H

UNIT - L

Fundamenta)s
Atoms - Moleceles Eleret/ compounds
Appl’
Maline stuucfre
Solid nechonca ,on-compreibilihy

CTystallioe solids /retoialy A morphous sol cu matcaal

MOn-cyibal i

toy.

shorp nel ting 2

They Jsohopic,
phyica popestles SCme
di. eahas a
 oycBal ghauctue
a mo
thes Cygtalline masols the

tegule qeome tteal patno 'i0 spã ce Thee pooibaee the

atorns the cryata lattce.
Space Aattlce - delieo iofio te ot poits
3- deneniu in uoich eny poinr has suouning
iclentice oner po bti.
Cell
C
the smnaly
voych o hen roeoted in spae

dae.
Prioe cell - |S s'le
Rorse6C
shich posses (attice b
primlPve rell.
oly
Latie pataen puse
he intercep 4
inteaf aeia nes (onsttutte lattce pas Amete.
 Spae latice
h e cny sta systma
There oisrnguishbs
These
beong to 7 ystal ysterad.

|. Cubio t. Rho nbolhedral. Teicliacc

Tetagonal
Orthot honbo Monocioc.

Cuby enc Cube

Simple cubic Bec

ae
grd

tehaqono!

Siple tetagono Baty centoeal teagonal

Orthorhonlo ae othe but all e

ais e o

a bt c
Sinple End (enored Body Cetered fae Centereo
oTthorhorbie
Osthb'o rthohonbc

but ncisel at di angle

fron go®.

Simple
Rhombo hedlral.

of cystals incluolers those cvyetals cokch

This Sy stem
hese glile
bare fous

The f o fh one
ac b c
Y l2o0
60

Peins of heneongana pris

the cetre faces.
 9onoclioc (gtal Systems
unequal axi s bat DOe of these aneis S a

iqnt angeó he o h r oae

at gt angles.
a b =c
=B= go' Y

Simple mongcinio End (entred nÍrconiG.

Toicligic crytal syuterns

This Sys tom rgtals Iocludes ytal cohich hae the.
unequa ais
ta o e

dimple Ta
 8CC:
tn bodyCentie ddcbic shuctAeI
bhe Centrc atem
touches the Cornes aton
shaon in Eig O
ashe latcc panáaae tex of BCC
Suctune f?y/s the diegafatom fam
OE)22 (0G)+ &E)7

(Dt(cG)?4GE)2
a?t a?t a

as3
APEAveNo af atomns 2exUnic
CellxVo"ofatetoh
2X
4/3 a 3

e
Some metols
haxing Bcc sheachase
chaamium,nsadimete.
 n Face Cemtredcebic heteeep the
atomS at the Centre of FeceS aNtoeohi
the Cor nes atoms
1S he 1o+Ce Eig
sheche Ls the atonic
TaiuS Bom the iq

a2

APAA

o74
etals
egSÓ Memetals havina £EC Staecheac

The Nolceme enitCell and

aon be

kascal plane
Einnq
and
the ae4
Hh s by itshe ia ht

CeiStheaaAB.CDE£G
 he tthe Mit cel)is Yhe
equillatcaa)
AYee oF AAAC2xCbase ) helg h|

A 3 a2 in 6o

Noo
Nolenme a£ niticeta an of ba sexheigu

Fox HCpatoms shechese Hae Corneo

atoms touchina to he cenhe dab@a
on top es Dell aSbo tom FaceSS
je CA BCDEEe) toeehing the'c'atom
A-2Y

A p
3

3a2stnso

SomeAae talsShotlng the HCp

CRYSTAL opERFEC10N:
Poiot tecl to
Defects : The defee ts
tncseASe the enrsgy of cystal
yacca(Yi
de te
to missing the c ystel stuetu
Vacccoc e e tmpty atomi sitee prtnt

the CSyste shoucture

Yosceuocles ma also cs'ise ce to
impofet çoeing
atos the YS tayis afion proces.
Thecna yibtons
ls defets

Ioterstilad inputiki
Soa1

void spaee the crys stay lcttiee structu oe isi dirpaced

lattce site io tergtitia
Crsta
An tom @o te te
the crystat Iattice is consi deraloy
Snall io slze <agboo
tthat
Foreiqa
Swesttutes
called substutona
Cuis ee distort f
impu
Sven de feets lena to phaye tanfolmottos
diefeioo
(ooducPiy'
 fran lkel lelect:
ato
Crystal
an d
The
this

yaecnc
intenstitial
Corsed
site
he
in the
tn tersal atomsstrulh.
lelpeoti

deleo
schett ion
This deRoct
tos ide site
dis torated
<rysto stuetre
the Surfae

2. ine
The edge of a d'störted plane of ctocss to a
lattce.
QEdge sloc oci an
A ine defeet that is the ede
esctsa plane d. caysto

BusgeS defeet:n
qhe ellsplaeeent thet

ohestearensl doßet nube (attce, stps

the

Sereedistootion
t-0defeet edhic
spisols aoun deslocatig lioe e

peneteatiog though herie iodivideea

 ) Edae dislacaian

hesc Aiss location line Can be

onsidesed s h e efets due to ae

atoms As Shoon

A
i eaodisslocaigCaen
magined bg Cuthng the caygte be
s heamas
Espect pat-

eCay stad pan tuay

to hect
 lyma diasloca
ha4 edae af
ii ladanqle
tilt qaains
A
bounda angle
alo degne&
t ciemtaien feamly
the AEFea
by
boumd
- angle too ix)
4Qinaingplane
la miany
is The led calL is
oethe
tie simlas
do oricmam an has
mn0Y hen is
side one in
gains
4e atomic -cDhich
he a S
bowmne Hhe These
boumdies teon
 oihSequenoe
mahMen desinite
hes aMO
autk StaekM
ine Salidificatian
o matea
thc aenine
qenally Shis YmatexËai line Cneta
boDdie qaain The
ets
boemdnes Grain
QE defects
type vano1ed The
he af may Change AreatmcnS
the
mechamical picotion
or Liei
ngicplame in
of king Stac chamae
to
Hac. eleee aris efects Plamex
defectsr Planea
 a 1.8 Hardness Testing

Hardness is defined as the ability of the material to resist plastic deformation during indentation, scratching, cutting or
abrasion.
Hardness is determined by Brinell, Rockwell, and Vicker's tests. In all these tests, procedure is almost commnon, that is,
an indentor is kept on the surface of specimen, and load is applied to get an indentation on the surface.

1.8.1 BrinellHardness Test

In this test, load applied is 3500 kg for hard materials, 1500 kg for intermediate hardness, and 500 kg for soft materials.
Indentor istungsten carbide steel ballof diameter 10 mm.
Procedure

1. Specimen is kept on the anvil (platform)

2. Hand wheel is turned to raise the specimen to touch the indentor and to get zero reading in the dial.
3. Load is applied and removed.
4. Anvil is lowered and specimen is removed.
5. Diameter of indentation is measured using microscope.
6. BHN 0s calculated using the equation.
BHN = Load applied P 2P
Indentation area A
D (D -VD-d
Where P =Load applied in kg
D = Diamneter of ball = 10 mm
d = Diameter of indentation in mnm
Graduated
Screen

Kg
750 O Load
500 O selecting knobs
250 O
Ball Indentor
187 5 O
Magntying lenser Lamp 62 5 O
Sample
31 25 O
Anvl
15 625 O

Lover

Fig 11.1: Brinell hardness tester

e 1.8.2 Rockwell Hardness Test
of
In this test, the dial directly shows the reading of hardness, no
need to measure the diameter
indentation andto ßn
any calculation.
The dial has nine scales.A to H. hut most commony B-scale and C-scale are uSed.
Procedure
1. Specimen is kept on the anvil (platforn)
to get zero reading in the dial.
2. Hand wheel is turned to raise the specimen to touch the indentor and
removed.
3. Frst minor load is applied and then the major load is applied., and then the load is
4. Anvil is lowered and specimen is removed.
5. Reading in the dial is noted down, and depth of indentation is measured using micrOscope.
6. RHN may also be calculated using the equation.
Load applied
RHN =130 - 0.002

Load applied
For B scale, minor load is 10kg and major load is 90 kg.
For C scale, minor load is 10 kg and major load is 140 kg.
Indentor used

For soft materials, steel ball of 1.58 mm diameter is used.

Forhard materials, diamond cone indentor of cone angle 120° and spherical tip
radius 0.2 mm is used.
 Vickexs nazdness Test
Introduction :

Hardness is resistance of a material to plastic indentation, scratching, surface

penetration, or wear. These properties are all related to the resistance against plastic flow
(permanent deformation) in the material. Hardness is generally considered as resistance
penetration.
The Vickers hardness test is based on the same principle as the
Brinell test, except the
indenter is a dianmond pyramid with square base. The angle between the
faces of pyramid is
136°, as shown in figure below. The Vickers Hardness Number
(VHN) of materials is obtained
by dividing the applied force P, in kgf, by the surface of the
pyramidal depression yielding the
relationship :
1.8544P
VHN =

where d is the average length of diagonals in mm. Due to the

shape and hardness of
denter the method is applicable to metals and alloys with
wide
selected between l and 120 kgf depending on the hardness of variety
IS of hardness. Test load
materials.
 Vickers

.136.
136

Fig. 10.1
The indenter should be applied under a
predetermined constant load for 10to 15 s. The
diagonals of the square indentation are measured using the
calculated. The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is then microscope and a mean value is
formula. calculated according to the given
Procedure for Vickers hardness test:
1. Turn on the tester.
2. Select and installthe indenter (Vickers ), if not
3.
already installed.
Select the proper load.
4. Place the specimen in the tester and turnthe 40x objective lens into
specimen surface with the focusing control until place. Focus on the
surface features can be seen.
5. Gently turn the loading handle
the indenter into place. clockwise to raise the weights and the indenter, and turn
Slowly release the loading handle
Joad. Leave the indenter on the
specimen for 10 to 15 s. counter-clockwise
to apply the
6. Raise the indenter by turning the
lens back into place.
loading handle clockwise gently, and turn
the objective
7 Focus on the specimen surface to
view the
diagonals (Vickers) of the indentation wih theindentation. Measure length of the both
scale in the
the diagonal lengths can be
determined by moving a point onmicroscope.
the opposite corner of the impression
Alternatively:
the scale from a corner to
under microscope
8. Calculate hardness number using the appropriate formula.
 Fig.10.2
J
18
2

17
16

15

14

13
7

11

12

1. Upper Cover 2. Micro Eyepiece 3.Motorized Turret 4. Indenter 5.Test Table

O. Upper and Down Lead Screw 7. Hand Wheel 8. Switch 9. RS232 Socket 10. Fuse & Ower Go
11. Printer 12. Regulating Screws 13. OperatingBoard 14. 10x or 20x Objective
13.40x or 20x Objective 16. Left Drum Wheel 17., Right Drum Wheel 18. Input bButon
 Impact Test
IntroductioD :

Besides strength to handle static loads, metals that are subjected to dynamic loads (such
as jolts or vibrations during earthquake) must also exhibit adequate
toughness (ability to
absorb energy) to survive the dynamic loads. In general, toughness is associated with high
strength and good ductility. Strength or ductility alone does not significantly improve
toughness. For example, the stronger asteel is the less ductile it is, and the lower its capability
of absorbing the energy of an impact load without failure.
A metal with high strength or good ductility does not necessarily have good
toughness.
Although the energy absorbing capability of a metal when slowly tested to failure in a static
tensile test is not quantitatively comparable to the energy adsorbing capability of the same
metal in an impact load.
Brittle metals have a small area under the stress-strain curve (due to its limited
toughness) and as a result, little energy is absorbed during impact failure.
Although two standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were designed and used
extensively to measure the impact energy, Charpy v-notched impact tests are more common in
practice.
Procedure for Impact test :
Note: Test one metal with two specimens for different temperature, OR samples with
different metals ( like steel, brass, aluminium etc. )

Calibrate the tester to account for bearing friction and aerodynamic drag of the
pendulum by testing without specimen and adjusting the pointer to indicate zero
toughness.
2. Raise and lock the pendulum at a selected upper position.
3. Zero the pointer.
4. Place a specimen in the tester. The notch should be on the
side of the specimen for.
from the striking edge of the pendulum and directly in line with it.
5. Let the pendulum fall to rupture the specimen and observe the indicated energy value
6. Note fracture energy directly from the dial and observe the
appearances of fracture
surfaces of the specimens.
Scale

Sample

Pointer Starting position

Hammer

End of
Specimen
Swing

Final height Anvil Initial height

Fig. 9.1:Charpy impact tester

Impact pes fovmco fo
to uqheAs
be
fioding
lore
Jmpact tegt is perfovmo by e- (mehods
chanpy test izd test
Io mpcet test toughnes is caltulated in 5-sttps
Release the frors speci Pte helqr
siich con'ichs potrad eoegy gh.
SHep-D - shoikes specmen and uses the

After ortaking tbe

the specimen, by uing
Temsi8 enerqy, mas mover in oppai he direetie
TeleeRe
fro that hciur
pointer is provided sem- Cireuls
dial uohile inicotes the poctton of the penduleen.
The energy nede o ortak tne sperimen is dirchy
TeOrdeo by the peodutum his diraty
value is mCOUune of toughnes he calibrafioy
clial to he folloaing equattou.

Mgh Enerqy reod to break, the cylchmeD

Toughnesg
Toughoess mg (h-b)

Sperimen usecl for chonp izoc test ae

Shoon
fac tors affetn impaet test oe
Orig'nal heigut
slze of specimen.
Notche
Tenpretune
 Notcu.

with key hole notch

Specimem

2mmn

Sm

nit Notch
Specimen

Töp veiew of laoding metna for choYpz impoct

5pacimen Tes +
Stikg eoe

Centre
of
strike
Anvit AnvI
 mChod loodung of
view Side
Vise
Speiman
edge SriRing
Specimen
(A metal 1zod
mn
10