:
• Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
• Epoxy Resins
• Reinforced Cement Concrete
• Wood
• Human Bone
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 Why composite material ??

• Strength to weight and stiffness to weight ratio are several times

greater than steel and aluminum.
• Fatigue properties are generally better than common engineering
materials.
• Toughness is often greater too.
• Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel.
• Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with
metals, ceramics or polymer alone.

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 POLYMER
• Poly means many and meros means units, parts.
•Polymer means many parts or many units.
•Polymers – Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H- C is a monomer e.g.
ethylene (C2H4), Polyethylene – (–CH2-CH2)n
•Polymers:
•Thermo plasts – Soften when heated and harden on cooling
– totally reversible. (eg Polythene, PVC)
•Thermosets – Do not soften on heating (Bakelite, epoxy resins etc)
• Are used in clothing, housing, automobiles, aircraft,
packaging, electronics, signs, recreation items, and medical
implants.
 CERAMICS
Ceramic s defined as any inorganic (inorganic substances do not contain
carbon or its compounds)non metallic material.
Ceramics

Metal Oxides Nitrides Carbides

Alumina
Beryllia
Zirconia
Glass
Glass Ceramics
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:

• Material Property:-It is a factor that influences qualitatively or

quantitatively the response of a given material to impose stimuli
& constraints, e.g., forces, temperature, etc. Properties render a
material suitable or unsuitable for a particular use in industry.
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
⚫The practical application of engineering materials
in manufacturing engineering depends upon a thorough knowledge
of their particular properties under a wide range of conditions.
⚫The term”property” is a qualitative or quantitative measure of
response of materials to externally imposed conditions like forces
and temperatures.
⚫However,the range of properties found in different classes of
materials is very large.
Classification of material property
 Manufacturing properties

• Manufacturing properties : These properties are desire

properties a material should have and needed in fabrication and
manufacturing process, Like:
• Hardenability
• Machinability .
• Malleability
• ductility
 Physical Properties of Metals

• Physical Properties of Metals include shiny luster, greyish -

silver color, good heat and electricity conductivity, high melting
and boiling points, Some of metals - sodium and calcium (very
soft), gold and copper (yellowish colour), and mercury (low
melting and boiling points).
 Mechanical Properties

⚫These include those characteristics of material that describe its

behaviour (response) under the action of external forces (loads). Can
be determined by conducting experimental tests on the material
specimen. Strength, Hardness, Toughness ,Brittleness, Ductility
,Malleability, Elasticity Plasticity , Rigidity, Resilience, Fatigue,
Creep…..
⚫They are usually related to the elastic and plastic behaviour of the
material.
⚫These properties are expressed as functions of stress- strain, etc.
⚫A sound knowledge of mechanical properties of materials provides
the basis for predicting behaviour of materials under different load
conditions and designing the components out of them.
 Stress and strain
Direct Stress
⮚ When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. The way in
which the body deforms depends upon the type of force applied to it.

Compression force makes the body shorter.

A tensile force makes the body longer

Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES
Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.

….. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or

( Simbol – Sigma)

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

Direct Strain ,
In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. In engineering, we usually
change this force into stress and the deformation into strain and we define
these as follows:
Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length.

The
called EPSILON
symbol

Strain has no unit’s since it is a ratio of length to length. Most engineering

materials do not stretch very mush before they become damages, so strain
values are very small figures. It is quite normal to change small numbers in to
the exponent for 10-6( micro strain).
 Stress-Strain Diagram

• A plot of Strain vs. Stress.

• The diagram gives us the behavior of the material and
material properties. It is
• Each material produces a different stress-strain
diagram.
 Stress Strain curve for ductile material Stress Strain curve for brittle material

• Proportional limit (point A)

• Elastic limit (point B)
• Yield point ( upper yield point C and lower yield point D)
• Ultimate stress point (point E)
• Breaking point (point F)
Proportional limit
As shown in stress strain curve for mild steel, up to the point A, stress and strain follow a
relationship. This is known as Hooke’s law. Up to the limit of proportionality, stress directly
followed the strain. This means ratio of stress and strain remains constant.

Elastic limit
Up to this limit (point B), is material will regain its original shape if unloaded. Point B is known
as elastic point.

Yield limit
When material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, it will not regain its original shape. There will be
always some deformation. Upper yield point: Maxm stress to initiate plastic deformation
Lower Yield Point: Min stress to maintain plastic deformation

Ultimate stress
This is the maximum stress a material can bear. Value of stress correspond to peak point on stress
strain curve for mild steel is the ultimate stress. It is denoted by point E in diagram.

Breaking stress
Point on the stress strain curve where material fails, is known as breaking point. Stress correspond
to this point is known as breaking stress.
 Strength
⚫The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand
destruction under the action of external loads.
⚫It determines the ability of a material
to withstand stress without failure.
⚫The maximum stress that any material will withstand before
destruction is called ultimate strength.
⚫Can be of tensile or compressive in nature.
 Elasticity
• The property of material by virtue of which deformation caused
by applied load disappears upon removal of load.
• Elasticity of a material is the power of coming back to its
original position after deformation when the stress or load is
removed.

bond
s
stret
ch

return
F to Elastic means reversible.
initial
δ
 Plasticity
⚫The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture or failure.
⚫Plastic deformation will take only after the elastic limit is
exceeded.
⚫It increases with increase in temperature.

•F
linear linear
elastic elastic δ
δplastic

Plastic means permanent.

CONTI..
 Stiffness/Rigidity
⚫The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or
deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.
⚫A material which suffers slight deformation under load
has a high degree of stiffness or rigidity.
⚫E.g. Steel beam is more stiffer or more
rigid than aluminium beam.
 Ductility
• It is the property of a material which enables it to draw out into
thin wires.
• It is a measure of the amount of deformation of a material can withstand
before breaking.
• E.g., Mild steel is a ductile material.
• Decreases with increases in Temp.
• The percent elongation and the reduction in area in tension is often used as
emperical measures of ductility.
 Ductility - EL% & AR%

• Elongation

Lo
Lf
• Area Reduction

Ao Af
 Brittleness

• It is that property by virtue of which a material breaks easily under action of

shock loads without appreciable amount of deformation. It indicates the
lack of ductility. For example glass, ceramics and cast iron are brittle
materials
 Ductile Vs Brittle Materials
• Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
• Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
• Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
Engineering Stress

Engineering Strain
 Malleability:
⚫Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened into thin
sheets without cracking by hot or cold working.
⚫E.g Lead can be readily rolled and hammered into thin sheets but
can be drawn into wire.
 Comparision of ductility and malleability
• Ductilityand Malleability are frequently used
interchangeably many times.
• Ductility is tensile quality, while malleabilityis
compressive quality.
• Malleability is the ability of a material to exhibit large
deformation subjected to compressive force whereas ductility
is the ability of a material to deform upon the application of
tensile force.
 Hardness
⚫Hardness is a fundamental property which is closely related to strength.
⚫Hardness is usually defined in terms of the ability of a material to resist to
scratching, abrasion, cutting, identation,or penetration.
⚫Methods used for determining hardness:Brinel, Rockwell,Vickers
 Toughness & Resilience
• Toughness: A measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy without fracture. (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3=
MPa)
• Resilience: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb
energy without plastic or permanent deformation.
• (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
• Note: Both are determined as energy/unit volume
 Toughnes
s
• It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without
fracturing.
• For good toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.

• For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough
enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough
enough. Therefore, to be tough, a material should be capable to withstand both high stress
and strain.

• Proof toughness is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed without fracture.

• The modulus of toughness is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per
unit volume without fracture..
Typical Stress-Strain diagram showing
modulus of toughness, MT.
 Resilience
• Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is
deformed elastically by applying stress and release the energy when
stress is removed.
• Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be
absorbed without permanent deformation.
• The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that
can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent
deformation..
Typical Stress-Strain curve showing
modulus of resilience, MR.
• Machinability It refers to the ease with which a material can be
removed during various machining operations. It describes the
property of a material when it is cut. Materials with good
machinability require less power to cut, resulting in good surface
finish and longer cutting tool life.

• Hardenability It indicates the degree of hardness that a material

can acquire through a hardening process. It is the capability of a
material to get hardened by heat treatment. It determines the
depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching.
 Fatigue
• It is the failure of the materials when subjected to cyclic or rapid
fluctuating load conditions.
• When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than
certain threshold value but much below the strength of material (ultimate
tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks begin to
form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a
critical size. This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets
fractured.
• The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without fatigue
failure is known as the endurance limit.
 Creep
⚫The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at static
load( constant stress) is called creep.
⚫It is a slow, temperature-aided, time dependent deformation.
⚫It is most generally definedas time-depndent strain
occuring under stress.
⚫It occurs in three stages known as primary, secondary and tertiary stage
 Casting

• A process based on the property of liquid to take up the shape of the vessel
containing it.
• A cavity of desired shape is made, contained in a mold.
• Carried out in a foundry.

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• It is oldest
manufacturing process.

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• Ancient process, started
5000 years ago.

• Jaivana- 50 tons cannon

was built in 17th century
in Jaipur.

• Used for making arrows,

coins, knives etc.
World’s largest Cannon in
Jaipur, made by casting

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 Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in
the process
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

67
 Why Casting?

• A job of 5m diameter and 10m length.

• A job with a hole of 2m diameter, made of very hard material.
• Parts of very complicated shapes.

68
Have you seen any similar process before?

• What do we control?
• Size & shape of cavity and mold
• Mixture composition
• Temperature
• Cooling time
• Carefully remove it

69
 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries that can not be made
by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net
shape
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than 100
tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• Can also be applied on polymers and ceramics

70
 Disadvantages of Casting

• Different disadvantages for different casting processes:

• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g.,
sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problems

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 Parts Made by Casting

• Big parts
• Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves,
machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump housings
• Small parts
• Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans
• All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous and nonferrous

72
 Basic steps in Casting

• Pattern making
• Mold making
• Melting of metal and pouring
• Cooling and solidification of metal
• Cleaning of casting and inspection

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 1. Pattern

• Replica of the desired product

• Has somehow different dimensions than the actual part to be
manufactured
• Used to form the mold cavity

1.Materials used
2.Types of patterns
3.Pattern Allowances

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 2. Molding (Mold making)
• The term moulding process refers to the method of making the mould
and the materials used.
• Moulding processes have certain features in common-
• The use of pattern.
• Some type of aggregate mixture comprising a refractory and binders.
• A means of forming the aggregate mixture around the pattern.
• Hardening of aggregate or developing its bond while in contact with
the pattern.
• Withdrawal of the pattern from the mould.
• Assembly of the mould and core pieces to make a complete mould,
metal then being poured into the mould.

75
 The Mold in Casting
• Mold is a container with cavity whose geometry determines
part shape
• Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow
for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling
• Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster,
ceramic, and metal

76
 Open Molds and Closed Molds
Cavity is closed
Cavity is open to atmosphere

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired
part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.

77
 Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold

which must be destroyed to remove casting
• Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which
can be used over and over to produce many castings
• Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material)

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79
Expandable mold casting

80
 Sand Casting

20-01-2021 81
 Common features

Schematic illustration of sand casting showing various features.

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 Features/Elements
• Pattern: A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final
product and is used for preparing mould cavity
• Riser: A column of metal placed in the mold to feed the casting as it
shrinks and solidifies. Also known as a "feed head."
• Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from
the sprue to the gate.
• Cores: A separated part of the mold, made of sand and generally
baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in
the casting.
• Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the casting
cavity.

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• Parting Line: Joint where mold separates to permit removal of the
pattern and which shows how and where to open the mold. Sand: A sand
which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases.
• Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in place in a mold.
• Not used when a core print will serve.
• Binders: Materials used to hold molding sand together.
• Pouring basin: Filling the mold with molten metal. Shrinkage: The
decrease in volume when molten metal solidifies.
• Mould: The mould contains a cavity whose geometry determines the
shape of cast part.
• Mould material should posses refractory characteristics and with stand
the pouring temperature

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 Forming the Mold Cavity
• Cavity is inverse of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Pattern is model of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Wet sand is made by adding binder in the sand
• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed sand has
desired shape of cast part
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
Difference among pattern, cavity & part ?

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 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
• Cavity provides the external features of the cast part
• Core provides internal features of the part. It is
placed inside the mold cavity with some support.
• In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

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 Gating System
It is channel through which molten metal flows into cavity
from outside of mold
• Consists of a down-sprue, through which metal enters a
runner leading to the main cavity
• At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup is often used to
minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows into
down-sprue

20-01-2021 87
 Riser
It is a reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate
for shrinkage of the part during solidification
Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so castings shrink upon
cooling, which can leave a void at the last point to solidify. Risers prevent
this by providing molten metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the
cavity forms in the riser and not in the casting

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 3. Heating the Metal

• Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten temperature

sufficient for casting
• The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for pouring

89
 3. Pouring the Molten Metal
• For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of
the mold, most importantly the main cavity, before solidifying
• Factors that determine success
• Pouring temperature
• Pouring rate
• Turbulence
• Pouring temperature should be sufficiently high in order to
prevent the molten metal to start solidifying on its way to the
cavity

90
 Pouring the Molten Metal
Pouring rate should neither be high (may stuck the runner –
should match viscosity of the metal) nor very low that may
start solidifying on its way to the cavity

Turbulence should be kept to a minimum in order to ensure

smooth flow and to avoid mold damage and entrapment of
foreign materials. Also, turbulence causes oxidation at the
inner surface of cavity. This results in cavity damage and poor
surface quality of casting.

91
 Fluidity

A measure of the capability of the metal to flow into and fill the mold
before freezing.
• Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity (resistance to flow)
Factors affecting fluidity are:
- Pouring temperature relative to melting point
- Metal composition
- Viscosity of the liquid metal
- Heat transfer to surrounding

92
 4. Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps: a. while cooling

of metal in liquid form (liquid contraction); b.
during phase transformation from liquid to solid
(solidification shrinkage); c. while solidified
metal is cooled down to room temperature (solid
thermal contraction).

93
(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification
shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal contraction during
cooling of solid metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Why cavity forms at top , why not at bottom?

94
Pattern and Pattern Making
 Content
• Pattern : Introduction
• Pattern : Materials
• Pattern : Types
 The Pattern and their functions
Pattern is a replica of a object to be made with some modifications. The
modifications are

(i) Allowances

(ii) Core Print

• A pattern somehow have different dimensions than the actual part to be
manufactured
• A pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose
of making a casting.
• A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires
a core and need to be made hollow.
• Runner, gates and risers may form a part of the pattern.
• A pattern may help in establishing locating points on the mould and therefore
on the casting with a purpose to check the casting dimensions,
• Patterns establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
• A pattern may help position a core before the moulding sand is rammed.
• Properly made patterns having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.
• Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the castings.
 Pattern Materials
• Requirements:

1. Easily shaped, worked, machined and joined

2. Resistant to wear and corrosion
3. Resistant to chemical action
4. Dimensionally stable
5. Easily available and economical
6. Light in weight
7. Strong, hard and durable
8. Good surface finish
 Pattern Materials
1. Wood:
• Easy availability, low weight and low cost

• Can be easily shaped

• More than 90% castings use wood patterns

• Absorbs moisture. So, distortions and dimensional changes occur

• Relatively lower life, hence suitable for small quantity production

• Ex: Pine, Teak wood

 Pattern Materials
2. Metal:
• Metal patterns are extensively for casting, because of their strength, accuracy,
good dimensional stability, durability and smooth surface finish

• Used for large quantity production and for closer dimensional tolerances

• Longer life

• Metals: Al, cast iron, brass, white metal etc.

• Aluminium and White metal are most commonly used, these materials are light
weight, it can be easily worked, corrosion resistant
 Pattern Materials
3. Plastic:
• Low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces and durability
• Do not absorb moisture. So, dimensionally stable
• Corrosion resistance
Ex: Epoxy resin, phenolic resin, foam plastic etc

4. Plasters:
• It has high strength.
• It can be easily formed into complex shapes and it can be easily worked.
• Ex: Gypsum cement
5. Waxes:
• Excellent material for investment casting
• Good surface finish
• High tensile strength,
• Hardness
Ex: Paraffin Wax, Bees Wax
6 Rubbers:
Mainly used for investment casting
Ex: Silicon Rubber
 Selection of pattern materials

(i) The number of castings to be produced. Metal Pattern are preferred when
the production is large.
(ii) Method of moulding i.e., Hand or machine moulding.
(iii) Type of casting method to be used
(iv) Shape, complexity and size of the casting.
(v) Degree of accuracy and surface finish required
(vi) Type of moulding materials i.e., Sand etc.
 Types of Patterns

Solid Pattern Split Pattern Match-plate pattern Cope and Drag pattern
 Pattern Types

1.Single piece pattern:

• If the object to be produced is
very simple and size without any
complex surfaces we can select
solid pattern.
• Used for simple shaped & large
castings.
• Pattern and cavity produced by it
are completely in the lower flask
(i.e. drag)
2.Split pattern:
• If the complexity of the object is more
i.e., Patterns of intricate castings can
not be made in one piece because of
inherent difficulties associated with
the molding operations.
• Split pattern models the part as two
separate pieces that meet along the
parting line of the mould
• Two parts are aligned by Dowel pin
3.Loose Piece pattern
• As per the name the pattern contain one or more than one loose piece
• Loose piece is used to make removal of pattern easy from mould box.
• Loose pieces are attached to main body with the help of dowel pins or wire.
• If the object to be produced is having some web portions or overhanging portion it
is difficult to remove the pattern as a solid pr split piece pattern.
• First main pattern is drawn and then carefully loose pieces
• Moulding with this pattern is expensive and require more skill
4. Match-plate pattern:
• Similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite sides of a
single plate.
• Match plate confirms the parting line
• Ensures proper alignment of the mould cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can
be included on the match plate.
• Can be used for large number of casting with very little hand work.
• A match plate can be single pattern or a combination of many small patterns
• Used for larger production quantities.
• IC Engines piston rings
5. Cope-Drag pattern:
• It is similar to split pattern
• Each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mould halves
are made independently.
• .Pattern is made in two halves and split along parting line
• These two halves are known as cope and drag
• There moulding done independently
• After moulding they are assembled to form complete mould box
• Often desirable for larger castings and inconvenient handling
6. Gated pattern:
• In this patters of gate and riser or runner are permanently attached to regular
pattern
• They are used to manufacture multiple casting in on time
• Each pattern is connected with common runner .
• Suitable for pouring small castings and for mass production
• It save labour and time
7. Sweep pattern:
• Sweep patterns are used for the castings which are symmetrical
and regular in shape like cylinder,bells or pipe etc.
• This type of pattern is used when the castings required are very
large.
• In sweep pattern a simple sweep which is rotated about a central
axis is used to produce a mould cavity.
8. Skelton Pattern
• Skeleton pattern is a hollow form of pattern, consisting of a wooden frame
and ribs, as shown in Fig.The hollow portion is filled with loam sand or
clayed sand.
The skeleton pattern is made in two halves; one is placed in the cope and
other in the drag.
Reduce the moulding material in casting of complex shapes. Production of
large size shells and drums is possible.
Pattern Design and Layout
 Content
• Pattern : Allowances
• Pattern Design Considerations
• Pattern Layout and Construction
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

❖A duplicate of the product to be cast,

modified dimensionally to reflect process of material to be cast
❖ Modification incorporatedin pattern are allowance
or pattern allowance
❖ Sometime the patterns are not exactly the same size as the desired
casting shape.
❖ To compensate for patterning process, removal of pattern,
dimensional and structural changes during the casting, allowances are
made in pattern.
 (1) Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance:

Shrinkage means contraction of metal on solidification

❖ Generally metals shrink in size during solidification and cooling in the mould
(Except grey cast iron that expands on solidification).
❖ So casting becomes smaller than the pattern and the mould cavity
❖ Therefore, to compensate for this, mould and the pattern should be made larger
than the casting by the amount of shrinkage.
❖ The amount of compensation for shrinkage is called the shrinkage allowance.
❖ Shrinkage allowance differs from material to material.
❖ Positive type of allowance and measured in mm/min.
❖ Generally shrinkage of casting varies not only with material but also with
shape, thickness, casting temperature, mould temperature, and mould strength.
 Stages of Shrinkage

As molten metal cools, shrinkage occurs in three distinct stages:

❖ Liquid shrinkage is the contraction that occurs as the alloy cools but remains in its
liquid state. It occurs prior to solidification. This shrinkage is compensated by
providing riser.

❖ Liquid-to-solid shrinkage (also known as solidification shrinkage) occurs as the alloy

changes from a liquid to a solid.

❖ Solid shrinkage is the continued shrinkage that occurs as the solid metal casting cools
to ambient temperature in its solid state.
 Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling: (0) starting level of
molten metal immediately after pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid
contraction during cooling (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of

Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification

shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal contraction
during cooling of solid metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of

Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Solidification Shrinkage

❖ Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase
❖ Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit
weight of metal (Exception: cast iron with high C content)
❖ Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease associated
with phase change
❖ Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final
casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
❖ Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are
applied accordingly
133
 (2) Draft or Taper Allowance

❖ Draft generally refers to the taper provide to the vertical surfaces of the pattern.

❖ When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that
any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process.

❖ To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal

of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges.

❖ The draft is expressed in millimeters per meter on a side or in degrees (1-3 deg).

❖ The amount of draft needed depends upon (1) the shape of casting, (2) depth of
casting, (3) moulding method, and (4) moulding material.
136
 (3) Machining or Finish Allowance

❖ The surface finish obtained in sand castings is generally poor

(dimensionally inaccurate)
❖ Hence in many cases, the cast product is subjected to machining
processes like turning or grinding in order to improve the surface
finish
❖ During machining processes, some metal is removed from the piece

❖ To compensate for this, a machining allowance (additional

material) should be given in the casting
Amount of machining allowance depends upon:

❖ Method of moulding and casting used

❖ Size and shape of casting
❖ Casting orientation
❖ Metal used in casting
❖ Degree of accuracy and finish required
 (4) Distortion Allowance:

❖Due to their typical shapes (U,V,T,L shapes) , castings get

distorted during solidification.
❖Distortion is observed in irregular castings so that it shrink in
uneven manner.
❖Distortions are caused by internal stresses which are generated
on account of unequal cooling of different sections of casting
i.e. different shrinkage rate.
❖To avoid this distortion allowance is provided
❖It varies from 2 to 20 mm
❖ For example, a U-shaped casting will be distorted during cooling with the
legs diverged or deviated, instead of parallel (Figure).
❖ For compensating this, the pattern is made with the legs converged or
jointed but, as the casting cools, the legs straighten and remain parallel.

(a) Casting without camber or bend

(b) Actual casting
(c) Pattern with camber or bend
A casting will distort or wrap if :

i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e.,
some parts shrinks while others are
restricted from during so,
iii. It is U or V-shape
 (5) Shake or Rapping Allowance:

❖ Additional size tolerances must be built into the pattern

❖ When the pattern is shaken for easy withdrawal from the mould cavity, hence
the casting is slightly increased in size.
❖ In order to compensate for this increase, the pattern should be initially made
slightly smaller.
❖ In this process, the final cavity is enlarged. To compensate for this, the
pattern dimensions need to be reduced.
❖ Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e., the pattern dimensions are
kept smaller in order to compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due to
rapping.
Amount of rapping allowance depends
upon:
1. Extent of rapping
2. Degree of compaction of sand
3. Size of mould
4. Sand type
 Content
• Molding Sand : Types
• Sand Molding types
 Types Of Molding Sand
1. Green sand:

¬ It is sand used in the wet condition for making the mould. It is mixture
of silica sand with 15- 25 per cent clay and 6-8 per cent water
As explained earlier green sand moulds are not dried and metal is
¬ poured in them in the wet condition
Being damp the sand can be easily worked with hand to give it any
desired shape
¬
This sand is used for producing small to medium sized moulds
which are not very complex
¬
GREEN SAND
2. Dry sand:
¬ Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or baked after preparing the
mould.
¬ Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that it can be used for larger
castings
3. Loam sand:
Loam sand is sand containing up to 50 % clay which has been worked to
the consistency of builder mortar.
This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy castings usually
with the help of sweeps and skeleton patterns
4. Parting sand:
This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that green sand does
not stick to the pattern and the cope and drug parts can be easily separated
for removing the pattern without causing any damage to the mould.
Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried silica sand, sea sand
or burnt sand with some parting compounds.
The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground bone and
limestone, groundnut shells, talc and calcium phosphate.
PARTING SAND
5. Facing sand:
Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it. The
remaining box is filled with ordinary floor sand.
Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct contact
with the molten metal when it is poured.
High strength and refractoriness are required for this sand.
It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition of any used sand.
Graphite, mollasses etc. may be added to the facing sand. Thickness of
the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm
6. Backing sand:
Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing sand and to
fill up the volume of the flask.
It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used molding sand which is generally
black in color due to addition of coal dust and burning on contact with hot
metal.
Because of the color backing sand is also sometimes called black
sand.
The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to reduce the cost of
molding.
BACKING SAND
7. Core sand:
′ Core sand is the sand used for making cores. This is silica sand mixed

with core oil. That is why it is also called oil sand.

′ The core oil consists of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil with

some binders.
′ For larger cores, sometimes pitch or flour and water may also be used

to save on cost.
 Green Sand Molding
• Green sand is an aggregate of sand, Bentonite clay, pulverized coal
and water. Its principal use is in making molds for metal casting.
• The largest portion of the aggregate is always sand, which can be
either silica or olivine.
• Green sand is usually housed in flasks which are nothing other than
boxes without a bottom or lid. The box is split into two halves which
are stacked together in use. The halves are referred to as the top
(cope) and bottom (drag) flask respectively.
• Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is
used in a wet state with some amount of clay in it.
Silica Sand (85-92%), Clay (Bentonite as Binder) of 6-12%,
Water 3-5% and Additives are mixed in suitable proportions
together to prepare the green sand mixture.
 Steps in Green sand mold

• The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it.
Parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green sand mixture
sticking to the pattern.
• The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till
its top surface. The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the
top. Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
• The cope box is placed on top of the drag box and the sprue and riser pin
are placed in suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the
level of cope box.
• The sprue and the riser are removed from the mold. The cope box is
lifted and placed aside, and the pattern in the drag box is withdrawn by
rapping it carefully so as to avoid damage to the mould. Gates are cut
using hand tools to provide passage for the flow of molten metal.
• The mold cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any are placed in
the mould to obtain a hollow cavity in the casting.
• The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the
help of pins. Vent holes are made to allow the free escape of gases
from the mold during pouring. The mould is made ready for pouring.
 Advantages

• Less expensive Method.

• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay
and moisture.
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production.
 Disadvantage

• Molds prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.

• They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc. because of low
permeability and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
• Molds cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
• Not suitable for very large size casting.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.
• Mold erosion is common in Green sand mold casting.
• Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.
 Dry Sand Molding

• Dry sand casting is a sophisticated

form of green sand process, in which
the sand mold is baked at a given
temperature to make it stronger.

• This process in mostly used in large

foundries to produce big ferrous and
non-ferrous castings like engine
blocks, construction parts, etc.

• Dry sand casting ensures precise size

and perfect dimensions.
• The factors affecting the casting process is the proper baking of the mold
and the accurate consideration of size, weight and mass of the casting.
• The key to this process is the proper baking time in relation to the binder
and the moisture content.

Applications:
• Both ferrous and non-metals can be cast using the dry sand cast method.
• This process is largely used for producing intricate designs for heavy
applications.
• Some of the casting that are produced are engine blocks, large gears, big
housings, construction parts, big gear boxes, transmission housings,
agricultural casting, automotive parts, etc.
 Advantages

• Complicate designs required for engines and automobiles can be

designed with relative ease.
• Accuracy is terms of dimensions, size, designs, is the main benefit.
• Though an expensive process, accuracy is maintained in every respect.
• A process is favored by large foundries.
 Disadvantage

• Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process. Hence,
not suitable for mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to
bake.
• High capital cost of bake ovens.
• Under baked or over baked molds is another disadvantage.
Sand Molding : Molding sand properties, Ingredients
 Content
• Molding Sand : Properties
• Sand Molding Ingredients
• Effects of ingredients on properties
 Properties of the Moulding Sand
1. Refractoriness:
• The ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperatures without
breaking down or fusing.
• The degree of refractoriness depends on SiO2 content and shape & grain
size of the particle.
• To enhance the property, sand should have lower percentage of lime,
magnesia, alkali, oxides of metals.
• Refractoriness is measured by Sinter point rather than its melting point. ( At
sintering temperature, the moulding sand adheres to the casting).
• The absence of melting, softening, or adherence of the sand to the casting
makes for better casting surface and easier cleaning of the casting.
• Refractoriness of silica sand is the highest i.e. 1713 C
2. Permeability:
• Also referred as porosity, is the property of sand allow the escape of any air, gases
or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into
it.
• Liquid metals cause evolution of gases due to their reaction with moulding sand
ingredients.
• Permeability is a function of:
1. Grain size
2. Grain shape
3. Moisture and clay contents in the moulding sand.
4. Degree of ramming
3. Cohesiveness:
• It is property of moulding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and attract each other within
the moulding sand.
• Moulding sand should be capable of withstanding the compressive and erosive force exerted by liquid metal
while filling the cavity.
• Low strength mouldings result in defective castings.
• It depends upon the grain size (decrease with grain size), sand particle shape and size, moisture content and
clay content (increases with clay content).
• Cohesiveness inversely affect the porosity

4. Flowability:
• It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid.
• It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all
around in all directions.
• In general, flow ability increases with decrease in green strength, an, decrease in grain size.
• flow ability also varies with moisture and clay content.
• It is also called as plasticity fluidity.
5. Adhesiveness:
• It is property of moulding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such sticking of
moulding sand with inner wall of moulding box.
• It helps the sand to retain the mould cavity and stay in the box.
• The molding sand should collapse during the contraction of the solidified casting it does not
provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings.
6. Collapsibility:
• After solidification of the molten metal, the casting is required to be removed from the
mould.
• If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free contraction of the metal as well as easy
removal of the casting is possible.
• If the sand is not collapsible, it will strongly adhere to the casting, becoming very hard to
separate after metal solidification.
7. Strength

(i) Green strength

• The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The strength of the sand in
green or moist state is termed as green strength.
• A mold with adequate green strength will be able to retain its shape and will not distort or
collapse.
• The green sand particles have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to
the mold.
(ii) Dry Strength
• It is the strength of the molding sand in dry conditions.
• When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten
metal.
• At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the
mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the
liquid material.
• Dry sand strength is related to grain size, binder and water content.

(iii) Hot strength

• It is strength of the sand above 212 F.
• As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal
in the mold is still in liquid state.
• The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
• In absence of hot strength the mold may enlarge, break, erode or get cracked.
8. Durability
• The molding sand should possess the capacity to withstand repeated cycles
of heating and cooling during casting process
• Molding sand should be chemically immune to molten metals.
• Should be reusable.
• It should be easy to prepare and control.
9. Fineness
• Finer sand molds resists metal penetration and produces smooth casting
surface.
• Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they
must be balanced for optimum results.
10. Bench Life
It is ability of the molding sand to retain its properties during storage.
 Ingredients of molding sands
Molding sands are actually mixtures of three or more ingredients.
Green sand -- clay, water, sand (SiO 2 ).
Also a number of other ingredients/materials are added.
1. Sand: Molding sand contains 50 to 95 % of the total material in a molding sand.
′ These sand particles may differ in the following ways:
′ Average grain size, grain size distribution and grain shape. Chemical
′
composition, refractoriness and thermal stability.

′
• Silica sand is most commonly used base sand.
• Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand and
′
olivine sand.
• Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
′
• Generally the purest silica sand, 99.8+ percent SiO 2 is considered the most refractory and
thermally stable.
• The shape of sand grains may be rounded, angular, or sub-angular depending on their
geologic history.
2. Binder
• To impart sufficient strength and cohesiveness.
• Adverse effect on permeability
• Binders are of many types such as, Organic binders (Dextrin, molasses,
linseed oil etc. and Inorganic binders (Clay, sodium silicate, portland
cement etc.)
• Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the
molding sands to provide the strength.
• The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay and Bentonite.
• Bentonite can absorb more water than fire clay which increases its
bonding power.
3. Water ( 2-8 %)
• Activate the clay ----------- develop plasticity and strength.
• Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required
amount of moisture.
• When water (pore water) is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and
forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay.
• The amount of water used should be properly controlled.
• This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay
flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the
plasticity.
• Free water ----- lubricant --- makes the sand more plastic and more
moldable though the strength may be lowered.
′ Special Additives
• Cereals: finely ground corn flour or gelatinized and ground starch from corn.
• 0.25 to 2.00 percent.
′ • Increase green or dry strength and collapsibility.

• Ground Pitch: by-product of coke making. up to 2.0 percent .

′
• It improves hot strength and casting finish on ferrous castings

• Sea Coal: 2 to 8 percent. A finally ground soft coal. Grey and malleable iron molding sands.
• It improve the surface finish & improve ease of cleaning the castings.

′ • Gilsonite: About 0.4 to 0.8 percent. A mineral.

• Improve casting finish

′ • Fuel Oil: A little fuel oil is sometimes used as a replacement for a small percentage of water,
thus lowering the total percentage of moisture present .
• Wood Flour: 0.5 to 2.0 percent .
• Enhance thermal stability.
• Control the expansion of sand by burning out at elevated temperature

•Silica Flour: Up to 35 percent

• Increase hot strength

• Iron Oxide: 0.25 to 1.0 percent

• To obtain added hot strength.

• Molasses, Dextrin: Cane or blackstrap molasses, unrefined, and containing 60 to 70

percent sugar solids, may be used for increased dry strength.
•Dextrins may also be used for the same purpose.
 Effect of the ingredients
• Properties depends on several factors.
i) The sand ingredients.
ii) The methods of preparing the sand for molding.
iii) The method of molding employed in using the sand.
iv)Variables related to the casting such as weight, shape, kind of casting alloy and gating design.

Each of the ingredients can have important effects on the properties.

Principal ingredient ----- Silica Sand Grains
Effects of the Sand Grains:
Casting surface finish, mold permeability, sand strength, refractoriness, and expansion
characteristics are all influenced by the grain size and distribution..
• Sand grains and permeability:
Coarser sand ---- greater permeability
Finer sand ---- lower permeability and good surface finish.
The grain size distribution has a pronounced effect on permeability.
• Sand grains and strength:
Strength ----------- surface area of sand grains available for binding.
Fine sands present more surface area and can develop high strength, but of course more clay is
required.
Wide size distributions favor strength, while narrow distributions reduce strength.
Angular sand grains ----- more strength.
• Sand grains and Expansion:
Wide size distribution --- dense packing of the grains --- cause expansion problems.
Fine sands also expands more.
• Coarse and uniformly graded sand imparts high permeability, good refractoriness and high
flowability.
Grain shape effects
 ′ Effects of Clay: Water is necessary to activate the clay.

Clay and Sand Strength: For a given clay type and content, there is an optimum water
content.
The effects of the clay on dry and hot strengths are quite important.
Too low a dry strength permits washing of the sand by the metal, and dirt in the castings.
Too low or too high a hot strength is also undesirable.
Clay Content and Permeability: Permeability is reduced by fine material in the sand.
Increasing clay content ------ lowers permeability.
Clay Content & Expansion
Clay content of 10 to 14 per cent in the sand mixture are accompanied by minimum
confined-expansion value, 0.03 to 0.04 in. per in. as measured at 2500 F.
High clay contents together with the proper amount of water and ramming of the sand thus
favor thermal stability.
′ Effectsof water:
Close control of the moisture content of molding sand.
Less water causes ------- the clay to develop higher dry strength.
The bonding action is attributed to adsorbed water rigidly held by the clay.
With its adsorbed water, the clay coatings on the sand grains can be
wedged together if sufficient force (ramming) is applied.
Free water, un-adsorbed, can lubricate the coated sand grains and permit a
greater bulk density to be reached.
 Gating System

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 Contents
• Introduction
• Elements of Gating System
• Functions of gating system
• Defects occurring due to improper design of gating system
• Types of Gates
• Guidelines for Designing Gating System

187
 Introduction

• Mould is used for producing a casting. Molten metal is conveyed into

the mold cavity by using Gating system.
• In casting process, gating system plays an important role to produce a
high quality casting.
• A poorly designed gating system in results
casting defects.
• A gating system controls mould filling process. The main
function of gating system is to lead molten metal from ladle to the
casting cavity ensuring smooth, uniform and complete filling.

188
 Elements of Gating Systems
• The term gating system refers to all passageways through which the molten
metal passes to enter the mould cavity.
• The gating system is composed of
✔Pouring basin
✔Sprue
✔Runner
✔Gates
✔Risers

189189
Pouring Cup
It is the funnel-shaped opening, made at the top of the mold. The main purpose of the pouring basin is to
direct the flow of molten metal from ladle to the sprue.
Sprue
It is a vertical passage connects the pouring basin to the runner or ingate. It is generally made tapered
downward to avoid aspiration of air. The cross section of the sprue may be square, rectangular, or
circular.
Sprue well
It is located at the base of the sprue. It arrests the free fall of molten metal through the sprue and
turns it by a right angle towards the runner.
Runner
It is a long horizontal channel which carries molten metal and distribute it to the ingates .It will ensure
proper supply of molten metal to the cavity so that proper filling of the cavity takes place.
Gates
These are small channels connecting the mould cavity and the runner.The gates used may vary in
number depends on size of the casting.

190
• Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting. This can
be achieved by considering following requirements.

✔ A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in direction.

✔ A gating system should fill the mould cavity before freezing.

✔ The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A
turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the mould.

✔ Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould

materials should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.

✔ The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a way
that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.
✔ A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that
the casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions.

✔ Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould erosion
takes place.

✔ The gating system should ensure that enoughmolten metal

reaches the mould cavity.

✔ It should be economical and easy to implement and remove after casting

solidification.
 Functions of gating system
• A good gating system should help easy and complete
filling of the mould cavity.
• It should fill the mould cavity with molten metal with
least amount of turbulance.
• It should prevent mould erosion.
• It should establish proper temperature gradient in the casting.
• It should promote directional solidification.
• It should regulate the rate of flow of metal into the mould
cavity.
193
• For proper functioning of the gatingsystem, the
following factors need to be controlled.

✔ Type of pouring equipment, such as ladles,

pouring basin etc.
✔ Temperature/ Fluidity of molten metal.
✔ Rate of liquid metal pouring.
✔ Type and size of sprue.
✔ Type and size of runner.
✔ Size, number and location of gates connecting runner
and casting.
✔ Position of mould during pouring and solidification.
 Gates
• A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
• A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice versa.
• A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring
and sand pieces thus may be carried with the molten metal in the mould
cavity.
 Types of Gates
• Depending upon the orientation of the parting plane.
– Horizontal Gating System
– Vertical Gating System

• Depending upon the position of ingate(s), horizontal gating system.

– Top Gating System
– Bottom Gating System
– Parting-line Gating System

196
197
• Horizontal System: This type of gating system is suitable for flat
casting, achieved by filling the mold cavity with gravity. It is
generally applied in ferrous metals’ sand casting as well as in non-
ferrous metals’ die casting process.

• Vertical System: This type of system is suitable for tall casting. It

is used in high-pressure sand casting, shell mold casting, and die
casting

22-01-2021 198
 Top gate
In this type of gate the molten metal from the top flows down directly into the
mould. As all the molten metal enters the casting at the top, the hottest metal
comes to rest at the top of casting with the result, proper temperature gradient
is formed to enable directional solidification of casting from the bottom side
towards the riser.
• The principle advantages of top gating are its simplicity
for moulding, its low consumption of additional metal
and, above all the generation of temperature gradients
favorable to feeding from top heads.
• The main disadvantages of this type of gating is the
erosion of the mould, which takes place by the falling
metal.
• The cavity of mould, therefore should be much harder
and strong to resist this impact.
 Bottom Gate
• A bottom gate is made in the drag portion.
• In a bottom gate the liquid metal fills rapidly the bottom portion of the
mould cavity and rises steadily and gently up the mould walls.
• As comparison to top gate, bottom gate involves little turbulence and sand
erosion.
• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.
• If freezing takes place at the bottom, it could choke off the metal flow
before the mould is full.
• Creates an unfavourable temperature gradient and makes it difficult to
achieve directional solidification.

202202
 Parting Line Side Gate
• Middle or side or parting gating systems combine the
characteristics of top and bottom gating systems.
• gate is provided along the parting line such that some portion of
the mould cavity will be below the parting line and some portion
will be above it.
• The cavity below the parting line will be filled by assuming top
gating and the cavity above the parting line will be filled by
assuming bottom gating.

205205
 Guidelines for Designing Gating System
• The size of the sprue fixes the flow rate. The amount of molten metal that can
be fed into the mold cavity in a given time period is limited by the size of the
sprue.
• The sprue should be located at certain distance from the gates so as to
minimize velocity of molten metal at ingates.
• Sprue should be tapered by approximately 5% minimum to avoid aspiration
of the air and free fall of the metal.
• Ingates should be located in thick regions.
• Locate the gates so as to minimize the erosion of the sand mold by the metal
stream. This may be achieved by orienting the gates in the direction of the
natural flow paths.
• Multiple gating is frequently desirable. This has the advantage of lower
pouring temperatures, which improves the metallurgical structure of the
casting. In addition, multiple gating helps to reduce the temperature gradients
in the casting1.3
• sharp corner and abrupt changes in at any section or portion in gating
system should be avoided for suppressing turbulence and gas
entrapment.
• gating ratio should reveal that the total cross section of sprue, runner
and gate decreases towards the mould cavity which provides a choke
effect.
• bending of runner if any should be kept away from mould cavity.
• developing the various cross sections of gating system to nullify the
effect of turbulence or momentum of molten metal

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 Melting Furnaces

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 Contents
• Introduction
• Selection of Melting Furnaces
• Types of Furnaces
• Working and Applications of different furnaces

209
 Introduction
What is a Furnace?
• Equipment to melt metals
– Casting
– Change shape
– Change properties
• Type of fuel important
– Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity
• Low efficiencies due to
– High operating temperature
– Emission of hot exhaust gases

210210
 Selection of melting furnaces
The selection of a foundry furnace depends upon the following factors:
i. Initial cost of the furnace
ii. Fuel cost
iii. Kind of metal or alloy to be melted
iv. Melting and pouring temperature of the metal to be cast
v. Quantity of metal to be melted
vi. Cost of furnace repair and maintenance
vii. Cost of melting per unit weight of the metal
viii.Chances of metal to absorb impurities during melting
ix. Quantity of the finished product desired
Furnaces for Casting Processes

212212
 Furnaces for Casting Processes

• Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

– Cupolas
– Direct fuel-fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric-arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces
 Furnaces can also be classified according to the molten metal
3. Non-ferrous metals
•1. Gray Cast Iron i. Crucible furnaces (Al ,Cu)
i. Cupola ⮚Pit type
ii. Air furnace ⮚Tilting type
iii. Rotary furnace ⮚Non-tilting or bale out type
iv. Electric arc furnace ⮚Electric resistance type (CU)
ii. Pot furnaces (fuel fired) (Mg & Al)
⮚Stationary
•2. Steel
⮚Tilting
i. Open hearth furnace. ii. Reverberatory furnaces (fuel fired ) (Al & Cu)
ii. Electric furnace. ⮚Stationary
⮚Tilting
⮚Arc furnace
iv. Rotary furnaces
⮚High frequency induction furnace ⮚Fuel fired
⮚Electrically heated
v. Induction furnaces (Al & Cu)
⮚Low frequency
⮚High frequency
v. Electric Arc furnaces (Cu)
 Cupola Furnace
• Cupola was made by Rene-Antoine around 1720.
• Cupola is a melting device.
• Used in foundries for production of cast iron.
• Used for making bronzes.
• Its charge is Coke , Metal , Flux.
• Scrap of blast furnace is re melted in cupola.
• Large cupolas may produce up to 100 tons/hour of hot iron.
 CUPOLA FURNACE
i. For many years, the cupola was the primary method of
melting used in iron foundries.
ii. The cupola furnace has several unique characteristics which are responsible
for its widespread use as a melting unit for cast iron.
iii. Cupola furnace is employed for melting scrap metal or pig iron for production
of various cast irons. It is also used for production of nodular and malleable
cast iron. It is available in good varying sizes. The main considerations in
selection of cupolas are melting capacity, diameter of shell without lining or
with lining, spark arrester.
Shape
A typical cupola melting furnaceconsists of a water-cooled
vertical cylinder which is lined with refractory material.
Vertical cylindrical furnace
equipped with tapping spout
near base

217217
Construction
i. The construction of a conventional cupola
consists of a vertical steel shell which is lined
with a refractory brick.
iii.
The charge is introduced into the furnace
body by means of an opening approximately
half way up the vertical shaft.
iv. The charge consists of alternate layers of the
metal to be melted, coke fuel and limestone
flux.
v. The fuel is burnt in air which is introduced
through tuyeres positioned above the hearth.
The hot gases generated in the lower part of
the shaft ascend and preheat the descending
charge.
Cupola furnace
 Construction
• Cupola is a cylindrical in shape and placed vertical.
• Its shell is made of steel.
• Its size is expressed in diameters and can range from
0.5 to 4.0 m.
• It supported by four legs.
• Internal walls are lined with refectory bricks.
• Its lining is temporary.
 Parts of Cupola

• Spark arrester.
• Charging door.
• Air box.
• Tuyeres.
• Tap hole.
• Slag hole.
Cupola Zones
 Operation of Cupola
• Preparation of cupola.
• Firing the cupola.
• Soaking of iron.
• Opening of air blast.
• Pouring the molten metal.
• Closing the cupola.
 Preparation of cupola

• Slag and metal adhere to the cupola lining from the previous
run is removed and lining of cupola is re made.
• The bottom plates are swung to closing position supported by
prob.
• The sand bed is then prepared with molding sand such that its
slopes to towards the tap hole.
 Firing the Cupola
• The cupola is fired by kindling wood at the bottom.
• This should be done 2.5 to 3 hours before the molten
metal is required.
• On the top of the kindling wood a bed of coke is built.
• The height of the coke bed is may be vary from 50cm to
125cm according to the size of cupola.
 Soaking of Iron
• When the furnace is charged fully it is
maintain for about 45 minutes.
• The charge is slowly heated.
• During the stage the air blast is shut off
and iron is soaked.
 Opening of blast air
• At the end of the soaking period the air blast is opened.
• The taping hole is closed by a plug when the melting
proceeds and molten metal is collect at the bottom.
 Pouring of molten metal
• When the sufficient amount of metal has collected in the
hearth the slag hole is opened and the slag is removed.
• Then taping hole is opened and molten metal is flows out
in the table.
• The same procedure is repeated until the charge is melted
and the operation is over.
 Closing the cupola
• When the operation is over the air blast is shut
off .
• The bottom of furnace is opened by removing the prop.
 Advantages of Cupolas
• It is simple and economical to operate.
• Capable of accepting a wide range of materials without reducing
melt quality. Dirty, oily scrap steel and iron.
• Play an important role in the metal recycling industry
• Cupolas can refine the metal charge, removing impurities out of the
slag.
• The continuous rather than batch process suits the demands of a
repetition foundry.
• High melt rates
• Ease of operation
• Adequate temperature control
• Chemical composition control
• Less floor space requirements comparing with those furnaces with
235235
same capacity.
 Disadvantages

• Since molten iron and coke are in contact with each other, certain elements
like Si, Mn are lost (during oxidation) and others like sulphur and carbon
are picked up. This changes the final analysis of molten metal.
• Close temperature control is difficult to maintain
• Environmental pollution
• Precise composition control is difficult
Special Casting Process
DIE CASTING
 WHAT IS A DIE?
🞆 A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape
material mostly using a press tool , mould & die casting. Like molds, dies
are generally customized to the item they are used to create. Products made
with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced
technology.

PRESS TOOL MOULD DIE CASTING

 Die Casting

Die casting is a permanent mold casting procedure, in which the mold is made of metal and
large number of castings are produced from it.
 Die Casting
🞆 Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal
under high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened
tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection
mold during the process.
🞆 Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically
1.) zinc
2.) copper
3.) aluminium
4.) magnesium
5.) lead
6.) pewter : 85–99% tin along with copper , antimony , bismuth.
7.) tin based alloys
o Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.
 Die Casting
Mold:

o The mold is made of special die steels.

Die: The mold made of metals is called “die”.

o These steels have very high melting point and must resist very high
temperatures
 CLASSIFICATION OF DIES IN
DIE CASTING

ON THE BASIS OF ON THE BASIS OF

APPLICATION OF
NUMBER OF MATERIAL
PRESSURE
IMPRESSIONS POURED

SINGLE MULTI HOT COLD

IMPRESS IMPRESSI CHAMBER DIE CHAMBER DIE
ION ON CASTING CASTING

LOW HIGH
GRAVITY VACCUM SQUEEZE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
DIE DIE DIE
DIE CASTING DIE CASTING
CASTING CASTING CASTING
 Single Cavity Dies
🞆 As the name indicates, here the no. cavities is only one. This means the die produces only
one component per shot. The single are used when,
🞆 With the available Die casting machine, only single cavity die can be accommodated,
w.r.t. the locking force, shot weight and die size.
Advantages
🞆 Die cost is low and design and manufacturing is easy.
🞆 Die is smaller in size, which makes it possible for use of smaller capacity
machine.
Disadvantages
🞆 Unit cost per casting is more.
🞆 Production capacity is less.
 Multiple Cavity Dies
🞆 The Multiple cavity dies have more than one or several cavities and all
cavities are similar or identical, such that identical components are
produced. Multiple cavities dies are used when,

⚫The required production volume is large.

⚫The available die casting machine can accommodate more
than one cavity die
⚫It becomes economically feasible to go for multiple die wrt the
investments unit cost price.
⚫Advantages

⚫Production rate is high.

⚫Unit cost per component is less.

⚫Disadvantages.

⚫Initial investment of the is more.

⚫With increase in number of cavities, the feed balancing and thermal
balancing becomes more complicated.
⚫With increase in number of cavities, the design and
manufacturing becomes more complex.
⚫These require larger capacity machines which reduces the number
shots per hour. This is because the operating speed in larger capacity
machines is less compared to that of smaller capacity machines.
 Gravity Die Casting

Molten metal is poured under gravity (i.e. without pressure).

o In gravity die casting or Permanent Mold Casting, fluid metal is
poured by hand into metal molds.
o Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be casted.
o Production rate is slow.
o The casting is not so smooth or dimensionally accurate.
❑ Pros

🞆 Good surface texture

🞆 Equipment costs are relatively low
🞆 No need for applied pressure, so mould designs tend to be quite simple
🞆 Scrap metal can be recycled
🞆 Quick set up times

❑ Cons

🞆 High percentage of scrap metal

🞆 Only good for simple 3D shapes, cannot be used for complex shapes
 Cold chamber die casting
🞆 The essential feature of this process is the independent holding and injection units.

🞆 In the cold chamber process metal is transferred by ladle, manually or automatically, to

the shot sleeve. Actuation of the injection piston forces the metal into the die. This is a
single-shot operation. This procedure minimizes the contact time between the hot metal
and the injector components, thus extending their operating life. The cold chamber process
is used for the production of aluminum and copper base alloys and has been extended to
the production of steel castings.

🞆 The mold has sections, which include the “cover” or hot side and the “movable” or ejector
side. The die may also have additional moveable segments called slides or pulls, which are
used to create features such as undercuts or holes which are parallel to the parting line. The
machines run at required temperatures and pressures to produce a quality part to near net-
shape.
🞆 Some application for Aluminum Die Castings:
🞆 Automotive industry
🞆 Electrical Metal frames and housing
🞆 Complex shapes with thin walls
⚫Advantages

• High melting metal can be cast

• Cold chamber die casting products have some advantages like intricate
detail, thin walls, and superior mechanical properties.
• Equipment cost is less

⚫Disadvantages.

⚫Lower production rate

⚫Need more pressure than hot chamber
 Hot chamber Die Casting

🞆 In hot chamber die casting manufacture, the supply of molten metal is attached to
the die casting machine and is an integral part of the casting apparatus for this
manufacturing operation.
🞆 The metal for casting is maintained at an appropriate temperature in a holding furnace
adjacent to, if not part of, the machine.
🞆 The injection mechanism is located within the holding furnace and a substantial part of it is
therefore in constant contact with the molten metal.
🞆 Pressure is transmitted to the metal by the injection piston, which forces it through the
gooseneck and into the die.
🞆 On the return stroke metal is drawn into the gooseneck for the next shot. In this process there
is minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected, thus minimizing the tendency
for turbulent entrainment of air in the metal during injection.
🞆 Due to the prolonged contact between the metal and parts of the injection system hot
chamber is restricted to zinc- base alloys.
❑ Some applications of Zinc Die Castings:
🞆 Automotive Industry
🞆 Fuel Pumps
🞆 Carburetor Parts
🞆 Valve Covers
🞆 Handles
⚫Advantages

• Close tolerances i.e. 0.002 mm

• Excellent surface finish 1-2.5 microns
• Intricate detail, thin walls can be produced
• Mass production and faster rate of production
⚫Disadvantages.

⚫Cost of equipment is high

⚫High die cost
⚫Only suitable for non ferrous materials.
⚫Not suitable for small scale production
INVESTMENT CASTING
 Overview/History
o This technique is both one of the oldest & most advanced of
the metallurgical art.
o The root of this technology, the “lost wax” method dates back to at
least fourth millennium B.C and was originated in China.
o From 5,000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern,
today high-technology waxes are used in molding.
o In today's world Investment Casting touches all of our lives. When we
fly on an airplane, drive an automobile, play golf, we are using
investment casting.
 Introduction
o Commonly referred to as “Lost wax Casting”.
o The Pattern is made up of wax or plastic Such as Polystyrene
because of low melting temperature.
o The molten metal is poured into the ceramic mold and mold is
formed using wax pattern.(The wax assembly is dipped into high-
grade ceramic slurry )
o Investment casting is often referred to as "lost-wax casting"
because the wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it has been
formed.
 Introduction
o Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using
Al alloys, bronze alloys, Mg alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool
steel.

o This process is beneficial for casting metals with high melting

temperatures that can not be molded in plaster or metal.

o Parts that are typically made by investment casting include those with
complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components.

o The process is generally used for small castings, but has produced complete aircraft
door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg.
o It is generally more expensive per unit than die casting or sand casting but with lower
equipment cost.
o It can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with die
casting, yet like that process, it requires little surface finishing and only minor
machining
 Procedure
1. Die making
o Suitable metal die for pouring of the melted wax to produce pattern.
oDies can be made using suitable master pattern and casting a low
melting point alloys around it or machining the required shape through
metal(steel blocks etc.)
2. Pattern Making:
o Manufacture Wax (low melting point and shrinkage,
high strength) Pattern
o Master Die desired
o Allowances(Wax ,Ceramic Coating and Metal
shrikange) added into Master Die

Fig. 1 Wax
 3. Assembly
o Several Wax Pattern Combine for a Single Casting using hot
wire welder
o Wax Bar ( Central Sprue)
o Pouring Cup
o Wax pattern Tree
o The wax pattern is then removed from the mold. In the first case
the multiple patterns are attached to a wax sprue, with the result
known as a pattern cluster, or tree; as many as several hundred
patterns may be assembled into a tree. The wax patterns are
attached to the sprue or each other by means of a heated metal
tool

Fig. 2. Assembly
 4. Investing/Shell Buliding
o Covering a layer of slurry material on the pattern
o Refractory Slurry(Refractory material (Fine Grained Silica),Water and
Binders (gypsum solution, ethylene glycol))
o Achieve Required Ceramic Coating
o Dip Method, dip coat method, multiple dip coat method

Fig. 3. Shell Building

5. Dewax/Removal of wax
o Allow to Harden in air (12-48 hrs)
o It is then turned upside-down and placed in
a furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or vaporize the wax
o Wax flow out of Mold

Fig. 4.
 6. Preheating and Metal Casting Pouring

o Ceramic mold further heated(550-1100 ‘C)

o To eliminate any left over wax, contaminants and drive water
out, increase fluidity, compensating solid shrinkage
o Metal poured (gravity, air pressure, centrifugal force
etc.)while mold still hot

Fig. 5. Metal Casting Pouring

7. Knockout and Cut Off (Cleaning and Inspection)
o Once the casting has cooled sufficiently, mould shell is
hammered, media blasted, vibrated, water jeted, or chemically
dissolved (sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release the casting
o Gates and Runners are cut from the casting
o The casting may then be cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process,
usually by grinding

Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Cut

Knockout Off
Summary
 Why Prefer Investment Casting?
o Many Intricate forms with undercuts can be cast.
o A very smooth surface is obtained with no parting line.
o Dimensional accuracy is good.
o Certain unmachinable parts can be cast to preplanned
shape.
o It may be used to replace die-casting where short runs
are involved.
o The lost wax method out performs any other casting
process when it comes to superior surface finishes
especially when compared to sand casted, forged or
welded fabrications.
 Disadvantages
&Limitations
o This process is expensive(labour costs), is usually
limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties
where cores are involved.
o Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6mm) and
should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter.
o Investment castings require very long production-cycle
times versus other casting processes.
o This process is practically infeasible for high-
volume manufacturing, due to its high cost and
long cycle times.
o Some of the reasons for the high cost include
specialized equipment, costly refractories and
binders, many operations to make a mold, a lot of
labor is needed and occasional minute defects.
 Shell Moulding Process
i. Shell moulding is an efficient and economical method for producing steel
castings.
ii. The process was developed by “Herr Croning” in Germany during World
war-II and is sometimes referred to as the Croning shell process.
iii.
iii. It can produce min. shell thickness, the amount of shell thickness depends
upon how much contact time of sand and heated pattern (Dwell time).

Procedure in shell moulding process

(a) A metallic pattern having the shape of
the desired casting is made in one half from carbon
steel material. Pouring element is provided in the
pattern itself. Refer figure (a).
1. The pattern is inverted and is placed over a box as
shown in figure (1). The box contains a mixture of dry
silica sand or zircon sand and a phenolic resin(phenol
formaldehyde) binder (5% based on sand weight).
Metal pattern is heated (200 to 300ºC)
2. The box is now inverted so that the resin-sand mixture
falls on the heated face of the metallic pattern. The
resin- sand mixture gets heated up, softens and sticks
to the surface of the pattern. Refer figure (2).
3. After a few seconds, the box is again inverted to its
initial position so that the lose resin-sand mixture falls
down leaving behind a thin layer of shell on the pattern
face. Refer figure (3). To prevent the sticking of shell
with the pattern a release agent silicon is sprayed over
the hot pattern. The shell thickness will depend
upon the time of contact of mixture with the
heated pattern.
4. The pattern along with the shell is removed from the box
and placed in an oven for a few minutes which further
hardens the shell and makes it rigid. The shell is then
stripped from the pattern with the help of ejector pins that
are provided on the pattern . Refer figure (5).
Fig 5

5. Another shell half is prepared in the similar manner

and both the shells are assembled, together with the help
of bolts, clips or glues to form a mould. The assembled
part is then placed in a box with suitable backing sand to
receive the molten metal. Refer figure (6).
6. After the casting solidifies, it is removed from
the mould, cleaned and finshed to obtain the
desired shape as shown in Fig 7.
 Advantages

• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerances.

• Higher throughput due to reduced cycle times.
• Less sand is used.
• This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish
1.25µm to 3.75µm and dimensional tolerance of 0.5%.
• A fairly high capital investment is required, but high production rates
can be achieved.
• The process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and
cleanup costs
 Limitations
• High pattern cost and resin cost.
• Uneconomical for small runs.
• Size of the casting is limited.
• Serious dust and fume problems.
• Relatively slow process.
• Used primarily for production of prototypes.
• Process generates noxious fumes.
Applications.
• Small pulleys ,motor housing, fan blades, cylinders, cylinder heads,
break drums.
 CO2 molding
• Carbon dioxide CO2 molding is a sand casting process that
employs a molding mixture of sand and liquid silicate binder.
• The molding mixture is then hardened by blowing carbon
dioxide gas through it.
• It reduces production time as well as fuel costs and reduces the
number of mould boxes required for making moulds with great
deal of accuracy in production
• This method offers a great deal of advantages over other forms of
sand molding.
• In addition, one can be sure of getting dimensionally
accurate castings with fine surface finish.
• The process is basically a hardening process for moulds and cores.
• This process is not economical when compared with green
sand casting process.
 Principle

• The principle of working of the CO2 process is based on the fact that
if CO2 gas is passed through a sand mix containing sodium silicate, the
sand immediately becomes extremely strongly bonded as the sodium
silicate becomes a stiff gel. Na2SiO3 +CO2 ————— → Na2CO3 +
SiO2.xH2O (Silica Gel)
• This gel is responsible for giving the necessary strength to the mould.
• Thesuitable sand mixture can then be packed around the pattern
in the flask or in the core box by machines or by hand.
• The sand used for the process must be dry & free from clay, suitable
additives such as coal powder, wood flour, graphite may be added to
improve certain properties like collapsibility.
• When the packing is complete, CO2 is forced into the mould at a
pressure of about 1.45kgf/cm2 (142kn/m2) . The gas is inert up to 15 to
30 seconds.
• The volume of CO2 required can be calculated if the quantity of
sodium silicate present is known.
• As a thumb rule, for every 1 kg of sodium silicate, 0.50-0.75 kg of gas is
required.
• Over gassing is wasteful and results in deteriorating the sand.
• Patterns used in this process may be made of wood, metal or plastic.
• Carbon dioxide casting is favoured both by the commercial foundry men and
hobbyist for a number of reasons.
• In commercial operations, foundry men can assure customers of affordable
castings which require less machining.
• The moulding process which can be fully automated is generally used for
casting process that require speed, high production runs and flexibility. In
home foundries this is one of the simplest process that improves the casting
quality .
 Advantages
• Compared to other casting methods cores and moulds are strong.
• Reduces fuel cost since gas is used instead of to other costly heating
generating elements.
• Operation is speedy, moulds and cores can be immediately after
processing.
• Great dimensional accuracy can be attained than other molding or
core making process.
• Semi-skilled labour can be used.
• This process can be fully automated.
 Disadvantages
i. Poor collapsibility of moulds is a major disadvantage of this process.
ii. There is a significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds which have been
stored for extended periods of time.
iii. Over gassing and under gassing adversely affects the properties of cured sand

Applications
i. CO2 casting process is ideal where speed and flexibility is the prime requirement.
 Flask less Moulding Process
• This process is a sand casting, or a green sand moulding variation, that has been automated for
speed and high volume output, of identical castings. Despite the name which is misleading, a
iii.
flask-less moulding does use flasks. The flasks “ holds the whole thing together ”.
• In flask-less moulding, in either a vertical or a horizontal stance, a sand filled flask is rebuilt and
used over and over, in totally mechanized and automated way. In sand casting or green sand
casting, a tight fitting, individual−most likely sand filled flask is used for each mould produced.
• The benefits of these systems are very impressive like uniformity, high density moulds, high
output of products, elimination of mould shift, just to mention a few, all of which drastically
reduce labour expense.
• . It is possible to produce complex moulds and mould with deep pockets, which are difficult
with traditional, normal sand casting procedures.
• Rapid core setting, easy inspection of cores used, utilization of existing tooling, high casting
quality, reduced finishing time, quick pattern change, exceptional mould to mould consistency,
high productivity are some of the many reasons to use flask-less moulding
 Process

• The moulding process for producing flaskless moulds takes place

completely inside the moulding machine developed for this.
• The mould sand used is bentonite-bonded sand. The sprue and feed
funnels are formed directly in the top mould half.
• Compaction takes place in two stages. As pre-compaction during
filling with the mould sand, and in the second stage as post-
compaction with pressure plates.
• Outside the moulding machine, mould transport takes place on a
system with carriage plates.
 Steps
• Disamatics offer a highly efficient
means of rapidly and automatically
creating a string of flaskless molds.
These molds are built for vertical
casting and are created in a vertical
molding environment.

• Step 1. Sand is blown into the

chamber from above.
• Step 2. The Ram advances, pushing the
Ram Pattern. This compresses the sand
in the Molding Chamber to form mold
impressions.

• The compression creates opposite

halves of consecutive molds to placed in
the mold string.

• Castings cannot be formed using a

single mold, but when a new mold is
placed in the mold string, its leading
edge meets the trailing edge of the
previous mold to create a completed
mold cavity
• Step 3. The Swing Pattern moves
back and up to allow the mold to exit
the Molding Chamber

• Step 4. The Ram extends, pushing

the new mold into the existing mold
string.
• Step 5. The Ram and Swing patterns
return to their original position to begin the
process again.

• Step 6. Sand is blown into the Molding

Chamber for the next mold. A little further
down the mold string, iron is poured into
the top of a formed mold via the pouring
sprue left by the pattern impressions.
 Advantages
Environment

• Closed system avoids excess sand and dust

• Energy-efficient compaction

Costs

• No costs for mould flasks

• Compact individual system layouts
• Minimal foundation work

Quality

• Regular compaction through opposing pressure plates

• Variable moulding ball height for optimum sand behaviour