Ad Hoc Wireless Network

UNIT- 1

A wireless ad hoc network] (WANET) or mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a

decentralized type of wireless network. The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a
pre-existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in wireless
networks. Instead, each node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, so
the determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically on the basis of network
connectivity and the routing algorithm in use.

OR
An ad hoc network is a temporary type of Local Area Network (LAN). If you set up an ad
hoc network permanently, it becomes a LAN. Multiple devices can use an ad hoc network at
the same time, but this might cause a lull in performance. With an ad hoc network, several
devices can share the host device's internet access.

What is an ad hoc network and how does it work?

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a type of local area network (LAN) that is
built spontaneously to enable two or more wireless devices to be connected to each
other without requiring typical network infrastructure equipment, such as a wireless
router or access point. When Wi-Fi networks are in ad hoc mode, each device in the
network forwards data that is not intended for itself to the other devices.

Because the devices in the ad hoc network can access each other's resources
directly through a basic peer-to-peer (P2P) wireless connection, central servers are
unnecessary for functions such as file sharing or printing. In a WANET, a collection
of devices, or nodes, is responsible for network operations, such as routing, security,
addressing and key management.

Devices in the ad hoc network require a wireless network adapter or chip, and they
need to be able to act as a wireless router when connected. When setting up a
wireless ad hoc network, each wireless adapter must be configured for ad hoc mode
instead of infrastructure mode. All wireless adapters need to use the same service
set identifier (SSID) and wireless frequency channel number.
Instead of relying on a wireless base station to coordinate the flow of messages to
each node in the network, the individual nodes in ad hoc networks forward packets
to and from each other. Makeshift by nature, ad hoc wireless networks are useful
where there is not a wireless structure built -- for example, if there aren't any access
points or routers within range and cabling cannot be extended to reach the location
where additional wireless communication is needed.

However, not all Wi-Fi networks are the same. In fact, Wi-Fi access points work in
either ad hoc or infrastructure mode. Typically, Wi-Fi networks in infrastructure mode
are created and managed using equipment such as Wi-Fi routers, wireless access
points (WAPs) and wireless controllers. Ad hoc networks are also often short-lived
networks created by a laptop or other device. The use of more sophisticated network
protocols and network services found on infrastructure-based wireless networks
usually are not suitable for ad hoc networks.
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and
communicate with each other. The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means
"for this," implying improvised or impromptu.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs). The devices
communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or access
points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination. Each device participates in
routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm and forwarding
data to other devices via this route.
 Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks
Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of
their applications. The most prominent ad hoc networks that are commonly
incorporated are illustrated in the diagram below −

Types of ad hoc wireless networks

 Mobile ad hoc network (MANET): An ad hoc network of mobile devices.
 Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET): Used for communication between vehicles. ...
 Smartphone ad hoc network (SPAN): Wireless ad hoc network created on
smartphones via existing technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
Types of WANETs vary by application need and use. Choosing a wireless ad hoc
network type depends on the wireless equipment capabilities, physical environment
and purpose of the communication.

MANET. A mobile ad hoc network involves mobile devices communicating directly

with one another. A MANET is a network of wireless mobile devices without an
infrastructure that are self-organizing and self-configuring. A MANET is sometimes
referred to as an "on-the-fly" or "spontaneous network."

IMANETs. Internet-based mobile ad hoc networks support internet protocols, such

as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). The IMANET employs a network-layer routing protocol on each
connected device to link mobile nodes and set up distributed routes automatically.
IMANETs may also be used in the collection of sensor data for data mining for a
variety of use cases, such as air pollution monitoring.

SPANs. Smartphone ad hoc networks employ existing hardware, such as Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, and software protocols built into a smartphone operating system (OS) to
create P2P networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access
points or other traditional network infrastructure equipment. Different from traditional
hub-and-spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct, SPANs support multi-hop relays.
Multi-hop relay is the process of sending traffic from device A to device C using
intermediary device B. Therefore, device A and C do not need to have a direct P2P
connection established for traffic to reach its destination. And because SPANs are
fully dynamic in nature, there is no notion of a group leader in this type of application
and, thus, peers can join or leave without harming the network.

Vehicular ad hoc network. This network type involves devices in vehicles that are
used for communicating between them and roadside equipment. An example is the
in-vehicle safety and security system, OnStar.

Wireless mesh networks comprised of radio networks set up in a mesh topology,

frequently consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. In mesh networking,
the devices -- or nodes -- are connected so at least some, if not all, have many paths
to other nodes. This creates many routes for information between pairs of users,
increasing the resilience of the network if a node or connection fails. Wireless mesh
networks are useful in situations where a temporary wireless network is required or
in more permanent scenarios where network cabling cannot be run to create an
infrastructure-based wireless network.

Other types of ad hoc wireless networks include wireless sensor networks, ad hoc
smart home lighting, ad hoc streetlight networks, ad hoc networks of robots, disaster
rescue ad hoc networks and hospital ad hoc networks. Wireless ad hoc networks
also have a number of military applications, such as Army tactical MANETs, Air
Force UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) ad hoc networks and Navy ad hoc networks.

Advantages of a WANET
Ad hoc mode can be easier to set up than infrastructure mode when just connecting
two devices without requiring a centralized access point. For example, if a user has
two laptops and is in a hotel room without Wi-Fi, they can be connected directly in ad
hoc mode to create a temporary Wi-Fi network without a router. The Wi-Fi Direct
standard -- a specification that allows devices certified for Wi-Fi Direct to exchange
data without an internet connection or a wireless router -- also builds on ad hoc mode
and enables devices to communicate directly over Wi-Fi signals.

Other benefits of wireless ad hoc networks include the following:

 Because ad hoc networks do not require infrastructure hardware such as access

points or wireless routers, these networks provide a low-cost way of direct client-
to-client communication.

 Ad hoc networks are easy to configure and offer an effective way to communicate
with devices nearby when time is of the essence and running cabling is not
feasible.

 Ad hoc networks are often secured to protect against attacks, as their temporary,
often impromptu qualities can make them vulnerable to security threats.
 An ad hoc network linking a small number of devices might be a more practical
choice compared to a traditional infrastructure-based network that can connect
many more devices.
Disadvantages of ad hoc networks
One major drawback of wireless ad hoc networking is that some Wi-Fi-enabled
technology, including certain Android devices, wireless printers and custom IoT
sensors, don't support ad hoc mode because of its limitations and will only connect to
networks in infrastructure mode by default. In some cases, third-party software can be
installed on endpoint devices to enable ad hoc communications.

Infrastructure mode is a better option than ad hoc mode for setting up a larger and
more permanent network that can support far more endpoints. Wireless routers that
serve as access points typically have higher-power wireless radios and antennas that
provide coverage of a wider area. Ad hoc networks often suffer from poor wireless
communication range issues, as antennas built into endpoints were not designed to be
as powerful as purpose-built WAPs.

Ad hoc networks also do not scale well. As the number of devices in an ad hoc
network increases, it becomes harder to manage because there is not a central device
through which all traffic flows. When several devices are connected to the ad hoc
network, more wireless interference will occur, as each device must establish a direct
P2P connection to each of the other devices, instead of going through a single access
point in a hub-and-spoke architecture. When a device is out of range of a device to
which it needs to connect, it will pass the data through other devices on the way; this
is slower than passing it through a single access point.

Other disadvantages of ad hoc wireless networks include the following:

 Devices in an ad hoc network cannot disable SSID broadcasting like devices in

infrastructure mode can. As a result, attackers can find and connect to an ad hoc
device if they are within signal range.
 Security options are limited due to a lack of network infrastructure services, such
as access to a RADIUS (remote authentication dial-in user service) server for
authentication purposes.

 Wireless ad hoc networks cannot bridge wired LANs or to the internet without
installing a special-purpose network gateway.

 Devices can only use the internet if one of them is connected to and sharing it with
the others. When internet sharing is enabled, the client performing this function
may face performance problems, especially if there are many interconnected
devices.

 Ad hoc mode requires the use of more endpoint system resources, as the physical
network layout changes when devices are moved around; in contrast, an access
point in infrastructure mode typically remains stationary from an end-device
perspective.

The wireless channel is susceptible to a variety of transmission impediments such as path

loss, interference and blockage. These factors restrict the range, data rate, and the
reliability of the wireless transmission.

Types of Paths

The extent to which these factors affect the transmission depends upon the environmental
conditions and the mobility of the transmitter and receiver. The path followed by the signals
to get to the receiver, are two types, such as −

Direct-path

The transmitted signal, when reaches the receiver directly, can be termed as
a directpath and the components presents that are present in the signal are called
as directpath components.

Multi-path

The transmitted signal when reaches the receiver, through different directions undergoing
different phenomenon, such a path is termed as multi-path and the components of the
transmitted signal are called as multi-path components.
They are reflected, diffracted and scattered by the environment, and arrive at the receiver
shifted in amplitude, frequency and phase with respect to the direct path component.
Characteristics of Wireless Channel
The most important characteristics of wireless channel are −

 Path loss
 Fading
 Interference
 Doppler shift
In the following sections, we will discuss these channel characteristics one by one.
Path Loss
Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to the power of
the same signal received by the receiver, on a given path. It is a function of the propagation
distance.
 Estimation of path loss is very important for designing and deploying wireless
communication networks
 Path loss is dependent on a number of factors such as the radio frequency used and
the nature of the terrain.
 The free space propagation model is the simplest path loss model in which there is a
direct-path signal between the transmitter and the receiver, with no atmosphere
attenuation or multipath components.
In this model, the relationship between the transmitted power Pt and the received power Pr is
given by
$$P_{r} = P_{t}G_{t}G_{r}(\frac{\lambda}{4\Pi d})^2$$

Where
 Gt is the transmitter antenna gain
 Gr is the receiver antenna gain
 d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver
 λ is the wavelength of the signal
Two-way model also called as two path models is widely used path loss model. The free
space model described above assumes that there is only one single path from the transmitter
to the receiver.
In reality, the signal reaches the receiver through multiple paths. The two path model tries to
capture this phenomenon. The model assumes that the signal reaches the receiver through
two paths, one a line-of-sight and the other the path through which the reflected wave is
received.
According to the two-path model, the received power is given by
$$P_{r} = P_{t}G_{t}G_{r}(\frac{h_{t}h_{r}}{d^2})^2$$

Where
 pt is the transmitted power
 Gt represent the antenna gain at the transmitter
 Gr represent the antenna gain at the receiver
  d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver
 ht is the height of the transmitter
 hr are the height of the receiver
Fading
Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the receiver. Fading can
be classified in to two types −

 Fast fading/small scale fading and

 Slow fading/large scale fading
Fast fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude, phase or multipath delays of the
received signal, due to the interference between multiple versions of the same transmitted
signal arriving at the receiver at slightly different times.
The time between the reception of the first version of the signal and the last echoed signal is
called delay spread. The multipath propagation of the transmitted signal, which causes fast
fading, is because of the three propagation mechanisms, namely −

 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
The multiple signal paths may sometimes add constructively or sometimes destructively at
the receiver causing a variation in the power level of the received signal. The received single
envelope of a fast fading signal is said to follow a Rayleigh distribution to see if there is no
line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver.

Slow Fading

The name Slow Fading itself implies that the signal fades away slowly. The features of slow
fading are as given below.
 Slow fading occurs when objects that partially absorb the transmission lie between
the transmitter and receiver.
 Slow fading is so called because the duration of the fade may last for multiple
seconds or minutes.
 Slow fading may occur when the receiver is inside a building and the radio wave
must pass through the walls of a building, or when the receiver is temporarily
shielded from the transmitter by a building. The obstructing objects cause a random
variation in the received signal power.
 Slow fading may cause the received signal power to vary, though the distance
between the transmitter and receiver remains the same.
 Slow fading is also referred to as shadow fading since the objects that cause the fade,
which may be large buildings or other structures, block the direct transmission path
from the transmitter to the receiver.
Interference
Wireless transmissions have to counter interference from a wide variety of sources. Two
main forms of interference are −
  Adjacent channel interference and
 Co-channel interference.
In Adjacent channel interference case, signals in nearby frequencies have components
outside their allocated ranges, and these components may interfere with on-going
transmission in the adjacent frequencies. It can be avoided by carefully introducing guard
bands between the allocated frequency ranges.
Co-channel interference, sometimes also referred to as narrow band interference, is due
to other nearby systems using the same transmission frequency.
Inter-symbol interference is another type of interference, where distortion in the received
signal is caused by the temporal spreading and the consequent overlapping of individual
pulses in the signal.
Adaptive equalization is a commonly used technique for combating inter symbol
interference. It involves gathering the dispersed symbol energy into its original time interval.
Complex digital processing algorithms are used in the equalization process.

Modulation techniques

What is Modulation?

Modulation is nothing but, a carrier signal that varies in accordance with the message signal.
Modulation technique is used to change the signal characteristics. Basically, the modulation
is of following two types:
  Analog Modulation
 Digital Modulation

How modulation works

Information can be added to the carrier by varying its amplitude, frequency, phase,
polarization -- for optical signals -- and even quantum-level phenomena like spin.

Modulation is usually applied to electromagnetic signals: radio waves, lasers/optics and

computer networks. Modulation can even be applied to a direct current -- which can be
treated as a degenerate carrier wave with a fixed amplitude and frequency of 0 Hz -- mainly
by turning it on and off, as in Morse code telegraphy or a digital current loop interface. The
special case of no carrier -- a response message indicating an attached device is no longer
connected to a remote system -- is called baseband modulation.

Modulation can also be applied to a low-frequency alternating current -- 50-60 Hz -- as with

power line networking.

What are the types of modulation?

There are many common modulation methods, including the following, which is an
incomplete list:

 Amplitude modulation (AM): The height (i.e., the strength or intensity) of the signal
carrier is varied to represent the data being added to the signal.
 Frequency modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier waveform is varied to reflect
the frequency of the data.

 Phase modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier waveform is varied to reflect changes
in the frequency of the data. In PM, the frequency is unchanged while the phase is
changed relative to the base carrier frequency. It is similar to FM.

 Polarization modulation: The angle of rotation of an optical carrier signal is varied to

reflect transmitted data.

 Pulse-code modulation: An analog signal is sampled to derive a data stream that is used
to modulate a digital carrier signal.

 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM): Uses two AM carriers to encode two or

more bits in a single transmission.

Radio and television broadcasts and satellite radio typically use AM or FM. Most short-range
two-way radios -- up to tens of miles -- use FM, while longer-range two-way radios -- up to
hundreds or thousands of miles -- typically employ a mode known as single sideband (SSB).

More complex forms of modulation include phase-shift keying (PSK) and QAM. Modern
Wi-Fi modulation uses a combination of PSK and QAM64 or QAM256 to encode multiple
bits of information into each transmitted symbol.

PSK conveys data by modulating the phase of the carrier signal by varying the sine and
cosine inputs at precise times. PSK is used widely for wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth
communications. The demodulator determines the phase of the signal received and translates
it back to the symbol it represents.

Why use modulation

The carrier wave used by radio frequency (RF) transmissions doesn't carry much information
itself. To include speech or data, another wave has to be superimposed on the carrier wave,
thus changing the shape of the carrier wave. The process of doing so is called modulation. To
transmit sound, the audio signal must first be converted into an electric signal, using a
transducer. After conversion, it is used to modulate a carrier signal.

Analog vs. digital

Modulation schemes can be analog or digital. An analog scheme has an input wave that
varies continuously like a sine wave. In digital modulation scheme, voice is sampled at some
rate and then compressed and turned into a bit stream, and this in turn is created into a
particular kind of wave which is then superimposed on the carrier signal.

Modulation and demodulation

Modulation is the process of encoding information in a transmitted signal, while
demodulation is the process of extracting information from the transmitted signal. Many
factors influence how faithfully the extracted information replicates the original input
information. Electromagnetic interference can degrade signals and make the original signal
impossible to extract. Demodulators typically include multiple stages of amplification and
filtering in order to eliminate interference.

A device that performs both modulation and demodulation is called a modem -- a name
created by combining the first letters of MOdulator and DEModulator.

A computer audio modem allows a computer to connect to another computer or to a data

network over a regular analog phone line by using the data signal to modulate an analog
audio tone. A modem at the far end demodulates the audio signal to recover the data stream.
A cable modem uses network data to modulate the cable service carrier signal.

Sometimes a carrier signal can carry more than one modulating information
stream. Multiplexing combines the streams onto a single carrier -- e.g., by encoding a fixed-
duration segment of one, then of the next, for example, cycling through all the channels
before returning to the first -- a process called time-division multiplexing (TDM). Another
form is frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), where multiple carriers of different
frequencies are used on the same medium.

In another form, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) modulates multiple laser

wavelengths/frequencies on long-haul fiber links to increase the total available bandwidth

Analog Modulation

In analog modulation, analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier signal that
modulates the message signal or data signal. The general function Sinusoidal wave’s is
shown in the figure below, in which, three parameters can be altered to get modulation – they
are amplitude, frequency and phase; so, the types of analog modulation are:

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation was developed in the beginning of the 20th century. It was the earliest
modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of modulation technique is
used in electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal
varies in accordance with the message signal, and other factors like phase and frequency
remain constant.

The modulated signal is shown in the below figure, and its spectrum consists of the lower
frequency band, upper frequency band and carrier frequency components. This type of
modulation requires more power and greater bandwidth; filtering is very difficult. Amplitude
modulation is used in computer modems, VHF aircraft radio, and in portable two-way radio

Frequency Modulation

In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
message signal, and other parameters like amplitude and phase remain constant. Frequency
modulation is used in different applications like radar, radio and telemetry, seismic
prospecting and monitoring new borns for seizures via EEG, etc.

This type of modulation is commonly used for broadcasting music and speech, magnetic tape
recording systems, two way radio systems and video transmission systems. When noise
occurs naturally in radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides
an advantage in cancelling the noise.

Phase Modulation

In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
message signal. When the phase of the signal is changed, then it affects the frequency. So, for
this reason, this modulation is also comes under the frequency modulation.
Generally, phase modulation is used for transmitting waves. It is an essential part of many
digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like GSM,
WiFi, and satellite television. This type of modulation is used for signal generation in al
synthesizers, such as the Yamaha DX7 to implement FM synthesis.

Types of Analog Modulation

Therefore, Analog modulation includes AM, FM and PM and these are more sensitive to
noise. If noise enters into a system, it persists and gets carried up to the end receiver. So, this
drawback can be overcome by the digital modulation technique.

Digital Modulation

For a better quality and efficient communication, digital modulation technique is employed.
The main advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation include available
bandwidth , high noise immunity and permissible power. In digital modulation, a message
signal is converted from analog to digital message, and then modulated by using a carrier
wave.

Digital Modulation
The carrier wave is switched on and off to create pulses such that the signal is modulated.
Similar to the analog, in this system, the type of the digital modulation is decided by the
variation of the carrier wave parameters like amplitude, phase and frequency.

The most important digital modulation techniques are based on keying such as

Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying, Differential Phase
Shift Keying, Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, Minimum Shift Keying, Gaussian Minimum
Shift Keying, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, etc., as shown in the figure.

Multiple Access Techniques

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to
send information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while
receiving information from the base station to the mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to
be able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as
possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes
mainly the following −

 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

  Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these
techniques can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.

Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence
bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to
use the same channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel,
thus separating a small number of users in time on a single channel.

Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly
affect the received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades
occur only in a small fraction of the signal bandwidth.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.

 FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the
network.
 If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
 FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
 Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
 The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and
continuously in FDMA.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used
instead of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes
use of non-overlapping time slots.
 Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff
process is simpler.
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not
required.
 TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users.
 Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or
reassigning time slot based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where
several transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its
features are as follows.

 In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by
separate frequency.
 CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
 While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same
code can communicate with each other.
 CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
 The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique
which is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in
wireless and satellite communication. It has the following features.

 All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
 SDMA is completely free from interference.
 A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
 The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA,
can track a moving user.
 Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.

Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −

 Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the
individual users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel.
The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on
different carrier frequencies.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message
signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own
code word which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the
user, the receiver must know the code word used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of
spread spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth
efficient in a multiple user environment.

Error Control

Network is responsible for transmission of data from one device to another device. The end to
end transfer of data from a transmitting application to a receiving application involves many
steps, each subject to error. With the error control process, we can be confident that the
transmitted and received data are identical. Data can be corrupted during transmission. For
reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected.
Error control is the process of detecting and correcting both the bit level and packet level
errors.
Types of Errors
Single Bit Error
The term single bit error means that only one bit of the data unit was changed from 1 to 0 and
0 to 1.
Burst Error
In term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit were changed. Burst error is
also called packet level error, where errors like packet loss, duplication, reordering.
Error Detection
Error detection is the process of detecting the error during the transmission between the
sender and the receiver.
Types of error detection

 Parity checking
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Checksum
Redundancy
Redundancy allows a receiver to check whether received data was corrupted during
transmission. So that he can request a retransmission. Redundancy is the concept of using
extra bits for use in error detection. As shown in the figure sender adds redundant bits (R) to
the data unit and sends to receiver, when receiver gets bits stream and passes through
checking function. If no error then data portion of the data unit is accepted and redundant bits
are discarded. otherwise asks for the retransmission.
Parity checking
Parity adds a single bit that indicates whether the number of 1 bits in the preceding data is
even or odd. If a single bit is changed in transmission, the message will change parity and the
error can be detected at this point. Parity checking is not very robust, since if the number of
bits changed is even, the check bit will be invalid and the error will not be detected.

1. Single bit parity

2. Two dimension parity
Moreover, parity does not indicate which bit contained the error, even when it can detect it.
The data must be discarded entirely, and re-transmitted from scratch. On a noisy transmission
medium a successful transmission could take a long time, or even never occur. Parity does
have the advantage, however, that it's about the best possible code that uses only a single bit
of space.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRC is a very efficient redundancy checking technique. It is based on binary division of the
data unit, the remainder of which (CRC) is added to the data unit and sent to the receiver. The
Receiver divides data unit by the same divisor. If the remainder is zero then data unit is
accepted and passed up the protocol stack, otherwise it is considered as having been
corrupted in transit, and the packet is dropped.
Sequential steps in CRC are as follows.
Sender follows following steps.

 Data unit is composite by number of 0s, which is one less than the divisor.
 Then it is divided by the predefined divisor using binary division technique. The
remainder is called CRC. CRC is appended to the data unit and is sent to the receiver.
Receiver follows following steps.

 When data unit arrives followed by the CRC it is divided by the same divisor which was
used to find the CRC (remainder).
 If the remainder result in this division process is zero then it is error free data, otherwise
it is corrupted.
Diagram shows how to CRC process works.
[a] sender CRC generator [b] receiver CRC checker
Checksum
Check sum is the third method for error detection mechanism. Checksum is used in the upper
layers, while Parity checking and CRC is used in the physical layer. Checksum is also on the
concept of redundancy.
In the checksum mechanism two operations to perform.
Checksum generator
Sender uses checksum generator mechanism. First data unit is divided into equal segments of
n bits. Then all segments are added together using 1’s complement. Then it is complemented
ones again. It becomes Checksum and sends along with data unit.
Exp:
If 16 bits 10001010 00100011 is to be sent to receiver.
So the checksum is added to the data unit and sends to the receiver. Final data unit is
10001010 00100011 01010000.
Checksum checker
Receiver receives the data unit and divides into segments of equal size of segments. All
segments are added using 1’s complement. The result is complemented once again. If the result
is zero, data will be accepted, otherwise rejected.
Exp:
The final data is nonzero then it is rejected.
Error Correction
This type of error control allows a receiver to reconstruct the original information when it has
been corrupted during transmission.
Hamming Code
It is a single bit error correction method using redundant bits.
In this method redundant bits are included with the original data. Now, the bits are arranged such
that different incorrect bits produce different error results and the corrupt bit can be identified.
Once the bit is identified, the receiver can reverse its value and correct the error. Hamming code
can be applied to any length of data unit and uses the relationships between the data and the
redundancy bits.
Algorithm:

1. Parity bits are positions at the power of two (2 r).

2. Rest of the positions is filled by original data.
3. Each parity bit will take care of its bits in the code.
4. Final code will sends to the receiver.
In the above example we calculates the even parities for the various bit combinations. the value
for the each combination is the value for the corresponding r(redundancy)bit. r1 will take care of
bit 1,3,5,7,9,11. and it is set based on the sum of even parity bit. the same method for rest of the
parity bits.

If the error occurred at bit 7 which is changed from 1 to 0, then receiver recalculates the same
sets of bits used by the sender. By this we can identify the perfect location of error occurrence.
once the bit is identified the receiver can reverse its value and correct the error.

What is a Computer Network?

o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through
wires, optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each
other through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.

Components Of Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC(National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.
Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data
to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the
network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can
say that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.

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Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three
types of cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or
more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is
more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission
speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using
light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is
more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect
the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is
not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot
found on the motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the
physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A
server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the
system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored
in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.

IEEE 802 NETWORKING STANDARD

IEEE 802 is a family of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standards
for local area networks (LAN), personal area network (PAN), and metropolitan area
networks (MAN). The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC) maintains these
standards. The IEEE 802 family of standards has twelve members, numbered 802.1 through
802.12, with a focus group of the LMSC devoted to each.
The IEEE 802 standards are restricted to computer networks carrying variable-size packets,
unlike cell relay networks, for example, in which data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized
units called cells. Isochronous signal networks, in which data is transmitted as a steady
stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also outside the scope of the
IEEE 802 standards.
The number 802 has no significance: it was simply the next number in the sequence that the
IEEE used for standards projects.[1]
The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (data link and
physical) of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking reference
model. IEEE 802 divides the OSI data link layer into two sub-layers: logical link
control (LLC) and medium access control (MAC), as follows:

 Data link layer

o LLC sublayer
o MAC sublayer
 Physical layer

Data-link Layer

Data-link Layer is a Communication Layers and conceptual division of methods in the

layered architecture of protocols in the network stack.

Data-link Layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in
a Wide Area Network (WAN) or between nodes on the same Local Area Network (LAN)
segment.
Several Network Protocols defines Data-link Layer as part of the Communication
Layers including:

 OSI-Model
 IEEE 802

Data-link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and might provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may
occur in the Physical Layer.
Data-link Layer is concerned with local delivery of frames between devices on the
same LAN. Data-link frames, as these Protocol Data Units are called, do not cross the
boundaries of a Local Area Network.
Inter-network routing and global addressing are higher-layer functions, allowing data-
link protocols to focus on local delivery, addressing, and media arbitration. This way, the
Data-link Layer is analogous to a neighborhood traffic cop; it endeavors to arbitrate between
parties contending for access to a medium, without concern for their ultimate destination.
When devices attempt to use a medium simultaneously, frame collisions occur. Data-
link protocols specify how devices detect and recover from such collisions, and may provide
mechanisms to reduce or prevent them.

IEEE 802
IEEE 802 defines two sub-layers within the Data-link Layer as:

 Logical Link Control Sublayer

 Media Access Control Sublayer

Media Access Control (MAC)

Media Access Control (MAC) is a sub-layer defined by IEEE 802 within the OSI-
Model Data-link Layer

Media Access Control sublayer that determines who is allowed to access the media at any
one time (e.g. CSMA/CD).
Media Access Control, generally, has two forms of media access control:

 distributed which is often called "Broadcast"

 centralized -

Both of these may be compared to communication between people. In a network made up of

people speaking, i.e. a conversation, we look for clues from our fellow talkers to see if any of
them appear to be about to speak. If two people speak at the same time, they will each pause
a random amount of time and then attempt to speak again, effectively establishing a long and
elaborate game of saying "no, you first".
Media Access Control sublayer also determines where one frame of data ends and the next
one starts – frame synchronization. There are four means of frame synchronization:

 time based - simply puts a specified amount of time between frames.

 character counting - simply notes the count of remaining characters in the frame's
header.
 byte stuffing - precedes the frame with a special byte sequence such as DLE STX and
succeeds it with DLE ETX. Appearances of DLE (byte value 0x10) have to be
escaped with another DLE. The start and stop marks are detected at the receiver and
removed as well as the inserted DLE characters.
 bit stuffing - replaces these start and end marks with flag consisting of a special bit
pattern (e.g. a 0, six 1 bits and a 0).

Physical Layer

 Physical Layer is a Communication Layers and conceptual division of methods in the

layered architecture of protocols in the network stack.

 OSI-Model Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of

the data connection.
 Physical Layer defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission
medium (e.g., a copper or fiber optical cable, radio frequency). Physical Layer
includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, Cable
Connection specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected
devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices.
 Physical Layer is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured
raw data in a physical medium.
 Physical Layer may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full
duplex. It defines the Network topology as BUS, mesh, or ring being some of the
most common.
 Physical Layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, as do the Physical Layers
of Ethernet and other local Area Networks, such as Token Ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn,
 and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as Personal Area Networks such
as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.
 Physical Layer is the layer of low-level Network devices, such as some Network
hubs, cabling, and Network Repeaters.
 Physical Layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher-layer
items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, Network
Repeaters, Network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
Features Of Computer network

A list Of Computer network features is given below.

o Communication speed
o File sharing
o Back up and Roll back is easy
o Software and Hardware sharing
o Security
o Scalability
o Reliability

Communication speed

Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For
example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore,
the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.
File sharing

File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network
provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to
take the back up from the main server.

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Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the
applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly,
hardware can also be shared.

Security

Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files
and applications.

Scalability

Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be
scalable so that we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed
of the connection and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the
chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching
devices.

Reliability

Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any
hardware failure.
Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together
with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as
Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network
are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
 permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up

the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance
of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.

o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the
clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:
 o LAN(Local Area Network)
o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 o Wired Personal Area Network
o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

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Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person
establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with another device to
share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such
as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.

Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
 o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which
can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some
people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by
a local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other
computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main
aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet.
The information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only
be accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected
to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

WLANs
In the field of computers, the wide usage of group connections have become
inevitable, which lead to the introduction of LANs (Local Area Networks). These
LANs come under the category of small scale networks within a single building or
campus.
o WANs are Wide Area Networks which cover a wider area such a city, or a limited
area greater than LAN. Wireless Personal Area Networks (PANs) are the next step
down from WLANs, covering smaller areas with low power transmission, for
networking of portable and mobile computing devices such as PCs, Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs).

Fundamentals of WLANs
The technical issues in WLANs must be understood in order to appreciate the difference
between wired networks and wireless networks. The use of WLANs and their design goals
are then studied. The types of WLANS, their components and their basic functionalities are
also detailed.

IEEE 802.11 Standard

This section introduces a prominent standard ion WLANs, the IEEE 802.11 standard. The
medium access control (MAC) layer and the physical layer mechanisms are explained. This
section also covers some of the optional functionalities such as security and quality of
service (QoS).

HIPERLAN Standard

This section describes another WLAN standard, HIPERLAN standard, which is a European
standard based on radio access.

Bluetooth

This section deals with the Bluetooth standard, which enables personal devices to
communicate with each other in the absence of infrastructure.
WLAN Fundamentals
While both portable terminals and mobile terminals can move from one place to another,
portable terminals are accessed only when they are stationary.
Mobile Terminals (MTs), on the other hand, are more powerful, and can be accessed when
they are in motion. WLANs aim to support truly mobile work stations.

WLAN Uses

Wireless computer networks are capable of offering versatile functionalities. WLANs are
very flexible and can be configured in a variety of topologies based on the application. Some
possible uses of WLANs are described below.
 Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive Instant Messages
on the move.
 In areas affected by earthquakes or other disasters, no suitable infrastructure may be
available on the site. WLANs are handy in such locations to set up networks on the
fly.
 There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set up computer
networks. In such places, wiring may not be permitted or the building design may
not be conductive to efficient wiring. WLANs are very good solutions in such places.

Design Goals

The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while designing WLANs −
 Operational simplicity − Design of wireless LANS must incorporate features to
enable a mobile user to quickly set up and access network services in a simple and
efficient manner.
 Power efficient operation − The power-constrained nature of mobile computing
devices such as laptops and PDAs necessitates the important requirement of WLANs
operating with minimal power consumption. Therefore, the design of WLAN must
incorporate power-saving features and use appropriate technologies and protocols to
achieve this.
 License-free operation − One of the major factors that affects the cost of wireless
access is the license fee for the spectrum in which a particular wireless access
 technology operates. Low cost of access is an important aspect for popularizing a
WLAN technology. Hence the design of WLAN should consider the parts of the
frequency spectrum. For its operation which does not require an
explicit<blicensing.< p=""></blicensing.<>
 Tolerance to interference − The proliferation of different wireless networking
technologies both for civilian and military applications have led to a
significant increase in the interference level across the radio spectrum.
The WLAN design should account for this and take appropriate measures by way of
selecting technologies and protocols to operate in the presence of interference.
 Global Usability − The design of the WLAN, the choice of technology, and the
selection of the operating frequency spectrum should take into account the
prevailing spectrum restriction in countries across the world. This ensures the
acceptability of the technology across the world.
 Security − The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to the requirement
of security features to be included in the design of WLAN technology.
 Safety requirements − The design of WLAN technology should follow the safety
requirements that can be classified into the following.
o Interference to medical and other instrumentation devices.
o Increased power level of transmitters that can lead to health hazards.

A well-designed WLAN should follow the power emission restrictions that are
applicable in the given frequency spectrum.
 Quality of service requirements − Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the
provisioning of designated levels of performance for multimedia traffic. The design
of WLAN should take into consideration the possibility of supporting a wide
variety of traffic, including multimedia traffic.
 Compatibility with other technologies and applications − The interoperability
among different LANS is important for efficient communication between hosts
operating with different LAN technologies.
Network Architecture
Network architecture describes the types of WLANs, the components of a typical WLAN
and the services offered by a WLAN.

Infrastructure based versus Ad Hoc LANs

WLANs can be broadly classified into two types, namely Infrastructure networks and Ad
hoc LANs, based on the underlying architecture.

Infrastructure networks

Infrastructure networks contain special nodes called Access Points (APs), which are
connected via existing networks.

 APs are special in the sense that they can interact with wireless nodes as well as with
the existing wired network.
 The other wireless nodes, also known as Mobile stations (STAs), communicate via
APs.
  The APs also act as bridges with other networks.

Ad hoc LANs

Ad hoc LANs do not need any fixed infrastructure. These networks can be set up on the fly
at any place. Nodes communicate directly with each other for forward messages through
other nodes that are directly accessible.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to
replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security.
Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets,
which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.

History of Bluetooth
WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a
wireless carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one
another without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area
Networks (PANs).
 Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable
communication between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio
interfaces.
 In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to
form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto
standard for PANs.
 IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer
applications.
Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio
Frequency (RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate
radio waves in the ISM band.

The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.
 Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other.
  Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth
enabled device, almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth
enabled devices.
 Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten
meters has paved the way for several usage models.
 Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
 Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and
mobile phones.

Piconets and Scatternets

Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through
shortrange devices known as Piconets. Bluetooth devices exist in small ad-hoc
configurations with the ability to act either as master or slave the specification allows a
mechanism for master and slave to switch their roles. Point to point configuration with one
master and one slave is the simplest configuration.
When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is called
a PICONET. A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master.
The device that initializes establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.
The master is responsible for transmission control by dividing the network into a series of
time slots amongst the network members, as a part of time division multiplexing scheme
which is shown below.

The features of Piconets are as follows −

 Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence
of individual devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of
master.
 Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a
single Piconet.
 Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.
  Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices
enter and leave piconets.
 There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are
essentially master-to-slave or slave-to-master.
 Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
 Transmission starts in the slave-to-master time slot immediately following a polling
packet from the master.
 A device can be a member of two or more piconets, jumping from one piconet to
another by adjusting the transmission regime-timing and frequency hopping
sequence dictated by the master device of the second piconet.
 It can be a slave in one piconet and master in another. It however cannot be a master
in more than once piconet.
 Devices resident in adjacent piconets provide a bridge to support inner-piconet
connections, allowing assemblies of linked piconets to form a physically extensible
communication infrastructure known as Scatternet.

Spectrum

Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal
rate of 1600 hops/sec. the 2.4 GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.

Range

Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1
meter or 3 feet Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of
10 meters or 30 feet Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of
100 meters or 300 feet.

Data rate

Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0
combined with Error Data Rate.

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Fundamentals of WLANs
1. HiperLAN
o HiperLAN stands for High performance LAN. While all of the previous technologies
have been designed specifically for an adhoc environment, HiperLAN is derived from
traditional LAN environments and can support multimedia data and asynchronous
data effectively at high rates (23.5 Mbps).
 o A LAN extension via access points can be implemented using standard features of the
HiperLAN/1 specification. However, HiperLAN does not necessarily require any type
of access point infrastructure for its operation.
o HiperLAN was started in 1992, and standards were published in 1995. It employs the
5.15GHz and 17.1 GHz frequency bands and has a data rate of 23.5 Mbps with
coverage of 50m and mobility< 10 m/s.
o It supports a packet-oriented structure, which can be used for networks with or
without a central control (BS-MS and ad-hoc). It supports 25 audio connections at
32kbps with a maximum latency of 10 ms, one video connection of 2 Mbps with 100
ms latency, and a data rate of 13.4 Mbps.
o HiperLAN/1 is specifically designed to support adhoc computing for multimedia
systems, where there is no requirement to deploy a centralized infrastructure. It
effectively supports MPEG or other state of the art real time digital audio and video
standards.
o The HiperLAN/1 MAC is compatible with the standard MAC service interface,
enabling support for existing applications to remain unchanged.
o HiperLAN 2 has been specifically developed to have a wired infrastructure, providing
short-range wireless access to wired networks such as IP and ATM.

The two main differences between HiperLAN types 1 and 2 are as follows:

o Type 1 has a distributed MAC with QoS provisions, whereas type 2 has a centralized
schedule MAC.
o Type 1 is based on Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), whereas type 2 is based
on OFDM.
o HiperLAN/2 automatically performs handoff to the nearest access point. The access
point is basically a radio BS that covers an area of about 30 to 150 meters, depending
on the environment. MANETs can also be created easily.

The goals of HiperLAN are as follows:

o QoS (to build multiservice network)

o Strong security
o Handoff when moving between local area and wide areas
o Increased throughput
o Ease of use, deployment, and maintenance
 o Affordability
o Scalability

One of the primary features of HiperLAN/2 is its high speed transmission rates (up to 54
Mbps). It uses a modulation method called OFDM to transmit analog signals. It is connection
oriented, and traffic is transmitted on bidirectional links for unicast traffic and unidirectional
links toward the MSs for multicast and broadcast traff

This connection oriented approach makes support for QoS easy, which in turn depends on
how the HiperLAN/2 network incorporates with the fixed network using Ethernet, ATM, or
IP.

The HiperLAN/2 architecture shown in the figure allows for interoperation with virtually any
type of fixed network, making the technology both network and application independent.

HiperLAN/2 networks can be deployed at "hot spot" areas such as airports and hotels, as an
easy way of offering remote access and internet services.

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2. Home RF Technology
o A typical home needs a network inside the house for access to a public network
telephone and internet, entertainment networks (cable television, digital audio and
video with the IEEE 1394), transfer and sharing of data and resources (printer,
internet connection), and home control and automation.
o The device should be able to self-configure and maintain connectivity with the
network. The devices need to be plug and play enabled so that they are available to all
other clients on the network as soon as they are switched on, which requires automatic
device discovery and identification in the system.
o Home networking technology should also be able to accommodate any and all lookup
services, such as Jini. Home RF products allow you to simultaneously share a single
internet connection with all of your computers - without the hassle of new wires,
cables or jacks.
o Home RF visualizes a home network as shown in the figure:

o A network consists of resource providers, which are gateways to different resources

like phone lines, cable modem, satellite dish, and so on, and the devices connected to
them such as cordless phone, printers and fileservers, and TV.
o The goal of Home RF is to integrate all of these into a single network suitable for all
applications and to remove all wires and utilize RF links in the network suitable for
all applications.
o This includes sharing PC, printer, fileserver, phone, internet connection, and so on,
enabling multiplayer gaming using different PCs and consoles inside the home, and
providing complete control on all devices from a single mobile controller.
o With Home RF, a cordless phone can connect to PSTN but also connect through a PC
for enhanced services. Home RF makes an assumption that simultaneous support for
both voice and data is needed.
Advantages of Home RF

o In Home RF all devices can share the same connection, for voice or data at the same
time.
o Home RF provides the foundation for a broad range of interoperable consumer
devices for wireless digital communication between PCs and consumer electronic
devices anywhere in and around the home.
o The working group includes Compaq computer corp. Ericson enterprise network,
IBM Intel corp., Motorola corp. and other.
o A specification for wireless communication in the home called the shared wireless
access protocol (SWAP) has been developed.

3. IEEE 802.11 Standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for the wireless area network (WLAN), which was
implemented in 1997 and was used in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band.
IEEE 802.11 was quickly implemented throughout a wide region, but under its standards the
network occasionally receives interference from devices such as cordless phones and
microwave ovens. The aim of IEEE 802.11 is to provide wireless network connection for
fixed, portable, and moving stations within ten to hundreds of meters with one medium
access control (MAC) and several physical layer specifications. This was later called
802.11a. The major protocols include IEEE 802.11n; their most significant differences lie in
the specification of the PHY layer.

4. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is one of the major wireless technologies developed to achieve WPAN (wireless
personal area network). It is used to connect devices of different functions such as telephones,
computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers, and so on.

Architecture of Bluetooth

o Bluetooth devices can interact with other Bluetooth devices in several ways in the
figure. In the simplest scheme, one of the devices acts as the master and (up to) seven
other slaves.
o A network with a master and one or more slaves associated with it is known as a
piconet. A single channel (and bandwidth) is shared among all devices in the piconet.
o Each of the active slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address. many other
slaves can remain synchronized to the master though remaining inactive slaves,
referred to as parked nodes.
o The master regulates channel access for all active nodes and parked nodes. Of two
piconets are close to each other, they have overlapping coverage areas.
o This scenario, in which nodes of two piconets intermingle, is called a scatternet.
Slaves in one piconet can participate in another piconet as either a master or slave
through time division multiplexing.
o In a scatternet, the two (or more) piconets are not synchronized in either time or
frequency. Each of the piconets operates in its own frequency hopping channel, and
any devices in multiple piconets participate at the appropriate time via time division
multiplexing.
o The Bluetooth baseband technology supports two link types. Synchronous connection
oriented (SCO) types, used primarily for voice, and asynchronous connectionless
(ACL) type, essentially for packet data.