OSY Summer 23 Question Paper

1. Attempt any FIVE of the following: 10

a) State any two features of Linux.

Ans.
 Open source: The source code for Linux is free and available.
 Multitasking: Linux can run multiple applications at once.
 Customization: Linux is highly customizable, allowing users to tailor the operating
system to their needs.
 Portable: Linux software can work on different hardware in the same way.
 Inexpensive: Linux is free to download, and upgrades are also free.
 File system: Linux file systems operate from a single namespace, with all files existing
under the root directory, “/”.
 Wide range of distributions: There are many Linux distributions, each designed for
specific use cases and preferences.

b) Difference between Time sharing system and Real time system (any 2 points)
Ans.
S Time Sharing Operating System Real-Time Operating System
.
N
O
1 In time sharing operating system, quick While in real time operating system,
. response is emphasized for a request. computation tasks are emphasized before
its nominative point.
2 In this operating system Switching While in this operating system Switching
. method/function is available. method/function is not available.
3 In this operating system any modification in the While in this modification does not take
. program can be possible. place.
4 In this OS, computer resources are shared to But in this OS, computer resources are not
. the external. shared to the external.
5 It deals with more than processes or Whereas it deals with only one process or
. applications simultaneously. application at a time.
6 In this OS, the response is provided to the user While in real time OS, the response is
. within a second. provided to the user within time constraint.
7 In time sharing system, high priority tasks can Real time operating systems, give users the
. be preempted by lower priority tasks, making it ability to prioritize tasks so that the most
impossible to guarantee a response time for critical task can always take control of the
your critical applications. process when needed.
c) State any four services of operating system.
Ans.
 Process management: Manages the creation and termination of processes
  Memory management: Ensures that programs have enough memory to run
 File management: Allows users to create, delete, modify, and organize files and
directories
 Security: Protects the system from unauthorized access and threats
 Multitasking: Allows multiple applications to run simultaneously
 Network management: Manages network connections and communications

d) Write the difference between pre-emptive and non-preemptive scheduling.

Ans.
Para PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING NON-PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING
met
er
Basi In this resources(CPU Cycle) are Once resources(CPU Cycle) are allocated to a
c allocated to a process for a limited process, the process holds it till it completes its
time. burst time or switches to waiting state
Inter Process can be interrupted in Process can not be interrupted until it terminates
rupt between. itself or its time is up
Star If a process having high priority If a process with a long burst time is running
vati frequently arrives in the ready queue, CPU, then later coming process with less CPU
on a low priority process may starve burst time may starve
Over It has overheads of scheduling the It does not have overheads
head processes
Flexi flexible Rigid
bilit
y
Cost Cost associated No cost associated
CPU In preemptive scheduling, CPU It is low in non preemptive scheduling
Utili utilization is high
zatio
n
Wait Preemptive scheduling waiting time is Non-preemptive scheduling waiting time is high
ing less
Time
Resp Preemptive scheduling response time Non-preemptive scheduling response time is high
onse is less
Time
Deci Decisions are made by the scheduler Decisions are made by the process itself and the
sion and are based on priority and time OS just follows the process’s instructions
maki slice allocation
ng
Proc The OS has greater control over the The OS has less control over the scheduling of
ess scheduling of processes processes
cont
rol
Over Higher overhead due to frequent Lower overhead since context switching is less
head context switching frequent
Exa Examples of preemptive scheduling Examples of non-preemptive scheduling are First
mple are Round Robin and Shortest Come First Serve and Shortest Job First
s Remaining Time First
e) Define following terms :
i) Virtual Memory
ii) Paging
Ans.Virtual Memory:Virtual memory is a memory management capability of an operating
system (OS) that uses hardware and software to allow a computer to
compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring
data from random access memory (RAM) to disk storage.
Paging:Paging is a storage mechanism used in OS to retrieve processes from secondary storage
to the main memory as pages. The primary concept behind paging is to break each process into
individual pages. Thus the primary memory would also be separated into frames.

f) List any four file attributes and it's meaning.

Ans.
1. Name: File name is the name given to the file. A name is usually a string of characters.
2. Identifier: Identifier is a unique number for a file. It identifies files within the file
system. It is not readable to us, unlike file names.
3. Type: Type is another attribute of a file which specifies the type of file such as archive
file (.zip), source code file (.c, .java), .docx file, .txt file, etc.
4. Location: Specifies the location of the file on the device (The directory path). This
attribute is a pointer to a device.
5. Size: Specifies the current size of the file (in Kb, Mb, Gb, etc.) and possibly the
maximum allowed size of the file.
6. Protection: Specifies information about Access control (Permissions about Who can
read, edit, write, and execute the file.) It provides security to sensitive and private
information.
7. Time, date, and user identification: This information tells us about the date and time on
which the file was created, last modified, created and modified by which user, etc.

g) Define Deadlock.
Ans.Deadlock is a situation in computing where two or more processes are unable to proceed
because each is waiting for the other to release resources. Key concepts include mutual
exclusion, resource holding, circular wait, and no preemption.
Consider an example when two trains are coming toward each other on the same track and there
is only one track, none of the trains can move once they are in front of each other. This is a
practical example of deadlock.

2.Attempt any THREE of the following: 12

a) Explain different types of system calls.
Ans.System call provides an interface between a running program and
operating system. It allows user to access services provided by
operating system. This system calls are procedures written using C,
C++ and assembly language instructions. Each operating system has its
own name for each system call. Each system call is associated with a
number that identifies itself.
System calls:
Process Control: Program in execution is a process. A process to be
executed must be loaded in main memory. while executing it may need
to wait, terminate or create & terminate child processes.
ï‚· end, abort
ï‚· load, execute
ï‚· create process, terminate process
get process attributes, set process attributes
ï‚· wait for time
ï‚· wait event, signal event
ï‚· allocate and free memory
File Management: System allows us to create and delete files. For
create and delete operation system call requires the name of the file and
other attributes of the file. File attributes include file type, file size,
protection codes, accounting information and so on. Systems access
these attributes for performing operations on file and directories. Once
the file is created, we can open it and use it. System also allows
performing reading, writing or repositioning operations on file.
ï‚· create file, delete file
ï‚· open, close
ï‚· read, write, reposition
ï‚· get file attributes, set device attributes
ï‚· logically attach or detach devices
3. Device Management: When a process is in running state, it requires
several resources to execute. These resources include main memory,
disk drives, files and so on. If the resource is available, it is assigned to
the process. Once the resource is allocated to the process, process can
read, write and reposition the device.
ï‚· request device, release device
ï‚· read, write, reposition
ï‚· get device attributes, set device attributes
ï‚· logically attach or detach devices
4. Information Maintenance: Transferring information between the
user program and the operating system requires system call. System
information includes displaying current date and time, the number of
current user, the version number of the operating system, the amount of
free memory or disk space and so on. Operating system keeps
information about all its processes that can be accessed with system
calls such as get process attributes and set process attributes.
ï‚· get time or date, set time or date
ï‚· get system data, set system data
ï‚· get process, file, or devices attributes
ï‚· set process, file, or devices attributes
5. Communication: Processes in the system, communicate with each
other. Communication is done by using two models: message passing
and shared memory. For transferring messages, sender process
connects itself to receiving process by specifying receiving process
name or identity. Once the communication is over system close the
connection between communicating processes.
ï‚· create, delete communication connection
ï‚· send, receive messages
ï‚· transfer status information
ï‚· attach or detach remote devices.

b) Draw and explain process control block in detail.

Ans.Each process is represented as a process control block (PCB) in the
operating system. It contains information associated with specific
process.
Process State: It indicates current state of a process. Process state can
be new, ready, running, waiting and terminated.
Process number: Each process is associated with a unique number
which is known process identification number.
Program Counter: It indicates the address of the next instruction to
be executed for the process.
CPU Registers: The registers vary in number and type depending on
the computer architecture. Register includes accumulators, index
registers, stack pointers and general purpose registers plus any
condition code information.
Memory Management Information: It includes information such as
value of base and limit registers, page tables, segment tables,
depending on the memory system used by OS.
Accounting Information: This information includes the amount of
CPU used, time limits, account holders, job or process number and so
on. It also includes information about listed I/O devices allocated to the
process such as list of open files.
Each PCB gives information about a particular process for which it is
designed.

c) State and explain four scheduling criteria.

Ans.1. CPU utilization: In multiprogramming the main objective is to keep
CPU as busy as possible. CPU utilization can range from 0 to 100
percent.
2.Throughput: It is the number of processes that are completed per unit
time. It is a measure of work done in the system. When CPU is busy in
executing processes, then work is being done in the system. Throughput
depends on the execution time required for any process. For long
processes, throughput can be one process per unit time whereas for short
processes it may be 10 processes per unit time.
3. Turnaround time: The time interval from the time of submission of
a process to the time of completion of that process is called as
turnaround time. It is the sum of time period spent waiting to get into
the memory, waiting in the ready queue, executing with the CPU, and
doing I/O operations.
4.Waiting time: It is the sum of time periods spent in the ready queue
by a process. When a process is selected from job pool, it is loaded into
the main memory (ready queue). A process waits in ready queue till
CPU is allocated to it. Once the CPU is allocated to the process, it starts
its execution and if required request for resources. When the resources
are not available that process goes into waiting state and when I/O
request completes, it goes back to ready queue. In ready queue again it
waits for CPU allocation.
5.Response time: The time period from the submission of a request
until the first response is produced is called as response time. It is the
time when system responds to the process request not the completion of
a process. In the system, a process can Produce some output fairly early
and can continue computing new results while previous results are being
output to the user.

d) Define fragmentation. Explain Internal and External Fragmentation

Ans.An unwanted problem with operating systems is fragmentation, which occurs when
processes load and unload from memory and divide available memory. Because memory blocks
are so small, they cannot be assigned to processes, and thus remain idle. It’s also important to
realize that programs create free space or holes in memory when they are loaded and unloaded.
Because additional processes cannot be assigned to these little pieces, memory is used
inefficiently.
The memory allocation scheme determines the fragmentation circumstances. These regions of
memory become fragmented when the process loads and unloads from it, making it unusable for
incoming processes. We refer to it as fragmentation.
1. Internal Fragmentation
Internal fragmentation occurs when there is unused space within a memory block. For example,
if a system allocates a 64KB block of memory to store a file that is only 40KB in size, that block
will contain 24KB of internal fragmentation. When the system employs a fixed-size block
allocation method, such as a memory allocator with a fixed block size, this can occur.

2. External Fragmentation
External fragmentation occurs when a storage medium, such as a hard disc or solid-state drive,
has many small blocks of free space scattered throughout it. This can happen when a system
creates and deletes files frequently, leaving many small blocks of free space on the medium.
When a system needs to store a new file, it may be unable to find a single contiguous block of
free space large enough to store the file and must instead store the file in multiple smaller blocks.
This can cause external fragmentation and performance problems when accessing the file.

Fragmentation can also occur at various levels within a system. File fragmentation, for example,
can occur at the file system level, in which a file is divided into multiple non-contiguous blocks
and stored on a storage medium. Memory fragmentation can occur at the memory management
level, where the system allocates and deallocated memory blocks dynamically. Network
fragmentation occurs when a packet of data is divided into smaller fragments for transmission
over a network.

3.Attempt any THREE of the following: 12

a) Describe multiprocessor OS with it's advantages. (any two)

Ans.
A Multiprocessor Operating System (also known as a multiprocessing OS) is designed to
manage and coordinate the execution of multiple processors (CPUs) within a single computer
system. In a multiprocessor system, multiple CPUs work together in a tightly coupled manner,
sharing resources such as memory, input/output devices, and system buses. The main objective
of a multiprocessor OS is to efficiently manage the processors, ensure that tasks are distributed
among them, and optimize resource utilization to improve performance and reliability.
1. Overview of Multiprocessor Systems
a. Types of Multiprocessor Systems
Multiprocessor systems can be classified based on how they are structured and how the
processors communicate with one another:
1. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP):
a. In SMP, all processors are treated equally. Each processor has equal access to
memory, I/O devices, and the system bus, and all processors run a single
operating system instance.
b. Every processor can execute any process or thread, and the OS dynamically
balances the load among the processors.
c. SMP systems are commonly used in servers and high-performance computers.
2. Example: A quad-core desktop computer running Windows or Linux is an example of an
SMP system, where all four cores (processors) share the same memory and resources.
3. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP):
a. In AMP, processors are assigned specific tasks. One processor acts as the master,
controlling the system, while the others act as slaves and handle specific tasks
assigned to them.
b. The master processor runs the OS and assigns jobs to the slave processors, which
do not have direct access to system resources like the master.
c. AMP systems are used in simpler or embedded systems where task specialization
is beneficial.
4. Example: In embedded systems like a smart appliance, one processor might manage
system control while others handle real-time tasks like sensor data collection.
5. Distributed Systems:
a. In a distributed system, multiple processors are connected over a network, each
running its own OS instance. However, in this case, the processors are not tightly
coupled, and they operate independently, unlike in SMP or AMP.
b. Multiprocessing OS Features
A multiprocessor OS is designed with several key capabilities to support multiple processors:
 Parallel Processing: It enables multiple CPUs to execute processes or threads
simultaneously, significantly improving throughput.
 Concurrency Control: The OS manages shared resources and synchronizes access to
prevent conflicts and ensure data integrity.
 Load Balancing: The OS distributes tasks and processes across available processors to
optimize performance.
 Scalability: It scales well with additional processors, meaning that performance increases
as more processors are added.

2. Advantages of Multiprocessor OS
Multiprocessor operating systems offer a range of advantages, particularly in performance,
scalability, and reliability. Here are some of the key benefits:
a. Increased Performance and Throughput
  Parallelism: In a multiprocessor system, tasks are executed in parallel, which
significantly increases the speed of computation and system throughput. Multiple
processes or threads can run at the same time on different processors.
 Faster Execution of Multithreaded Applications: Applications that are designed to run
in parallel (multithreaded applications) benefit greatly from multiprocessor systems.
Threads from the same application can be distributed across processors, leading to faster
completion times.
 Reduced Waiting Time: Since multiple processors can handle different tasks
simultaneously, the overall waiting time for executing processes is reduced. This is
especially useful for high-performance computing tasks like scientific simulations,
machine learning, and data analysis.
b. Improved Reliability and Fault Tolerance
 Redundancy: If one processor fails in a multiprocessor system, the system can continue
to function by redistributing the workload to the remaining processors. This makes the
system more reliable and fault-tolerant compared to single-processor systems.
 Graceful Degradation: In case of hardware failure or overload, the system doesn't crash
entirely. Instead, it slows down as the workload is distributed across fewer processors,
providing better fault tolerance.
 Load Sharing: Tasks can be distributed among available processors, ensuring that no
single processor is overburdened, which enhances system stability.
c. Scalability
 Scalable Performance: One of the biggest advantages of multiprocessor systems is their
ability to scale performance by adding more processors. If the system needs to handle
more workload, additional CPUs can be added to improve performance.
 Support for Large Applications: Multiprocessor OSs can efficiently support large
applications that require significant computational power. For instance, applications in
fields like weather forecasting, physics simulations, or complex financial modeling
benefit from the additional computing resources.
d. Efficient Resource Utilization
 Resource Sharing: In a multiprocessor system, CPUs share memory, I/O devices, and
other system resources, which reduces idle time for hardware components. This leads to
better resource utilization compared to single-processor systems, where resources may
sit23 idle while waiting for the CPU.
 Cost Efficiency: A multiprocessor system can be more cost-effective in high-
performance environments because a single system with multiple processors may be less
expensive and more efficient than maintaining multiple independent systems.
e. Faster Response Time
 Reduced Latency: Multiprocessor systems provide faster response times for interactive
applications, especially when there are multiple tasks or users. Each processor can handle
a different request, resulting in quicker responses.
f. Support for Multiuser Environments
 Concurrent User Support: Multiprocessor OSs can better handle multiple users
simultaneously. Each processor can work on a different user’s process, ensuring that each
user experiences less delay or slowdown, which is critical for servers and shared
computing environments.

b) Explain different components of operating system.

Ans.1. Process management
2. Main memory management
3. File management
4. I/O system management
5. Secondary storage management
1.Process Management:
A program is a set of instructions. When CPU is allocated to a
program, it can start its execution. A program in execution is a
process. A word processing program run by a user on a PC is a
process. A process needs various system resources including CPU
time, memory, files and I/O devices to complete the job execution.
These resources can be given to the process when it is created or
allocated to it while it is running
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
ï‚· Creation and deletion of user and system processes.
ï‚· Suspension and resumption of processes.
ï‚· A mechanism for process synchronization.
ï‚· A mechanism for process communication.
ï‚· A mechanism for deadlock handling.
2. Main-Memory Management
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, ranging in size from
hundreds of thousands to billions. Each word or byte has its own
address. Main memory is a repository of quickly accessible data
shared by the CPU and I/O devices. The central processor reads
instructions from main memory during the instruction fetch cycle and
both reads and writes data from main memory during the data fetch
cycle. The main memory is generally the only large storage device
that the CPU is able to address and access directly.
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with main memory s management:
ï‚· Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom.
ï‚· Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory. 3. Allocating and deallocating memory space
as needed.
3. File Management
A file is a collected of related information defined by its creator.
Computer can store files on the disk (secondary storage), which
provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these media
has its own properties like speed, capacity, and data transfer rate and
access methods. A file system normally organized into directories to
ease their use. These directories may contain files and other
directions.
The operating system responsible for the following activities in
connection with file management:
ï‚· The creation and deletion of files.
ï‚· The creation and deletion of directions.
ï‚· The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
ï‚· The mapping of files onto secondary storage.
ï‚· The backup of files on stable storage media.
4. I/O device Management
Input / Output device management provides an environment for the
better interaction between system and the I / O devices (such as
printers, scanners, tape drives etc.). To interact with I/O devices in an
effective manner, the operating system uses some special programs
known as device driver. The device drivers take the data that
operating system has defined as a file and then translate them into
streams of bits or a series of laser pulses (in regard with laser printer).
The I/O subsystem consists of several components:
ï‚· A memory management component that includes buffering,
caching, spooling
ï‚· A general device driver interface
ï‚· Drivers for specific hardware devices
5. Secondary-Storage Management
The computer system provides secondary storage to back up main
memory. Secondary storage is required because main memory is too
small to accommodate all data and programs, and the data that it
holds is lost when power is lost. Most of the programs including
compilers, assemblers, word processors, editors, and formatters are
stored on a disk until loaded into memory. Secondary storage consists
of tapes drives, disk drives, and other media.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
ï‚· Free space management
ï‚· Storage allocation
ï‚· Disk scheduling.

c) Explain different types of schedulers.

Ans.There are three types of scheduler:
ï‚· Long term scheduler
ï‚· Short term scheduler
ï‚· Medium term scheduler
1. Long term scheduler: It selects programs from job pool and
loads them into the main memory. It controls the degree of
multiprogramming. The degree of multiprogramming is the number of
processes loaded (existing) into the main memory. System contains I/O
bound processes and CPU bound processes. An I/O bound process
spends more time for doing I/O operations whereas CPU bound process
spends more time in doing computations with the CPU. So It is the
responsibility of long term scheduler to balance the system by loading
some I/O bound and some CPU bound processed into the main
memory. Long term scheduler executes only when a process leaves the
system, so it executes less frequently. When long term scheduler
selects a process from job pool, the state of process changes from new
to ready state.
2. Short term scheduler: It is also known as CPU scheduler. This
scheduler selects processes that are ready for execution from the
ready queue and allocates the CPU to the selected process.
Frequency of execution of short term scheduler is more than other
schedulers. When short term scheduler selects a process, the state of
process changes from ready to running state.
3.Medium term scheduler: When a process is in running state, due to
some interrupt it is blocked. System swaps out blocked process and
store it into a blocked and swapped out process queue. When space is
available in the main memory, the operating system looks at the list of
swapped out but ready processes. The medium term scheduler selects
one process from that list and loads it into the ready queue. The job of
medium term scheduler is to select a process from swapped out
process queue and to load it into the main memory. This scheduler
works in close communication with long term scheduler for loading
process into the main memory
d) Explain two level directory structure with suitable diagram.
Ans.A directory is a container that is used to contain folders and files. It organizes files and
folders in a hierarchical manner. In other words, directories are like folders that help organize
files on a computer. Just like you use folders to keep your papers and documents in order, the
operating system uses directories to keep track of files and where they are stored. Different
structures of directories can be used to organize these files, making it easier to find and manage
them.
Understanding these directory structures is important because it helps in efficiently organizing
and accessing files on your computer. Following are the logical structures of a directory, each
providing a solution to the problem faced in the previous type of directory structure.
Two-Level Directory
As we have seen, a single level directory often leads to confusion of files names among different
users. The solution to this problem is to create a separate directory for each user.
In the two-level directory structure, each user has their own user files directory (UFD). The
UFDs have similar structures, but each lists only the files of a single user. System’s master file
directory (MFD) is searched whenever a new user id is created.

Advantages
 The main advantage is there can be more than two files with same name, and would be
very helpful if there are multiple users.
 A security would be there which would prevent user to access other user’s files.
 Searching of the files becomes very easy in this directory structure.

4.Attempt any THREE of the following: 12

a) Explain real time OS. Explain it’s types.

Ans.A real time system has well defined fixed time constraints. Processing
should be done within the defined constraints -Hard and Soft real time
system.
Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are used in environments where a large number of events,
mostly external to the computer system, must be accepted and processed in a short time or within
certain deadlines. such applications are industrial control, telephone switching equipment, flight
control, and real-time simulations.
With an RTOS, the processing time is measured in tenths of seconds. This system is time-bound
and has a fixed deadline. The processing in this type of system must occur within the specified
constraints. Otherwise, This will lead to system failure.
Examples of real-time operating systems are airline traffic control systems, Command Control
Systems, airline reservation systems, Heart pacemakers, Network Multimedia Systems, robots,
etc.
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special kind of operating system designed to handle
tasks that need to be completed quickly and on time. Unlike general-purpose operating systems
(GPOS), which are good at multitasking and user interaction, RTOS focuses on doing things in
real time.

Hard Real-Time Operating System

These operating systems guarantee that critical tasks are completed within a range of time. For
example, a robot is hired to weld a car body. If the robot welds too early or too late, the car
cannot be sold, so it is a hard real-time system that requires complete car welding by the robot
hardly on time., scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
For Example,
Let's take an example of airbags provided by carmakers along with a handle in the driver's seat.
When the driver applies brakes at a particular instance, the airbags grow and prevent the driver's
head from hitting the handle. Had there been some delay even of milliseconds, then it would
have resulted in an accident.
Soft Real-Time Operating System
This operating system provides some relaxation in the time limit. For example – Multimedia
systems, digital audio systems, etc. Explicit, programmer-defined, and controlled processes are
encountered in real-time systems. A separate process is changed by handling a single external
event. The process is activated upon the occurrence of the related event signaled by an interrupt.
Multitasking operation is accomplished by scheduling processes for execution independently of
each other. Each process is assigned a certain level of priority that corresponds to the relative
importance of the event that it services. The processor is allocated to the highest-priority
processes. This type of schedule, called, priority-based preemptive scheduling is used by real-
time systems.
For Example,
This type of system is used in Online Transaction systems and Livestock price quotation
Systems.
Firm Real-time Operating System
RTOS of this type have to follow deadlines as well. In spite of its small impact, missing a
deadline can have unintended consequences, including a reduction in the quality of the product.
Example: Multimedia applications.
Example, this system is used in various forms of Multimedia applications.
Uses of RTOS
 Defense systems like RADAR .
 Air traffic control system.
 Networked multimedia systems.
 Medical devices like pacemakers.
 Stock trading applications.
Advantages
The advantages of real-time operating systems are as follows:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems. Thus more
output from all the resources.
 Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less. For
example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds. Shifting one task to another
and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus On Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications that are in the queue.
 Real-Time Operating System In Embedded System: Since the size of programs is
small, RTOS can also be embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of real-time operating systems are as follows:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run simultaneously, and their concentration is very less
on few applications to avoid errors.
 Use Heavy System Resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and
they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms : The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to
write on.

b) Draw process state diagram and describe each state.

Ans.Different process states are as follows:
1. New
2. Ready
3. Running
4. Waiting
5. Terminated

New: When a process enters into the system, it is in new state. In this
state a process is created. In new state the process is in job pool.
Ready: When the process is loaded into the main memory, it is ready
for execution. In this state the process is waiting for processor
allocation.
Running: When CPU is available, system selects one process from
main memory and executes all the instructions from that process. So,
when a process is in execution, it is in running state. In single user
system, only one process can be in the running state. In multiuser
system, there can be multiple processes which are in the running
state.
Waiting State: When a process is in execution, it may request for I/O
resources. If the resource is not available, process goes into the
waiting state. When the resource is available, the process goes back to
ready state.
Terminated State:
When the process completes its execution, it goes into the terminated
state. In this state the memory occupied by the process is released.
Operations on the Process
1. Creation
Once the process is created, it will be ready and come into the ready queue (main memory) and
will be ready for the execution.
2. Scheduling
Out of the many processes present in the ready queue, the Operating system chooses one process
and start executing it. Selecting the process which is to be executed next, is known as scheduling.
3. Execution
Once the process is scheduled for the execution, the processor starts executing it. Process may
come to the blocked or wait state during the execution then in that case the processor starts
executing the other processes.
4. Deletion/killing
Once the purpose of the process gets over then the OS will kill the process. The Context of the
process (PCB) will be deleted and the process gets terminated by the Operating system.

c) Describe any four condition for deadlock.

Ans.By ensuring that at least one of below conditions cannot hold, we can
prevent the occurrence of a deadlock.
1.Mutual Exclusion:
The mutual-exclusion condition must hold for non-sharable
resources. Sharable resources do not require mutually exclusive
access, thus cannot be involved in a deadlock.
2.Hold and Wait:
One way to avoid this Hold and Wait is when a process requests a
resource; it does not hold any other resources.
•One protocol that can be used requires each process to request and
be allocated all its resources before it begins execution.
•Another protocol that can be used is, to allow a process to request
resources only when the process has none. A process may request
some resources and use them. Before it requests any additional
resources, it must release all the resources that are currently allocated
to it.
3.No Preemption:
If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource
that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently
being held are preempted. That is these resources are implicitly
released. The preempted resources are added to the list of resources
for which the process is waiting. Process will be restarted only when
all the resources i.e. its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is
requesting will be available.
4.Circular Wait
Circular-wait condition never holds is to impose a total ordering of all
resource types, and to require that each process requests resources in
an increasing order of enumeration.
Let R = {R1, R2, ..., Rn} be the set of resource types. We assign to
each resource type a unique integer number, which allows us to
compare two resources and to determine whether one precedes
another in our ordering. Formally, define a one-to-one function F: R
_ N, where N is the set of natural numbers.

d) Differentiate between paging and segmentation (any 4 points)

Ans.
Paging Segmentation
In paging, the program is divided into fixed In segmentation, the program is divided into
or mounted size pages. variable size segments.
For the paging operating system is For segmentation compiler is accountable.
accountable.
Page size is determined by hardware. Here, the segment size is given by the user.
It is faster in comparison to segmentation. Segmentation is slow.
Paging could result in internal Segmentation could result in external
fragmentation. fragmentation.
In paging, the logical address is split into a Here, the logical address is split into segment
page number and page offset. number and segment offset.
Paging comprises a page table that While segmentation also comprises the segment
encloses the base address of every page. table which encloses segment number and
segment offset.
The page table is employed to keep up the
page data.
In paging, the operating system must In segmentation, the operating system maintains
maintain a free frame list. a list of holes in the main memory.
Paging is invisible to the user. Segmentation is visible to the user.
In paging, the processor needs the page In segmentation, the processor uses segment
number, and offset to calculate the number, and offset to calculate the full address.
absolute address.
 It is hard to allow sharing of procedures Facilitates sharing of procedures between the
between processes. processes.
In paging, a programmer cannot efficiently It can efficiently handle data structures.
handle data structure.
This protection is hard to apply. Easy to apply for protection in segmentation.
The size of the page needs always be equal There is no constraint on the size of segments.
to the size of frames.
A page is referred to as a physical unit of A segment is referred to as a logical unit of
information. information.
Paging results in a less efficient system. Segmentation results in a more efficient system.
e) Explain fixed and variable memory management.
Ans.The use of unequal size partitions provides a degree of flexibility to fixed partitioning. In
dynamic partitioning, the partitions are of variable length and number.In noncontiguous memory
allocation, a program is divided into blocks that the system may place in nonadjacent slots in
main memory. This allocation method do not suffer from internal fragmentation, because a
process partition is exactly the size of the process.Fig. 5.3.1 shows noncontiguous memory
allocation method. Operating system maintain the table which contains the memory areas
allocated to process and free memory. Memory management unit use this information for
allocating processes. Table contains information about memory starting address for
process/program and their size.CPU sends the logical address of the process to the MMU and the
MMU uses the memory allocation information stored in the table for calculating logical address.
We called this address as effective memory address of the data/instruction.

Virtual memory is a method of using hard disk space to provide extra memory. It simulates
additional main memory.In Windows operating system, the amount of virtual memory available
equals the amount of free main memory plus the amount of disk space allocated to the swap
file.Fig. 4.8.1 shows logical view of virtual memory concept.A swap file is an area of your hard
disk that is set aside for virtual memory. Swap files can be either temporary or permanent.Virtual
memory is stored in the secondary storage device. It helps to extend additional memory capacity
and work with primary memory to load applications. The virtual memory will reduce the cost of
expanding the capacity of physical memory.
The implementations of virtual memory will different for operating systems to operating system.
Each process address space is partitioned into parts that can be loaded into primary memory
when they are needed and written back to secondary storage otherwise. Address space partitions
have been used for the code, data and stack identified by the compiler and relocating hardware.
The portion of the process that is actually in main memory at any time is defined to be the
resident set of the process.The logical addressable space is referred to as virtual memory. The
virtual address space is much larger than the physical primary memory in a computer system.
The virtual memory works with the help of secondary storage device and its speed is low
compared to the physical storage location.
5. Attempt any TWO of the following: 12
a) Explain the working of interprocess communication considering
i) Shared memory
ii) Message passing
Ans.1. Shared memory

In this, all processes who want to communicate with other

processes can access a region of the memory residing in an
address space of a process creating a shared memory segment.
All the processes using the shared memory segment should
attach to the address space of the shared memory. All the
processes can exchange information by reading and/or writing
data in shared memory segment.
The form of data and location are determined by these processes
who want to communicate with each other.
These processes are not under the control of the operating
system.
The processes are also responsible for ensuring that they are not
writing to the same location simultaneously.
After establishing shared memory segment, all accesses to the
shared memory segment are treated as routine memory access
and without assistance of kernel.
2. Message Passing
In this model, communication takes place by exchanging
messages between cooperating processes.
It allows processes to communicate and synchronize their action
without sharing the same address space.
It is particularly useful in a distributed environment when
communication process may reside on a different computer
connected by a network.
Communication requires sending and receiving messages
through the kernel.
The processes that want to communicate with each other must
have a communication link between them. Between each pair of
processes exactly one communication link.

b) With neat diagram explain multilevel queue scheduling.

Ans.Multilevel Queue Scheduling
Each algorithm supports a different process, but in a general system, some processes require
scheduling using a priority algorithm. While some processes want to stay in the system
(interactive processes), others are background processes whose execution can be delayed.The
number of ready queue algorithms between queues and within queues may differ between
systems. A round-robin method with various time quantum is typically utilized for such
maintenance. Several types of scheduling algorithms are designed for circumstances where the
processes can be readily separated into groups. There are two sorts of processes that require
different scheduling algorithms because they have varying response times and resource
requirements. The foreground (interactive) and background processes (batch process) are
distinguished. Background processes take priority over foreground processes.The ready queue
has been partitioned into seven different queues using the multilevel queue scheduling technique.
These processes are assigned to one queue based on their priority, such as memory size, process
priority, or type. The method for scheduling each queue is different. Some queues are utilized for
the foreground process, while others are used for the background process. The foreground
queue may be scheduled using a round-robin method, and the background queue can be
scheduled using an FCFS strategy.

The main components of an MLQ architecture are

 System Processes − System processes refer to operating system tasks or processes that
are essential for the proper functioning of the system. These processes handle critical
operations such as memory management, process scheduling, I/O handling, and other
system-level functions. System processes typically have the highest priority in the MLQ
architecture and are executed before other types of processes.
 Interactive Processes − Interactive processes are user-oriented processes that require an
immediate or near-real-time response. These processes are typically initiated by user
interaction, such as keyboard input or mouse clicks. Examples of interactive processes
include running a text editor, web browser, or a graphical application. Interactive
processes are given priority in the MLQ architecture to ensure a smooth and responsive
user experience.
 Batch Processes − Batch processes are non-interactive processes that are executed in the
background without direct user interaction. These processes often involve executing a
series of tasks or jobs that can be automated and executed without user intervention.
Batch processes are typically resource-intensive and can include tasks such as data
processing, large-scale computations, or scheduled backups. In the MLQ architecture,
batch processes are allocated resources based on their priority, but they are generally
given lower priority compared to interactive processes.
Different Levels of Queues
Processes are divided into many tiers of queues in multilevel queue scheduling according to their
features, priority, and time limitations. The following various layers of queues can be utilized in
multilevel queue scheduling:
  Foreground Queue − Interactive processes that demand quick system responses often
use this queue. Usually, these procedures receive first attention
 Background Queue − This queue is used for non-interactive processes that take longer
to complete. These tasks are prioritized less than foreground tasks.
 Interactive queue − The interactive queue is used for processes that demand a system
response in a reasonable amount of time
 Batch Queue − This queue is used for batch processing, or processing many jobs at once.
These tasks typically call for lengthy execution times and are submitted in advance.
 System Queue − This queue is used for system processes, such as device drivers and
interrupt handlers, that need special permissions to complete their tasks. Usually, these
procedures receive first attention.
 Real-time Queue − Real-time processes, which demand a prompt response from the
system, are queued in this way. Usually, these procedures receive first attention.
Advantages
 Based on the characteristics of the processes, multilevel queue scheduling enables the
operating system to distribute resources efficiently. As a result, the system's overall
reaction time is decreased through effective resource utilization.
 The system responds quickly to operations with a higher priority, such as interactive
processes, thanks to multilevel queue scheduling. This makes the system more responsive
overall, which enhances the user experience.
 The operating system can prioritize operations according to their relevance via multilevel
queue scheduling, ensuring that crucial tasks are carried out first.
 Multilevel queue scheduling can boost system throughput and performance concurrently
scheduling tasks from various queues.

c) Write two uses of following operating system tools.

i) Security policy
ii) User Management
iii) Task scheduler
Ans.i) Security Policy:
A security policy in an operating system defines rules and guidelines for maintaining the
security of the system and its resources. Here are four uses of security policies:
1. Access Control: Security policies specify which users or groups have access to specific
system resources, such as files, directories, and applications, ensuring that only
authorized users can interact with sensitive data.
2. Authentication Enforcement: Security policies define the requirements for user
authentication, such as password complexity, expiration, multi-factor authentication
(MFA), and account lockout mechanisms, enhancing system security.
 3. Network Security Configuration: Security policies control network access by defining
firewall rules, encryption protocols, and VPN usage. This protects the system from
unauthorized external access and attacks.
4. Audit and Monitoring: Security policies govern how security events (such as login
attempts, system access, and file modifications) are logged and monitored, helping
system administrators detect potential security breaches and enforce compliance.
ii) User Management:
User management refers to the set of functions that administrators use to control user accounts
and permissions within an operating system. Here are four uses of user management:
1. Account Creation and Deletion: User management allows administrators to create and
remove user accounts, ensuring that only authorized personnel can access the system.
2. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Administrators can assign users to specific roles
or groups (e.g., administrator, guest, or standard user), controlling the resources and
actions they can access or perform based on their responsibilities.
3. Password Management: User management tools enable the setting and updating of
passwords, enforcing password policies (e.g., strength and expiration), and allowing users
to reset or recover passwords if forgotten.
4. Session Monitoring and Termination: User management allows administrators to
monitor user sessions, including active login times, and terminate sessions if needed (e.g.,
for security reasons or to free up system resources).
iii) Task Scheduler:
A task scheduler in an operating system is used to schedule the execution of processes or
programs at predefined times or intervals. Here are four uses of task schedulers:
1. Automating Routine Maintenance: Task schedulers can automatically run system
maintenance tasks like disk defragmentation, backups, virus scans, and software updates
at regular intervals, ensuring system health and security.
2. Job Scheduling for Background Processes: Task schedulers allow administrators to
schedule long-running or batch jobs (e.g., database backups, report generation) to run
during off-peak hours when system resources are more available.
3. Trigger-Based Task Execution: The task scheduler can initiate processes based on
specific triggers (e.g., system startup, user logon, or reaching a certain condition),
automating responses to system events without manual intervention.
4. Periodic Task Execution: For repetitive tasks (e.g., syncing data between servers or
sending daily reports), the task scheduler can set up periodic execution at fixed intervals,
saving time and ensuring regular task completion without manual input.

6.Attempt any TWO of the following: 12

a) List file allocation method and explain any one in details.
Ans.From the user’s point of view, a file is an abstract data type. It can be created,
opened, written, read, closed and deleted without any real concern for its
implementation. The implementation of a file is a problem for the operating
system.
The main problem is how to allocate space to these files so that disk space is
effectively utilized and files can be quickly accessed.
Three major methods of allocating disk space are in wide use:
 Contiguous
 Linked
 Indexed
1. Contiguous Allocation
In this scheme, each file occupies a contiguous set of blocks on the disk. For example, if a file
requires n blocks and is given a block b as the starting location, then the blocks assigned to the
file will be: b, b+1, b+2,……b+n-1. This means that given the starting block address and the
length of the file (in terms of blocks required), we can determine the blocks occupied by the file.
The directory entry for a file with contiguous allocation contains
 Address of starting block
 Length of the allocated portion.
The file ‘mail’ in the following figure starts from the block 19 with length = 6 blocks. Therefore,
it occupies 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 blocks.

Advantages:
 Both the Sequential and Direct Accesses are supported by this. For direct access, the
address of the kth block of the file which starts at block b can easily be obtained as (b+k).
 This is extremely fast since the number of seeks are minimal because of contiguous
allocation of file blocks.
Disadvantages:
 This method suffers from both internal and external fragmentation. This makes it
inefficient in terms of memory utilization.
 Increasing file size is difficult because it depends on the availability of contiguous
memory at a particular instance.
2. Linked List Allocation
In this scheme, each file is a linked list of disk blocks which need not be contiguous. The disk
blocks can be scattered anywhere on the disk.
The directory entry contains a pointer to the starting and the ending file block. Each block
contains a pointer to the next block occupied by the file.
The file ‘jeep’ in following image shows how the blocks are randomly distributed. The last block
(25) contains -1 indicating a null pointer and does not point to any other block.

Advantages:
 This is very flexible in terms of file size. File size can be increased easily since the
system does not have to look for a contiguous chunk of memory.
  This method does not suffer from external fragmentation. This makes it relatively better
in terms of memory utilization.
Disadvantages:
 Because the file blocks are distributed randomly on the disk, a large number of seeks are
needed to access every block individually. This makes linked allocation slower.
 It does not support random or direct access. We can not directly access the blocks of a
file. A block k of a file can be accessed by traversing k blocks sequentially (sequential
access ) from the starting block of the file via block pointers.
 Pointers required in the linked allocation incur some extra overhead.
3. Indexed Allocation
In this scheme, a special block known as the Index block contains the pointers to all the blocks
occupied by a file. Each file has its own index block. The ith entry in the index block contains
the disk address of the ith file block. The directory entry contains the address of the index block
as shown in the image:

Advantages:
 This supports direct access to the blocks occupied by the file and therefore provides fast
access to the file blocks.
 It overcomes the problem of external fragmentation.
Disadvantages:
 The pointer overhead for indexed allocation is greater than linked allocation.
 For very small files, say files that expand only 2-3 blocks, the indexed allocation would
keep one entire block (index block) for the pointers which is inefficient in terms of
memory utilization. However, in linked allocation we lose the space of only 1 pointer per
block.

b) For the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 7, 0, 1 Calculate

the page faults applying.
i) Optimal
ii) LRU
iii) FiFo page
Replacement algorithms for a memory with three frames.
Ans.

c)Consider the four processes P1, P2, P3 and P4 with

length of CPO Burst time. Find out Avg waiting time
and Avg turn around time for the following Algorithms.
i) FCFS
ii) RR (Slice-4ms)
iii) SJF
Process Arrival time Burst time
P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5
Ans.