LESSON NOTE

PEDAGOGUE’S NAME:

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: S.S.S. 3

TERM: FIRST TERM (1ST TERM )

SESSION:
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 3

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC

1. Regulation of internal environment, structures and function of the kidney, diseases, effects and
remedy.
2. Liver: – Structure, functions and diseases, Skin: – Structure, functions, diseases and care.
3. Hormones: - Location, secretion, function, effects of over-secretion and under-secretion.
4. Nervous co-ordination: - CNS component, structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord
5. The peripheral nervous system and the neurone.
6. Reflex and voluntary actions, conditional reflex.
7. Sensory organs: - Skin as a sense organ, organ of sight (The eye).
8. Organ of hearing, smell and taste.
9-10 Genetics ( Mendel’s work in genetics , chromosomes , genetic term )
11- Revision
12-13 - EXAMINATION

REFERENCES
 College Biology by Idodo Umeh
 Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T. Ramlingam
 Essential Biology by M.C Michael
 New Biology by H. Stone and Cozen
 SSCE, past questions and answers
 UME and CAMBRIDGE past questions and answers
 Biology practical text

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: REGULATION OF INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

CONTENT
- Homeostasis, mechanism and structures of homeostasis
- Structures of the Kidney
- Functions of the Kidney
- Kidney diseases, effects and remedy

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the process by which a fairly constant internal environment is maintained in an
organism. The internal environment of an organism is made up of the body fluid such as blood, lymph
and tissue fluid. For efficient functions of body cells and healthy growth, a living organism must be
able to adjust to any change in the physical and chemical conditions of its body fluids. These
conditions include temperature, PH, osmotic pressure, concentrations of dissolved substances and
mineral ions.

MECHANISM OF HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostatic processes are control mechanisms which are used to detect and adjust to changes in the
internal environment of the organism. These mechanisms usually include:
a. Sensory detectors which recognize a change in a given condition and stimulate the relevant
body parts.
b. Effectors organs or glands which react and restore the normal state.

STRUCTURES FOR HOMEOSTASIS

Osmoregulation (homeostasis) in unicellular organism is ensured by the use of contractile vacuole.
The main organs involved in homeostasis in multicellular organisms include; kidney, liver, skin,
ductless glands (hormones) and the brain which has the overall control of the homeostatic process in
the body.

EVALUATION
1. What is homeostasis? List four factors of homeostasis.
2. List four structures of homeostasis in multicellular animals

STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY

The
mammalian kidney is a bean-shaped, reddish brown organ located in the posterior end of the
abdomen. The right kidney is slightly lower in the body than the left. Cutting a kidney longitudinally,
two distinct regions are observed; an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Several narrow tubules
called urinary tubules (nephrons) pass through the two regions stated above. The tubules open at the
tips of triangular – shaped masses of tissues called pyramids. The pyramids open into a funnel-shaped
cavity called the pelvis. The kidney has many tiny capillaries which are branches of the renal artery
and the renal vein. The pelvis continues as ureter, a long narrow tube connecting the kidney to the
urinary bladder.
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY
The kidney serves as the chief osmoregulator and excretory organ in the body of mammals,
performing the following functions:
a. It removes toxic wastes and harmful substances.
b. It produces heat during cold.
c. It excretes nitrogenous wastes like urea.
d. It regulates water level in the body
e. It assists to regulate pH of the body.
f. It maintains salt or ion-balance in the body.
The first three are excretory functions while the last three are osmoregulatory functions of kidney

KIDNEY AS AN OSMOREGULATOR
Kidney is an osmoregulator by maintaining the water, salt and pH balance of the blood and this occurs
in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of urinary tubules.
 WATER BALANCE
When the body is dehydrated (little water in the body) which results from drinking small quantity of
water or losing water through sweat on a hot day, the osmotic pressure of the blood increased. The
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the changes and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete
more antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which makes the walls of the urinary tubules more permeable so
that more water is reabsorbed into the blood; therefore less water is lost from the body as
concentrated urine.
When the body is hydrated (too much water in the body) which results from drinking large quantity of
water or on cold days when we sweat less, the osmotic pressure of the blood is lowered and less ADH
is secreted and the wall of the kidney becomes less permeable and more water is lost from the body
as dilute urine.
 CONTROL OF BLOOD SODIUM IONS AND PH LEVEL
When the concentration of sodium ion in the blood is higher than normal, the excess is excreted. If it
is lower, then more sodium ions are reabsorbed. This process is regulated by inhibiting or stimulating
the secretion of the hormone aldosterone.
The normal pH of the blood is 7.4. When the pH becomes acidic, the hydrogen ions are excreted and
when it becomes alkaline, the hydrogen carbonate ions are excreted.

EVALUATION
1. Outline five functions of the mammalian kidney
2. Describe how a kidney act as an osmoregulator

KIDNEY (RENAL) DISEASES, EFFECTS AND REMEDY

RENAL DISEASES
1. Nephritis: - This is the inflammation of the blood vessels (glomeruli) in Bowman’s capsule of
nephron caused by bacteria (streplococci). The blood vessels become porous and useful materials
from the blood are leaked into the glomerular filtrate. Inflamed blood vessels can also be blocked
as a result of accumulation of dead cells which can lead to kidney failure.
2. Diuresis: This is a condition in which large quantities of dilute urine are produced because the
cells of the kidney tubules are not reabsorbing water from the glomerular filtrate. Diuresis is
common in patients suffering from diabetics insipidus.
3. Kidney stones: These are stony masses of minerals and organic matter formed in the urinary
tubules. Low water intake with high salt intake predisposes someone to this disease by causing
crystallization of mineral salts which disturb the free flow of urine.
4. Dropsy (oedema):- This is a disease condition in which the cells of Bowman’s capsule are unable
to absorb water from the blood in the urinary tubules. This causes water retention in the blood or
tissue and resulting swelling of some body parts

EFFECTS OF KIDNEY DISEASES

a. Presence of proteins and blood cells in urine (nephritis).
b. Swollen face and ankles resulting in constant weakness and sluggishness (oedema).
c. Excessive urination with resulting weight loss (diuresis).
d. Abdominal pain due to obstruction to passage of urine. Also, high blood pressure and bloody
urine may result (kidney stone).
e. General body pains and fever (any of the renal disease)
f. High blood pressure, dizziness and fatique

REMEDY
a. Use of drugs e. g. antibiotics (nephritis), diuretics (oedema)
b. Kidney transplant (diuresis, nephritis)
c. Dialysis: use of dialysis machine (artificial kidney) to filter waste out of the patient’s blood
(nephritis).
d. Reduction in water intake (oedema)
e. Taking excess water, and avoiding excessive intake of food containing calcium (kidney stone)
f. Surgical operation called nephrectomy (kidney stones)

EVALUATION
1. List four kidney diseases and explain two
2. List four effects of kidney diseases and four remedy of kidney diseases

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is homeostasis? State three physio-chemical conditions of the internal environment of an
organism.
2. Discuss briefly the mechanism of homeostasis.
3. Kidney is both excretory and osmoregulatory in its function.” Explain
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The maintenance of a constant internal environment is referred to as (a) plasmolysis (b)
diuresis (c) homeostasis. (d) glycolysis
2. All the organs below are homeostatic in function except (a) liver (b) kidney (c) food vacuole (d)
skin
3. Which of the following is not a kidney disease? (a) oedema (b) hepatisis (c) nephritis (d) kidney
stones
4. Which of the following is not one of the effects of kidney diseases (a) absence of blood cells
in urine (b) oedema (c) high blood pressure (d) excessive urination.
5. One of the following is not a function of kidney. (a) Removal of poisons (b) maintaining salt
balance (c) excretion (d) it regulates water level.

THEORY
1. Why do people urinate more on a cold day?
2. Explain briefly ‘Dialysis

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: LIVER AND SKIN: STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, DISEASES AND CARE

CONTENT
- Structure and functions of the liver
- Diseases, effects and remedy of liver diseases
- Structure of the skin
- Functions, diseases and care of the skin
- Temperature regulation
- Control of body temperature

STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER

The liver is the largest organ in the body of a mammal with a weight of about 1.25kg. It is reddish
brown, soft with two lobes and it is located below the diaphragm on the right side of the abdomen. It
partly overlaps the stomach and has bile duct connecting it to the duodenum. The duct is attached to
the gall bladder.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

1. Regulation of blood glucose level by converting excess glucose to glycogen under the control of
the hormone insulin. With low glucose level, glycogen is converted to glucose under the influence
of hormone, glucagon. Both insulin and glucagon are produced by the pancreas.
2. Regulation of blood protein. The body cells cannot store excess amino acids in the body. The
liver therefore deaminates excess amino acids by breaking them down into amino group
(converted to urea for excretion) and carboxyl group (converted to carbohydrates which are
stored as glycogen)
3. Manufacture of essential blood proteins like fibrinogen, prothrombin, globulus etc which are
involved in blood clotting.
4. Regulation of lipids by converting them to glucose.
5. Production of bile for emulsification of fats. The bile is stored in the gall bladder. (bile is 98%
water and 2% bile salts, bilirubin, inorganic salts and cholesterol)
6. Storage of vitamins and minerals like iron, zinc, copper and potassium.
7. Storage of blood (up to 1,500 cm 3 of blood) and regulation of blood volume and pressure in
general circulation.
8. Formation of red blood cells (RBC) in foetus and breakdown of RBC in adults.
9. Inactivation of hormones
10. Detoxification of poisonous and toxic materials like drugs, food preservatives and pollutants in air
and water
11. Production of heat as a by-product of its numerous metabolic activities.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the structure of a liver
2. State six functions of the liver

DISEASES OF THE LIVER

These include diabetes, viral hepatitis, gall stones, cancer of the liver, and cirrhosis of the liver.
Jaundice is a disease that may be due to the liver disease or some other causes.
1. Diabetes: This is caused by inability of the liver cells to convert excess glucose in the blood to
glycogen due to the failure of the pancreas to produce the hormone insulin
2. Viral Hepatitis: This is inflammation and destruction of the liver cells by viruses.
3. Gall Stones: These are stony masses formed in the gall bladder or bile duct. These are mostly
precipitation of cholesterol. The gall stones obstruct the flow of bile, subjecting the gall bladder
to infections.
4. Cancer of the liver: This is uncontrollable outgrowth of liver cells which prevents liver from
carrying out its normal functions.
5. Cirrhosis of the liver: This is a disease condition in which the damaged liver cells become
replaced by useless fibrous tissues, making the liver firm and irregular. This can be caused by
excessive drinking of alcohol and hepatitis.
6. Jaundice: caused by increase in the blood bilirubin level due to excessive breakdown of red
blood cells observed in sickle cells or chronic malaria patients and obstruction of bile duct by
gall stones or diseases of the liver. The symptom of jaundice is yellowing of skin or eye white.

GENERAL EFFECTS OF LIVER DISEASES

a. Weakness b. Jaundice c. Slight fever d. Oedema e. High blood pressure
REMEDY
The liver cells have the natural capacity of regenerating (dividing and producing new cells). The liver
can therefore heal itself with the aid of the following procedures:
a. A long period of bed rest
b. Low fat controlled diet
c. Avoiding drinking alcohols.
d. Removing the cause of the disease e.g. gall stones.
e. Liver transplant can be done in progressive liver cirrhosis and cancer of the liver. A lobe of the
liver can be donated while the remaining one soon regenerates.

EVALUATION
1. List five liver diseases and state four remedy of the liver diseases
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
The skin is the largest organ of the body which covers its entire surface. It is composed of an outer
epidermis, an inner layer of dermis and a layer of subcutaneous fat under the skin (below the dermis).
An average skin is between 1-2 mm thick.

Epidermis
It is the outer upper part of the skin which consists of three layers, namely;
a. Cornified layer b. Granular layer c. Malpighian layer
CORNIFIED (HORNY) LAYER
This is the outermost layer of the epidermis which consists of fats, dead cells and keratin. Keratin
makes the layer tough, flexible and water-proof; it prevents microbial entrance as well as reduces
water loss from the body. The cornified layer is constantly wearing away and replaced from the
granular layer below.

GRANULAR LAYER
It consists of living cells produced by the malpighian layer. These cells are continuously converted to
cornified layer cells and keratin is deposited inside them and they lose their nuclei and become
flattened in shape.

MALPIGHIAN LAYER
This is constantly dividing to produce new epidermis. Sweat glands, sebaceous glands and hair
follicles are also produced from the epidermis. It contains the pigment melanin, which gives colour to
the skin. It also has keratin, a protein which is responsible for the toughness and flexibility of the skin.

Dermis
It is composed mainly of connective tissues. These include;
a. Blood capillaries which supply food and oxygen and remove waste.
b. Hair follicles. The malpighian cells at the base of the skin keep dividing to produces long
cylindrical hairs. When the hair is touched, the nerve endings in the follicle respond.
c. Erector muscle attached to each hair follicle. Its contraction and relaxation makes the hair to
stand upright and flattens respectively when regulating the body temperature.
d. Sebaceous gland which secretes sebum which repels water and also prevents microbes from
multiplying.
e. Sweat gland which continues as sweat duct and opens outside as the sweat pore. It absorbs
water and salts from the surrounding capillaries which when release outside evaporate and
cools the body.
f. Sensory nerve endings (skin, being a sense organ)
g. Subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue) which act as a long term food store and an insulating
layer preventing heat loss from the body.

EVALUATION
List five structural parts of the skin and their functions

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

 1. Protection: The skin protects the body against dehydration, invading microbes, mechanical
damages and poisonous chemicals.
2. Sensitivity: It controls receptors sensitive to heat, cold, touch and pressure in response to
stimuli.
3. Temperature regulation: through vasodilation and vasoconstriction
4. Excretion: It removes excess water and nitrogenous waste (urea) from the body
5. Production of vitamin D using ultra-violent rays of the sun
6. Storage: store fats in the adipose tissues which forms an insulating layer

DISEASES
The diseases of the skin may be caused by viruses, bacteria, protozoa or fungi. These include chicken
pox, measles, pimples, skin rashes, eczema, boil etc.

CARE OF THE SKIN

a. Taking bath regularly.
b. Eating balanced diet especially with vitamin A and B.
c. Use of deodorants and anti-perspirants which may control excessive sweating and unpleasant
odour.
d. Regular exercise.
e. Wearing clean clothes.
f. Exposure to fresh air and UV rays (vitamin D)

EVALUATION
1. Outline five functions of the skin
2. List five skin diseases and five ways of caring for the skin

TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Mammals like human maintain a constant body temperature. This allows them to live in any type of
weather, “arctic” or “tropic”. Heat gained or loss from the body caused a rise or fall from the normal
body temperature which is approximately 37oC.
Hypothalamus monitors, receives information and stimulates processes for balance. When there is

Rise in body temperature which may be caused by hot weather, vigorous exercise, high fever or
exposure to solar radiation. An increase in body temperature stimulates temperature receptors in the
hypothalamus to send nerve impulses to the skin. These impulses stimulate processes that get rid of
excess body heat. These processes include
 Vasodilation: - The expansion (dilation) of blood capillaries beneath the skin epidermis and
relaxation of capillaries in deep layer of the skin. This allows more blood flow near the surface
and heat is lost through the epidermis into the air by convection and radiation, thus reducing the
temperature.
 Sweating: - Sweat glands are stimulated by nerve impulses to secrete large amount of sweat
which evaporates and cools the body. Other mammals lose heat by (panting) i. e. evaporation of
water through the mouth, nose and tongue.
 Decreasing metabolic rate: This minimizes heat production within the body.
 Lowering of hairs: - Erector muscles relax keeping the hair flat on the skin surface.

Fall in body temperature due to cold weather the following processes occur:
 Vasoconstrictions: The narrowing or contraction of the blood capillaries beneath the skin
surface and expansion of those ones in deep layers. Less blood flows near the surface of the skin.
Therefore, less heat is lost by convection and radiation, thus making the person looks pale and
blue.
 Shivering: rhythmic contractions of skeletal muscles to produce heat.
 Increasing metabolic rate: The thyroid gland is stimulated by the hypothalamus to produce
hormone thyroxine which increases the metabolic rate, hence more heat is produced especially by
the liver
 Raising of hairs: Erector muscles contract to raise the hairs to trap air which is a bad conductor
of heat.

EVALUATION
Describe four ways through which the skin can control a rise in body temperature.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is (a) Deamination (b) Detoxification
2. Describe jaundice, stating three causes of it.
3. List five dermal structures and state their functions
4. Define (a) vasodilation (b) vasoconstriction
5. Describe the role of the liver in digestion and osmoregulation
6. Describe the homeostasis functions of the skin

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The pigment in the malpighian layer responsible for skin colouration is known as (a) melanin
(b) haemoglobin (c) haemoyanin (d) keratin
2. Which of the following specialized structures are stimulated by touch, pressure, pains heat and
cold? (a) Receptor (b) synapse (c) cell bodies (d) muscle
3. The increase in width of the blood vessels in the mammalian skin at high temperature is known
as (a) vasodilation (b) sweating (c) vasoconstriction (d) vasculation
4. Which of the following stimuli is not provided through the skin of mammals? (a) light (b)
pressure (c) pain (d) touch
5. Which of the following parts of mammalian skin is directly involved in excretion? (a) Sebaceous
gland (b) sweat gland (c) horny layer (d) blood capillaries

THEORY
Explain how skin acts as: (a) an organ of temperature regulation (b) an excretory organ.

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: HORMONAL CO-ORDINATION

CONTENT
- Hormones and endocrine glands
- Pituitary hormone
- Thyroid hormone
- Parathyroid hormone
- Pancreatic hormone
- Adrenal hormone
- Reproductive hormones
- Plant hormones
- Application of hormones to agriculture

HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Hormones are chemical substances produced or secreted by endocrine glands (ductless glands) in
response to various stimuli. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and circulated to exert their
effect on their target organs. This effect could be to speed up or slow down biological reactions.
A few hormones like thyroxine and other growth hormones exert their effects on all body cells. A
hormone can therefore be defined as a chemical messenger that is produced in one part of an
organism and brings about a specific effect in a target organ some distance away. Hormones (usually
needed in small amount) are active in homeostasis, growth and development. After their actions,
hormones are inactivated in the liver and excreted in urine.
EVALUATION
1. What is hormone?
2. State four characteristics of hormones

ANIMAL HORMONES
There are basically five groups of animal hormones which are secreted by different glands

PITUITARY HORMONE
The pituitary gland can be found below the hypothalamus. It consists of anterior and posterior parts.
Both parts of the pituitary gland release hormones. The anterior pituitary gland secretes growth
hormones and several tropic hormones that regulate the activities of other endocrine glands through
homeostatic mechanism. Hence, the pituitary is called “master gland”. These hormones include
a. Gonadotropins i. e. follicle stimulating hormone (which cause the ovary to produce mature eggs
and the testis to produce sperms) and lutenizing hormone (which causes ovulation in female and
production of testosterone in by the testis)
b. Adrenocorticotropic hormone which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids
c. Thyroid stimulating hormones
d. Prolactin which stimulates the secretion of milk by the mammary gland
e. Somatotropin which stimulates the growth of long bones and increases metabolic rate in the cells.
Growth hormones are produced during childhood and adolescence.
Over secretion of growth hormones in children causes gigantism while under secretion causes
dwarfism.
The posterior pituitary gland produces
a. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
b. Oxytocin which stimulates the contraction of the uterine wall and dilation of the cervix during
parturition and milk letdown from the nipples.

EVALUATION
1. List four hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and their functions.
2. Describe how the pituitary act as the master gland

THYROID HORMONES
The thyroid gland is located in the region close to the larynx (the neck region). It produces three main
hormones, the most important of which is thyroxine (others are triiodothyronine and calcitonin).
Thyroxine
a. regulates the growth and development of all body cells.
b. increases the rate at which glucose is oxidized in the body cells and increases heat production as
well.
Under secretion of thyroxine causes cretinism that is observed in physically underdeveloped and
mentally retarded children, sluggishness and goiter in adults. Over secretion of thyroxine causes
hyper activeness and restlessness.

PARATHYROID HORMONE
Parathyroid glands are attached to the thyroid gland and are observed as four tiny glands. The
hormone, called parathormone raises blood calcium level by:
a. Releasing calcium from bone
b. Increasing calcium absorption in the gut.
c. Reducing calcium excretion by the kidney.

Calcitonin (a thyroid hormone) lowers the blood calcium level.

Over secretion of parathormone causes the bones to become fragile, soft and prone to fracture while
under secretion causes muscle spasms.
EVALUATION
1. What is the effect of under secretion and over secretion of thyroxine?
2. List two parathyroid hormones and their functions.

PANCREATIC HORMONES
The pancreas is a digestive as well as an endocrine gland. Hence, it has both exocrine and endocrine
functions. Most cells in the pancreas produce digestive enzymes. Among these cells are hormone –
producing cells called Islets of Langerhans which produce two hormones, insulin and glucagon.
Insulin lowers the blood glucose level by stimulating the liver cells to convert excess glucose to
glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles
Deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus i. e. excretion of glucose in urine, less appetite and great
thirst. Over secretion of insulin causes fall in blood sugar level and incessant hunger.
Glucagon raises the blood glucose level by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose.

ADRENAL HORMONES
The adrenal glands are located above the kidney and they produce two distinct groups of hormones.
The adrenal cortex produces corticoids while adrenal medulla produces adrenaline and
noradrenaline (the emergency hormones). Corticoids include; glucocorticoids (which raise blood
glucose level during stress e.g. cortisol) and mineralocorticoids which regulate the levels of sodium
and potassium ions in body fluids e.g. aldosterone increases sodium ions absorption.
Adrenalin as an emergency hormone prepares the body for immediate action in time of fright, danger
and anger by
a. increasing muscular tone
b. increasing heart beat rate and respiration
c. aiding pupils dilation
d. increases the rate of conversion of glycogen to glucose by the liver
Under secretion of adrenalin results in slow response to emergency, low blood pressure and heart beat
while over secretion results in over anxiety and excitement.

EVALUATION
1. Describe how adrenaline act as an emergency hormone
2. What are the functions of pancreatic hormones?

REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES
Certain cells in the reproductive organs produce hormones. The testes produce testosterone, the
male sex hormone and the ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone (female sex hormones). Sex
hormone production begins at puberty (a period in late childhood, between 10 and 14 year of age),
then the production of sex hormone is greatly increased, causing the body to grow rapidly and change
into a sexually mature form.
The production of sex hormones is stimulated by gonadrotropic hormones secreted by the pituitary
gland
Male sex hormone, testosterone stimulates:
a. the growth and maturation of the penis, testes and accessory sex structures.
b. the development of male sex characteristics such as muscular body, growth of hair in the pubic
region, armpit, chest and the face and deepening of the voice.
Female sex hormone oestrogen which performs the following functions.
a. brings about the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as the enlargement of
the breasts, growth of hair in the pubic region and armpit, widening of hip and fats distribution.
b. regulates the reproductive or menstrual cycle.
Progesterone
a. inhibits egg production (ovulation) during pregnancy
b. prepares and maintain the lining of the uterus
c. aids implantation and development of the embryo in the uterus
Over-secretion of reproductive hormones causes excessive development of sexual organs and
abnormal urge for sex while under-secretion results in poor development of secondary sexual
characters, sexual organs and low urge for sex.
EVALUATION
1. List three reproductive hormones and their functions
2. Describe how female sex hormones controls the reproductive cycle

PLANT HORMONES
Co-ordination in plants is simpler than in animals. It is ensured by chemicals known as plant
hormones. These are similar to animal hormones in that they are:
a. only needed in small amount to bring about their effects.
b. produced in one part of the body and transported to another part where they exert their effects.
Animal hormones are produced in specific glands and bring about response in specific target organs.
In plants, hormones are not produced in tissues specialized for their production. Their effects are also
more general varying with concentration and types of organs. Plant hormones stimulate or inhibit
growth in the target tissues in response to external stimuli such as light, temperature, gravity and
touch. These substances are known as plants growth hormones, but they affect other activities such
as fruits formation, roots development and leaf fall. Combination of plant hormones brings about
responses that are different from what each hormone will produce alone. This type of interaction is
also common in animals. The responses of plant hormones are usually much slower than most of
animals. This is because responses in plants are mainly brought about by growth.

TYPES OF PLANTS HORMONE

One of the most important groups of plants hormones are auxins. Other groups include gibberellins,
cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethene (ethylene).

AUXINS
The most important naturally occurring auxin is indoleacetic acid (IAA). It is produced at the apices of
a shoot and it is transported in one direction away from the tip. It moves across short distance by
diffusion and longer distance through the phloem. Auxin influences cell division, elongation and
differentiation. It
a. influence the growth of stem towards light (positive phototropism) and root away from it (negative
phototropism). Similarly, it causes the growth of roots towards the force of gravity (geotropism).
b. stimulates the development of lateral and adventitious roots for increased water and mineral
absorption.
c. causes apical dominance by inhibiting the growth of lateral buds
d. promotes the development of fruits.
e. breaks dormancy in seeds ensuring early germination
f. delay leaf fall

GIBBERELLINS
These plant hormones are found in root and stem apices. They promote growth by stimulating both
cell elongation and cell division. They also stimulate growth in dwarf varieties. Other effects of
gibberellins include
a. Inducing dormant seeds to germinate
b. Causing dormant auxiliary buds to grow
c. Increasing fruit size.
CYTOKININS
Cytokinins are produced in roots. They are also growth promoting hormones like auxins and
gibberellins. Together with auxins, they stimulate cell division so that stems and roots grow normally.
Unlike auxins, they stimulate the lateral buds to grow into branches. They delay ageing in plants.

ABSCISIC ACID
This hormone is produced in mature green leaves, fruits and root caps. It is a growth inhibitor whose
effects generally oppose both auxins and gibberellins. It:
a. suppresses the growth of bud.
b. induces dormancy
c. brings about ageing in leaves.
d. controls the opening and closing of stomata.
The effects of abscisic acid enable the plants to withstand severe environmental condition.

ETHENE
This is a simple hydrocarbon which is produced in leaves, stems and young fruits. It retards lateral bud
development and hastens the ripening of fruits.

EVALUATION
1. List four plants hormones and their functions
2. Describe how auxins act as growth hormone in plant

APPLICATION OF HORMONES TO AGRICULTURE

Natural plant hormones and synthetic ones are used in horticulture and agriculture. The uses are:
a. Artificial vegetative propagation: Auxins are used in rooting powders which are applied at the end
of cutting to induce root formation. Synthetic auxins are used to knit together parts of plants after
grafting by inducing wound tissue formation.
b. Weed control: The synthetic auxin is used as a selective weed killer (herbicide) e. g. 2, 4 – D
c. Harvesting: Auxins are used to ensure a longer stay of fruits on the plants.
d. Parthenocarpy: Auxin and gibberellins causes flowers to develop into fruits without fertilization
e. Preservation: Cytokinins used in storing vegetables prevent yellowing. Growth inhibitors (abscisic
acid) are used to prevent onions and potatoes in stores from sprouting.

EVALUATION
Outline five applications of plant hormones to agriculture.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What are hormones?
2. What are ductless glands
3. Outline five general functions of hormones
4. Discuss the exocrine and endocrine functions of the pancreas
5. Describe how the female sex hormones controls the reproductive cycle
6. In two ways, show how plant and animal hormones are similar.
7. State four differences between hormonal coordination in plants and animals
8. How relevant are plant hormones to agriculture

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the following statement is correct? Hormones are (a) secreted into the blood through
ducts (b) secreted directly into the blood stream (c) inactive chemical substances in the blood
stream (d) not important
2. The pituitary is called “master glands” because (a) it is located in the brain (b) its secretions are
more numerous than any other glands. (c) it secretion controls other glands (d) it is used in
mastering learning.
3. The condition known as cretinism is caused by the deficiency of (a) thyroxine (b)
adrenaline (c) vitamin A (d) oxytocin.
4. Auxins are produced in the (a) apical region of roots and shoot (b) edges of leaves (c)
epidermis of roots (d) epidermis of shoots.
5. All these are plant hormones except (a) thyroxine (b) auxins (c) abscisic acid (d)
ethylene

THEORY
1. State six effects of adrenaline as an emergency hormones on body organs
2. In a tabular form state the gland, location, functions, effects of undersecretion and over
secretion of (a) thyroxine (b) insulin (c) somatotropin

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION

- The nervous system
- The central nervous system.
- The brain (components, descriptions and functions)
- Structure and functions of the spinal cord
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous and hormonal systems co-ordinate various biological activities in the body of
multicellular animals, the basic structural unit of nervous system is the nerve cell called neurone. It
consists of a dense, cell body and protoplasmic processes called nerve fibres. A bundle of long
nerve fibre is called a nerve. The main mechanism of information transfer is electric impulses
known as nerve impulses along the nerve fibres.
All the nervous systems in complex animals have the following:
a. The central processing region (the brain)
b. The nerves bringing impulses from receptors to the brain.
c. Nerves carrying information from the brain to the effectors.
Sensory receptors detect stimuli from the external and internal environment and so act as
information collectors. They are often found in the sense organs. Effectors include muscles and
glands that go into action on receiving nerve impulses from the brain. Such actions include
muscular contraction, enzymes production, hormone secretion etc.
The nervous system is divided into the central and the peripheral nervous systems

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

The CNS consists of the spinal cord and the brain which are enclosed protectively within the vertebral
column and the skull respectively. The CNS, in coordinating biological activities, receives a constant
input of impulses which keep it informed of changes in the animal’s internal and external environment.
Impulses to the CNS from receptors are transmitted along sensory nerves and are therefore known as
sensory impulses. Those impulses from the CNS to the effectors are known as motor impulses since
they are transmitted along motor nerves.

THE BRAIN
An average- sized brain for an adult weight is 1.2 - 1.4kg. the brain consists of thousands of neurones
enclosed in the skull and covered by three layered membranes i. e. meninges (outer dura, middle
arachnoid and inner pia matter). The ventricles between layers of the meninges are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. The brain consumes about 25 percent of the body’s oxygen supply. The brain has
three regions, the forebrain, middle brain and hindbrain.

FOREBRAIN
This is the most predominant part of the brain, connected with intelligence and speech. It comprises of
three major parts; cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.

Cerebrum
This occurs in two halves, connected together through fibres called corpus callosum. The halves are
called the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is made up of four indistinct lobes which are
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The most active region of the cerebrum is the outer layer
called cerebral cortex which is made up of grey matter. The cortex is highly convoluted for increased
surface area. The more convoluted the cortex, the more the cerebral capacity. The cerebrum carries
out its functions with each area specializing in a particular activity. Cerebrum
a. control all voluntary actions.
b. it receives sensory information, processes it and sends the response through the motor neurones
to the effectors.
c. it is the seat of consciousness, memory, learning, intelligence, reasoning and judgement

Thalamus
This is oval in shape and acts as a relaying center. Thalami
a. receives sensory information from lower parts of the brain and the spinal cord, integrate it and
pass it to relevant regions of the cerebral cortex.
b. it helps to experience sensation.

Hypothalamus
This is the region below the thalamus. It
a. controls the pituitary gland
b. it acts mainly in the body homeostasis i. e. controls body temperature, water balance and blood
pressure
c. it also controls emotion e.g. anger, fright, joy etc.
d. it controls appetite and speech

EVALUATION
1. Outline the component of the nervous system
2. State two functions of the cerebrum
MIDBRAIN
The mid brain connects the forebrain and the hind brain. it consists of optic lobes and the pineal body.
a. controls reflexes connected with sight and hearing
b. it is a link between the fore and the hind brain.

HINDBRAIN
The hindbrain consists of three parts; cerebellum, pons varolii and medulla oblongata.

Cerebellum
It has three parts; a central part connected to two lateral parts through the pons varolii. The two
lateral parts are called cerebellar hemispheres. The cerebellum
a. controls the body posture
b. coordinates muscular movement to maintain the body balance.

Medulla oblongata
This is the posterior end of the brain which continues into the spinal cord. Unlike the cerebellum and
cerebrum, the medulla oblongata has an inner grey matter and at outer white matter. It
a. controls all involuntary actions e. g. yawning, blinking of the eye
b. controls involuntary movement of the body especially those involved in respiration, heart beat
and digestion.
c. Regulate the blood pressure by controlling dilation and constriction of blood vessels.

EVALUATION
State two functions each of a. cerebrum b. hypothalamus c. cerebellum

THE SPINAL CORD (STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS)

The spinal cord consists of thousands of neurones which run down the length of the neural canal at the
back of vertebrates. The spinal cord is enveloped within three layered membrane called meninges. A
narrow canal, the spinal canal runs down the centre of the cord. The canal is filled with a fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid.
The transverse section of the spinal cord shows a greyish region called the grey matter surrounded
by a lighter region called the white matter. The grey matter is composed, practically of all the cell
bodies of the neurones in the spinal cord. Since the cell bodies are dense, and granular, they give this
region it typical greyish appearance. The white matter consists of the nerve fibres of these cell
bodies. Some of these fibres run along the spinal cord to the brain connecting both together. Other
fibres leave the spinal cord to form the spinal nerves.
The spinal cord functions in:
1. coordianting simple reflex actions such as knee jerk and automatic reflexes such as sweating.
2. It sends impulses to the to the brain and responses from the brain to the effectors

EVALUATION
Describe the structure and functions of the spinal cord.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between forebrain and hind brain
2. What are meninges
3. State three functions of cerebrospinal fluid
4. Describe the brain
5. Differentiate between dorsal root and ventral root

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The fore brain is made up of the following except (a) cerebellum (b) thalamus (c)
hypothalamus (d) cerebrum
2. The part of the brain that controls the body homeostatic is the (a) thalamus (b)
medulla oblongata (c) hypothalamus (d) cerebrum
3. The human brain consumes ____ of the body oxygen supply (a) 10% (b) 25% (c)50% (d) 75%
4. The shock absorber fluid filling up the spinal canal and the brain ventricle is (a)
intercellular fluid (b) cerebrospinal fluid (c) vertebraterial fluid (d) amniotic fluid
5. The band of fibres connecting the two halves of the cerebrum together is called (a)
median fissure (b) pons varolii (c) corpus callosum (d) thalamus

THEORY
1. Explain briefly the dorsal root ganglion
2. Differentiate between cerebrum and medulla oblongata

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CONTENT
- Peripheral nervous system
- Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
- The neurones (Structure and function)
- Classification of neurones
- Transmission of nerve impulses
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
These include the sensory system (receptor and nerves leading from all parts of the body to the CNS)
and the motor system (nerves running from the CNS to the effectors). The PNS consists of twelve
cranial nerves (connecting the brain to the head and neck region) and thirty one spinal nerves
(connecting the spinal cord to the thorax, abdomen and limbs).
The motor system is subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous system.

EVALUATION
Differentiate between the cranial and spinal nerves

SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS

The SNS consists of motor (efferent) neurones that connect the CNS to each skeletal muscle. It serves
the parts of the body which take part in responses to external stimuli and all voluntary actions.

The ANS consists of motor (efferent) neurones that connect the CNS to glands, smooth muscles and
cardiac muscles. It regulates all the body’s involuntary activities such as heart beat, respiratory
movement e. t. c. The ANS is subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system which
works in opposition to one another.
a. Sympathetic nervous system is made up of nerves which connect internal organs to the
thoracic and lumber areas of the spinal cord. The effect of this nervous system dominates in times
of emergency and exertion; it regulates homeostatic mechanisms such as vasodilation,
vasoconstriction and secretion by sweat gland etc.
b. Parasympathetic nervous system is made up of nerves which connect internal organs to
several cranial nerves and spinal nerves of the sacral region. The effect of this nervous system
dominates during normal relaxed periods.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between somatic and autonomic nervous system
2. Differentiate between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

THE NEURONES (STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION)

Neurones (nerve cells) are the basic structural and funtional unit of the nervous system and are
responsible for transmission of impulses within the body.
Each neurone is composed of some basic parts namely:
a. a cell body (soma)
b. One or more short extensions or processes called DENDRONS each of which branches to form
many DENDRITES. .
c. a long process called axons which branch at the free end and terminate at the synaptic knobs.
The cell body may be oval, polygonal or star shaped with a large nucleus and dense granulated
cytoplasm which give it its greyish colour. It relays impulses it receives from the dendrons to the axon.
The dendrons carry nerve impulses that their dendrites received to the cell body. The dendrites are
the main receptive regions of the neurones and may be stimulated by sensory receptors and other
neurones carrying impulses.
The axons carry electric impulses away from the cell bodies to the proper destination usually some
distance away. The axon of a motor neurone going to a skeletal muscle may be several metres long.
It may also divide into several branches so that impulses from one neurone go to several places.
Sometimes, a fatty sheath known as myelin sheath surrounds the axon. The myelin is interrupted at
intervals by constrictions known as nodes of ranvier. Myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator. It
also increases the speed at which impulses travel along the axon.

EVALUATION
Describe the structure and function of the neurone

CLASSIFICATIONS OF NEURONES
In vertebrates, it is common to group neurones according to their functions, these are:
a. Sensory (afferent) neurones which transmit impulses from the receptors to the CNS.
b. Motor (efferent) neurones which transmit impulses away from the CNS to the effectors (mus cles
and glands).
c. Relay (association or intermediate) neurones which connect the pathways of sensory and motor
impulses. They are found mainly in the central nervous system.

EVALUATION
Classify neurones based on functions

TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES

Transmission of impulses along a neurone is by electrical (through a nerve fibre) and chemical (across
a synapse) means. Three phases involved include
a. RESTING STATE: - A state when a neurone is not transmitting an impulse. In this state, the nerve
fibre is electrically polarized with excess sodium ions (Na +) outside the cell and excess potassium
(K+) inside the cell. Therefore the cell becomes positively charged outside and negatively charged
inside.
b. ACTION STATE: - When the dendrites of a neurone receive impulses, the neurone becomes
depolarized and the cell membrane suddenly permits the inflow of sodium ions and outflow of
potassium ions. The cell body then transmits the impulse to its axon.
c. TRANSMISSION BETWEEN NEURONES: - Transmission here is by chemical means. When an impulse
reaches the synapse, it stimulates the secretion of a chemical substance called acetylcholine which
transmits the impulse to another neurone or muscle fibres.

EVALUATION
Discuss briefly the transmission of impulse by a neurone

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Outline the nervous system graphically.
2. State five functions each of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
3. Differentiate between somatic and autonomic nervous system.
4. What is a neurone
5. Differentiate between afferent and efferent neurones

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The muscle and the gland together are referred to as ______ a) receptor b) effector c) neurone
d) sensory cell
2. A neurone that transmits messages from the sense organ to the central nervous system is a)
sensory neurone b) motor neurone c) relay neurone d) effector
3. Which of the following is not a structural part of a typical neurone a) axon b) dendron c) cell
body d) dendrite
4. Which of the following neurons has no myelin sheath a) afferent b) efferent c) relay d) motor
5. A point where one neurone connects with another is called a a) dendron b) myelin sheath c)
synapse d) ganglion

THEORY
1. Give five examples of the antagonistic actions of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system.
2. State the functions of five structural parts of a typical neurone

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: REFLEX, VOLUNTARY ACTIONS AND CONDITIONAL REFLEXES

CONTENT
- Reflex and voluntary actions
- The reflex arc
- Differences between reflex and voluntary actions
- Conditioned reflexes
- Differences between hormonal and nervous coordination
REFLEX AND VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
Actions are responses to stimuli. These actions are grouped into two: involuntary (reflex) and
voluntary actions.
REFLEX ACTIONS
Reflex actions are automatic responses to stimuli which do not involve the conscious or higher centre
of the brain. These actions are mainly protective, guarding us from dangerous stimuli and helping us
to maintain posture and balance. Reflex actions include jerking of the legs, blinking of the eyes etc.

THE REFLEX ARC

The reflex arc involves the following:

a. the sensory receptors that receive the stimulus.
b. the sensory neurones along which the sensory impulse travels
c. the relay or intermediate neurone through which the sensory impulse is passed on.
d. the motor (efferent) neurones along which the response is transmitted.
e. the effectors (muscles and glands) which the motor impulses trigger to bring about an
appropriate response.

Reflex actions can be:

1. Spinal reflex involving the spinal cord e.g knee jerk
2. Cranial reflex involving the brain e.g closing of pupil in the presence of bright
light.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the pathway of a simple reflex arc.
2. What are reflex actions? Give five examples

VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
These are actions initiated and controlled by the conscious part of the brain, which involve thoughts
before performance. They involve:
a. the conscious parts of the cerebrum
b. most of the reflex arc components
c. ascending and descending fibres in the spinal cord.
Examples of voluntary actions are playing football, solving mathematical problems, walking, driving
etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REFLEX AND VOLUNTARY ACTIONS

REFLEX ACTION VOLUNTARY ACTION
1. Actions does not involve higher centre Actions involves higher centre of the
of the brain (unconscious) brain (conscious)
2. Involves smaller number of neurones. Involves numerous neurones.
3. Response is rapid Response is slow
4. Response is stereotyped Response varies with circumstances.
5, It is inborn It can be learnt

CONDITIONED REFLEXES
A reflex action may be instinctive (does not have to be learned) e. g. sucking behaviour of newly born
baby or conditioned reflex (learned responses or behaviour that can be performed without thinking
about it) e. g. walking, riding a bicycle, writing e. t. c. A famous Russian biologist, Ivan Pavlon
demonstrates what is meant by conditioned reflex using a puppy and associating its food time with
the sound of a bell.

ROLES OF CONDITIONED REFLEX ON BEHAVIOUR

a. It helps us to acquire new skills by learning such habits.
b. It helps to modify many simple reflex actions because of conditions associated with them.
c. It helps us to behave in highly complicated manner (movements become faster and automatic.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between conditioned and instinctive reflex actions
2. What are voluntary actions? Give five examples

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HORMONAL AND NERVOUS COORDINATION

NERVOUS COORDINATION HORMONAL COORDINATION
1. Messages are transmitted as electrical Messages are transmitted as chemical
impulses. impulses.
2. Transmission is via nerve fibres. Transmission is via blood stream.
3. Transmission is very fast Transmission is slow.
4. Response is fast, shot-lived and Response is slow, long-lasting and
precise. widespread.
5. It is mainly controlled by the brain and It is controlled by the pituitary gland.
the spinal cord.
6. Effectors (muscles and glands) receive Target organs receive the message.
the message.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by a) voluntary action b) reflex action
2. Give five examples each of a) voluntary actions b) reflex actions
3. Differentiate between voluntary and reflex actions
4. Give five examples conditioned reflexes
5. What are the roles of conditional reflexes on behaviour
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Automatic responses to stimuli which do not involve higher centre of the brain are referred to
as ---------- actions a) voluntary b) reflex c) muscular d) nervous
2. Behavioural patterns acquired only through learning are referred to as a) reflex action b)
conditioned reflex c) voluntary action d) learning
3. Which of these is not a conditioned reflex a) walking b) typing c) driving d) sneezing
4. Transmission in hormonal coordination is through a) blood stream b) nerve fibre c) lymph d)
neurone
5. Which arrangement shows the correct pathway of impulse transmission
a. Axon ----- cell body ----- dendrites ----- synaptic knob
b. Dendrites ----- synaptic knob ----- cell body ----- axon
c. Dendrites ----- cell body ---- axon ---- synaptic knob
d. Cell body ---- dendrites ----- synaptic knob ---- axon

THEORY
1. Describe what happens when you accidentally picked up a hot object
2. Differentiate between instinctive and conditioned reflexes.

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: SENSE ORGANS

CONTENT
- Sensory receptors
- Skin as a sense organ
- The organ of sight, Structure of the eye
- Functions of the eye (Image formation and accommodation)
- Defects of the eye and their correction
SENSORY RECEPTORS
All living organisms respond to changes in their environment (stimuli). These changes can be
mechanical, electromagnetic, chemical or thermal. Though most cells in the bodies of organisms are
sensitive to stimuli, certain cells specialize in detecting a particular type of stimulus, these are called
sense cells or sensory receptors which are quite many in human bodies, monitoring the internal
environment.
Sensory receptors sensitive to mechanical changes are called mechanoreceptors likewise
thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are sensitive to heat, chemical and light
respectively.

The sensory receptors change the detected stimulus into electrical impulses which when
received by the brain are translated into pictures, sounds, smell, taste sensations. Structures
containing sensory receptors are referred to as sense organs

A sense organ is defined as a group of specialized cells or tissues or which are able to receive,
perceive or detect stimulus and transmit the information to the central nervous system. There are five
types of sense organs in mammals; these include
a. Skin detecting touch, pain, pressure and heat or cold.
b. Eye detecting light (sense of sight)
c. Ear detecting sound (sense of hearing and balancing)
d. Nose detecting smell
e. Tongue detecting taste

EVALUATION
1. What are sensory receptors
2. What are sense organs? List major sense organs and their functions

SKIN AS A SENSE ORGAN

In the mammalian skin, there are many sensory receptors for detecting several stimuli like touch,
pressure, pain, cold and heat unlike other sense organs which detect one type of stimulus each.

Generally, sensory receptors are not evenly distributed through out the skin. Each type is more
concentrated in certain body region.
Sensory nerves ending sensitive to pressure (called pacinia corpuscles) are found deepest in the skin.
Hence they need stronger stimulation. Those sensitive to touch (meissner’s corpuscles) are largely
distributed closest to the skin surface (in the epidermis) especially in hairless regions like tongue,
fingers, lips, forehead etc. hence they need a gentle stimulation. In between pressure and touch
receptors are those detecting cold, heat and pain.

EVALUATION
List five sensory receptors in the skin and their functions

THE ORGAN OF SIGHT (EYE)

The eye is the organ of sight, spherical in shape and protected by occular or optical structures like eye
sockets, eyelids, eyelashes, tear or lacrimal glands and conjunctiva.
a. The eye sockets house the eyes.
b. Eye lids (upper and lower) protect the eye from foreign particles or mechanical injury.
 c. Tear or lacrimal glands, at the meeting point of the eyelids secretes a salty fluid called tear
which washes dust and destroys bacteria using its chemical substance called lysozyme.
d. Eye lashes are rows of hairs on the eyelid which protect the eye ball from dust, excessive light
and shield the eye against sweat and water.
e. Conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane lining the inside of the eyelids and protectively
covers the cornea. The conjunctiva gets inflamed during infection (conjunctivitis).

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

The wall of the eye ball consists of three layers namely (from outside inwards): sclera, choroid and
retina
a. THE SCLERA: - the outermost white layer which gives shape to the eye and protects the inner part
of the eye. The sclerotic layer bulges out in front of the eye to form the transparent cornea. The
cornea admits light into the eye, brings the light to focus on the retina and protects the eye
externally.
b. THE CHOROID LAYER: - This is highly vascularized and pigmented (black). This layer provides
food and oxygen to the cells in the eye. The black pigment helps to absorb light rays and
prevents light reflection. It consists of the ciliary muscles, iris, pupils, suspensory ligaments and
the lens.
 IRIS: - a band of muscle fibres that contracts and relaxes to alter the size of the pupils thereby
controlling the amount of light passing through the eye.
 PUPIL: - This is the opening between the upper and lower Iris and it controls the amount of light
which enters the eye. Bright light makes the pupil small while dim light makes it big.
 CILIARY MUSCLE: - It consists of circular and radial muscles which contracts and relaxes to alter
the focal length of the lens to focus near and distant objects.
 SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS: - Hold the lens in place
 LENS: - This is a transparent biconvex elastic structure held in position by suspensory
ligament. It helps to refract light rays entering the eye. It also makes fine adjustment to focus
the image of an object on the retina.
c. THE RETINA: - This is the part of the eye sensitive to light. It is also vascularized, pigmented and
elastic. Light rays come to focus on the retina. Images formed on the retina are always real,
inverted, and smaller than the real object. Two types of sensory cells (photo receptors) found in
retina are cones and rods.
 Cones are cells in the retina, which are sensitive to coloured visions and high light intensities.
They contain a photochemical substance called iodopsin which is not easily bleached by high
light intensities.
 Rods are more than the cones. They are sensitive to colourless vision and low light intensities.
A purple pigment – protein complex made from vitamin A called rhodopsin is found on the
surface of rods. Rhodopsin is easily bleached when light falls on it.

 YELLOW SPOT (Fovea centralis): - This is the most sensitive part of the retina from where the
fullest visual information is sent to the brain. It is the point where image is focused.
 BLIND SPOT: - This is the point where the cells are not sensitive to light i.e no cones or rods
here. The optic nerve goes out of the eye to the brain from the blind spot.
  OPTIC NERVES: This nerve transmits sensory impulses to and from the brain.
 AQUEOUS HUMOUR: - This is the transparent watery liquid which fills the space between the
cornea and the lens. It is made up of solutions of protein, sugar, salt and water. This liquid
refracts light rays onto the retina and helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eye.
 VITREOUS HUMOUR: - This is wider, transparent, jelly-like liquid which fills the space between
the lens and the retina. It is also a mixture of protein, sugar, salt and water. It carries out the
same function as the aqueous humour.

EVALUATION
1. List five ocular structures and their functions
2. State the functions of the following parts of the eye a) iris b) retina c) lens d) ciliary muscles

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE

The eye performs two major roles; Image formation and accommodation.
1. Image Formation:-
Light rays from any object pass enter the eye through cornea, pass through the aqueous humour, lens
and vitreous humour to the retina. These structures are all transparent and contribute to the refraction
(bending) of the light rays thus enabling the rays to converge on the retina. The image of the object
(real, inverted and smaller) is then formed on the retina. The stimulus of light reflected from the
object is received by the rods or cones depending on the light intensity and are converted to electrical
impulse. The impulse is transmitted through the optic nerve to the optic lobe of the brain which
correctly interpretes the image. To form a sharp image of the object, all the light rays refracted meet
at a particular point on the retina called yellow spot.
2. Accommodation:-
This is the ability of the eye to focus near and distant objects on the retina i.e. the ability to see clearly
through the adjustment of the focal length of the lens.
TO SEE NEAR OBJECTS
i. The ciliary muscles contracts, making the suspensory ligaments relax their attention on the
lens.
ii. The lens then becomes more convex in shape thus reducing the focal length of the lens to focus
the image on the retina.
TO SEE DISTANT OBJECTS
i. The ciliary muscles relax, making the suspensory ligaments contract and pulling on the lens.
ii. The lens becomes flattened (elongated) increasing its focal length to focus the image on the
retina.

EYE DEFECTS AND CORRECTIONS

An eye is defected when an image cannot be properly formed on the retina. The defects include;
a. Short sightedness (myopia): - This is a defect in which a person sees nearby object clearly but
distant ones appear blurred because the eye ball is longer than normal (from back to front).
Therefore, light rays from distant object are brought to focus in front of the retina.
CORRECTION: - Using spectacles or glasses with suitable concave or diverging lens which diverge
the light rays from a distant object before entering the eye so that the eye can bring the rays to a
focus right on the retina.
b. Long Sightedness (hypermetropia) :- This is the defect in which a person sees far object clearly
but near ones appear blurred because the eye ball is shorter than normal,. Therefore light rays
from near object are brought to a focus behind the retina.
CORRECTION: - Using spectacles or glasses with suitable convex or converging lens which
converge the light rays from the near object before entering the eye so that the eye can bring the
rays to a focus right on the retina.
c. Presbyopia: - This is an eye defect resulting when the lens and the ciliary muscle lose their
elasticity with advancing age. Therefore, light rays from nearby object are not bent inward
sufficiently and so are brought to a focus behind the retina. CORRECTION:- By
the use of converging lens.
d. Astigmatism: - This is caused by uneven cornea surface and can be corrected by using lens with
compensating uneven surface.
e. Cataract:- This occurs mainly in old people in which eye lens becomes cloudy and can be
corrected with a plastic lens or spectacles with suitable lens.
f. Night Blindness:- This is due to deficiency of vitamin A
g. Conjunctivitis:- Inflammation of the conjunctiva caused by the bacteria or irritants in the wind.
EVALUATION
1. Describe two major eye defects and their functions
2. Describe the mechanism of image formation by the eye

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is a sense organ
2. What is a receptor
3. List four sensory receptors found in the skin and their functions
4. Compare and contrast the mammalian eye and the camera.
5. What are the advantages of having two eyes
6. Describe the visual condition ‘colour blindness’

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Specialized cells for detecting stimuli are referred to as ______ which change the detected
stimuli into _____________
2. Which of the following is false (a) sensory receptors are evenly distributed in the skin (b) the
nose is human olfactory organ (c) both small and taste sensations are closely related. (d)
choroid layer of the eye is highly vascularized.
3. The image of an object is formed on the ____ of the eye at a point called ____
4. All these are true about seeing a distant object with the eye except (a) the ciliary muscles relax
(b) the suspensory ligaments relax (c) the lens becomes elongated (d) the suspensory
ligament contract.
5. Converging lens is used to correct the following eye defects except (a)myopia (b)
hypermetropia (c)presbyopia (d) long sightedness

THEORY
1. Explain why a person in a dark room feel dazzled for some seconds when suddenly exposed to
bright light.
2. Differentiate between yellow and blind spots of the eye

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: ORGAN OF HEARING, SMELL AND TASTE

- The organ of hearing (Structure of the ear and their functions)
- Mechanism of hearing
- Mechanism of balancing
- Organ of smell (structure and function of nose)
- Organ of taste (structure and functions of the tongue
THE ORGAN OF HEARING
Mammals have two ears on each side of the head. The greater part of it is enclosed in the skull for
protection. The ear is for hearing as well as for maintaining balance.

STRUCTURE OF THE EAR AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The mammalian ear is divided into 3 parts.
1. The outer ear.
2. The middle ear.
 3. The inner ear.

The outer ear

This is made up of the following from outside the organism:
a. The Pinna: - This is flexible being made up of soft cartilage covered with skin. The pinna
collects sounds, detects their direction and directs them into the canal called external auditory
meatus (ear tube).
b. External Auditory Meatus: - This consists of fine hairs and glands which produce wax.
Therefore it prevents germs, insects and dusts from entering and affecting the ear. It allows the
passage of sound waves from the pinna to the ear drum.
c. The Tympanic Membrane (Ear Drum):- This is a thin membrane which vibrates when sound
waves get to it. It separates the external ear from the middle ear. Therefore, it transmits
sound waves from the outer ear to the middle ear.
The middle ear
This is a small air-filled chamber in the skull, which is made up of three tiny soft bones (ear ossicles)
and Eustachian tube.
a. Ear Ossicles: - These include malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). The
ossicles form a bridge linking the outer and inner ear through a membrane covered opening
called round window. The ossicles transmit vibrations across the tympanic membrane to the
oval window and the pressure in the window is magnified.
b. Eustachian Tube: - This is a narrow tube in the middle ear connecting it to the pharynx. This
usually opens when yawning, it allows air to enter or leave the middle ear so that the air
pressure on both side of the eardrum is equal.

The inner ear

This is made up of a bony complex passage way called bony labyrinth, which is filled with a fluid
called perilymph. Inside the bony labyrinth are membranous sacs and tubes called membranous
labyrinth filled with the fluid, endolymph.
The bony and membranous labyrinth forms the two auditory structures which include the cochlea and
the semicircular canals. These two structures are connected to the utriculus and sacculus respectively.
a. The Cochlea: - a snail shell-like structure of hearing is concerned with hearing. It contains
sensory hair cells (mechanoreceptors) which synapse with sensory neurones that form the
cochlear nerves; they both form the organ of corti.
b. Semi-circular canal: - the three canals lie at right angle to one another, they have swollen ends
called ampullae which contain sensory hair cells and otoliths (ear stones). These structures are
concerned with balance and maintaining the posture of the body.

EVALUATION
1. Mention five structural parts of mammalian ear and their functions
2. Mention two sensory cells found in the ear

FUNCTIONS OF THE EAR

The two major functions of the ear is hearing and balancing.

Mechanism of hearing
The pinna detects and collects sound waves in the air and concentrates them and passes them on
through the external auditory meatus. The wave causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate and the
vibrations are passed on to the ear ossicles which amplify them. The oval windows magnify the
vibrations, passing them into the inner ear (cochlea) where the perilymph and endolymph vibrate.
The vibrations of the endolymph stimulate the organ of corti in the cochlea to convert the sound
vibration to electrical impulse. The impulses then stimulate the auditory nerves of the acoustic branch
to the brain for interpretation.

Mechanism of balancing
Head movement in any direction causes the fluid in the semicircular canals and the otoliths in the
ampullae to move. Impulses are set up and transmitted through the vestibular branch of the auditory
nerves to the brain for interpretation. The brain relays impulses to the body muscles for balancing the
position of the body.

DISEASES OF THE EAR

The major disease of the ear is deafness. It can be temporary or permanent. It can be caused by
damage to the tympanic membrane, eustachian tube or sensory cells in the cochlea. Also, wax
blocking the ear canal, infection of the ear or sudden very loud or constant noise causes deafness.

Care of the ear

1. Regular use of cotton wool
2. Avoid the use of sharp object in cleaning the ear.
3. Avoid loud noise
4. Avoid being blown on the ear side that can damage the ear drum.
5. Consulting medical doctors in case of any ear problem.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the mechanism of hearing and balancing.
2. Outline five ways of caring for the ear.

ORGAN OF SMELL (NOSE)

The human olfactory organ is the nose. The epithelia lining of the nasal cavity is rich in sensory nerve
ending. Compared to lower class animals like dog, man has a poor sense of smell. We detect smell
quickly but for a short time.

MECHANISM OF SMELLING
Nose functions well when wet. The smell receptors are stimulated by chemicals. Particles of volatile
chemical substances in the air dissolve in the mucus layer over the cell receptors in the nostrils. The
stimulation of the receptors gives rise to nerve impulses which travel through the olfactory nerve to
the olfactory lobe of the brain. The brain then interprets the kind of smell.

ORGAN OF TASTE (TONGUE)

The sensory cells for taste are called taste buds located on the tiny swellings on the exposed surface
on the tongue. They are connected by four sensory nerves to the brain which interprets what is
tasted. The tongue therefore is sensitive to four primary tastes:
a. Sweet taste: detected by chemoreceptors at the tip of the tongue.
b. b.Salty taste: detected by chemoreceptors by the side (frontal).
c. Sour taste: detected by chemoreceptors at the side of the tongue (towards the back).
d. Bitter taste – detected by chemoreceptors at the back.

MECHANISM OF TASTING
Chemicals from any substance put in the mouth dissolves in the saliva on the tongue, this stimulates
the sensory nerve endings in taste buds which then pass the impulses to the brain for interpretation as
sweet, bitter, sour or salty

NOTE: - Both smell and tastes are closely related sensations, hence we smell what we taste. When
we eat and drink, the taste receptors are stimulated, at the same time flavour producing chemical
from the food dissolves in the moist air in the mouth and flow into the nasal cavity to stimulate the
smell receptors. The smell sensation is more severe than taste sensation.
EVALUATION
1. Draw the structure of the tongue to show the major sensitive areas
2. Describe the olfactory functions of the nose

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. State the advantages of having two ears
2. Discuss briefly two types of deafness
3. Draw a well labeled diagram of the tongue to show the areas that are sensitive to primary tastes
4. Describe the mechanism of smelling
5. State four functions of the organ of smell

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The following are parts of the inner ear except a) ampulla b) semi-circular canal c)
cochlea d) ear ossicles
2. -------- helps to equalize air pressure on either side of the ear drum. a) sacculus b)
Eustachian tube c) ampulla d) endolymph
3. The following are concerned with hearing except a) organ of corti b) semi circular canals c)
cochlea d) acoustic nerve
4. Which part of the ear is responsible for the maintenance of balance a) cochlea
b) perilymph c) semi-circular canal d) stapes
5. The inner ear is filled with -------- and --------- fluid

THEORY
1. Explain why a person that has been spinning feel dizzy for sometime after stopping.
2. State five causes of deafness

WEEK: DAY: SUBJECT:

DATE: TOPIC:
SUBTOPIC: PERIODS: DURATIONS:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

KEY VOCABULARY WORDS:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

CONTENT: GENETICS

Genetic is the study of heredity and variation in living things

HEREDITY OR INHERITANCE is defined as the transmission and expression of characteristics or traits

in an organism from parents to offspring.

VARIATION is defined as the differences which exists between parents and offspring as well as a many the
offsprings.

CHARACTERS OR TRAIT THAT CAN BE TRANSMITTED IN MAN

It is only those traits that constitute the genetic makeup of the parents that can be transmitted and expressed in
the offspring.

These traits include colour of the skin, colour of eyes this colour of the hairs and hair texture, size of body
stature, shape of the head , shape of the ears, shape of the month, lips, shape of the nose, length of the
hands and legs,length of neck , Blood grouping, baldness, tongue rolling, hemophilia , voice,
intelligences composure, aptitude , sickle cell anaemia are transmissible in animals while is transmissible
include colour and shape of the leaves shoot , seed size and shape, colour of the flowers, size of the fruit and
pigmentation

HOW CHARACTERS OR TRAITS GET TRANSMITTED FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION

Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted A diploid organisms has two sets of chromosome
referred to as homologues. Such an organism has two copies of each gene, with each copy occupying identical
locations or loci on the homologous chromosomes.

Diploid organisms produce gametes by meiosis in their reproductive organs . A male individual produces egg
cells or ova.. During meiosis the number of chromosome in a cell is halved , the gametes are therefore haploid
containing one set of chromosome and gene only one copy of each gene.

During sexual reproduction, the gamete of a male and female individual fuse to form zygote. Each zygote is
diploid as it gets one set of chromosomes, and hence one copy of each gene from the gametes of each parent.
The gene an organism inherits during fertilization is called genotype remain constant throughout life span. The
phenotype which is the physical appearance or features of an organism is determined by its genotypes and the
environment in which it lives.

Basic Genetic concepts

GENE; This is defined as the physical unit of inheritance transmitted from due generation another and
responsible for controlling the development of characters in the new organisms.

CHROMOSOMES: these are strands of genetic materials which are obvious during cell division. They are found
in the nucleus where they carry the genes. They contain of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and protein.

CHARACTER OR TRAIT; These are inheritable attributes or features possessed by an organism’s height or
size.

ALLELOMORPHS these are pairs of genes or locus that controls contrasting character. Pair of allomorphs are
called allelic pair while each member of the pair is the allele of the other.

PHENOTYPE: Is the sum total of all observable features of an organism s that is the physical, physical,
physiological and behavioral traits e.g. height, weight, skin colour.

GENOTYPE; The term in used to describe those traits or sum total of the genes inherited from both
parent or in order word, it is the genetic makeup or constitution of an individual. Genotype includes
both the dominant and the recessive traits that form the genetic makeup of an individual.

DOMINANT charater;This is a trait that is expressed in an offspring when two individual with contrasting
characters are crossed.

RECESSIVE: Character this is the trait from one parent which is masked or does not produce its effect in the
presence of dominant gene or character. Shortnees is recessive character while fellness is dominant character.
Recessive genes are gene which control recessive character,
HOMOZYGOUS: Is an individual with identical alleles in respect of a particular trait or character (TT or tt).

HETEROZYGOUS: An individual having two member of a pair of genes controlling a pair of contrasting
alleles located on different on the same position on a pair of chromosome e.g. (Tt for tallness or a plant with
Rr.

GAMETE – Is a single cell formed as a result of the union of a ale gamete with a female gamete

FILIAL -Generation – the offspring of parent make up the filial generation the first, second and third
generations of offspring are known as first, second and third filial generations of offspring are known as first,
second and third filial generation are denoted by the symbols F1, F2 and F3.

HYBRID: Is an offspring from a cross between parents that are generically different parents that are generically
different but of the same species.

HYBRIDIZATION – is the crossing of a plant with contrasting character.

MONOHYBRIDIZATION: Involves the crossing of two organisms with two organisms with two pairs of
contrasting character.

LOCUS- is the site for location of gene in a chromosome.

HAPLOLD- Is when an organism has one set of chromosomes in the same genete it is represented by (n).

DIPLOID– Is when an organism has two sets of chromosomes in the body cell. The bodies of animals and
plants are diploid. Diploid number is represented by (2n).

MUTATION – Is a change in the genetic makeup of an organism that resulting in a new characteristic that is
inheritable

BACKCROSS – This is the mating of an f1 individual with an individual which has the parental genotype.

PURE BREED – This simply means an individual that is homozygous.

CO-DOMINANCE – Is a situation where the phenotype of the heterozygote exhibits properties of both
parents . Example of co-dominance is seen in ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM IN HUMAN BLOOD GROUP
a IS DOMINANT AS BLOOD GROUP b. If a child is product by two parents, one with blood group B and the
other blood group A. The child will belong to blood group AB.

SEX – LINKED CHARACTER – These are characters that are carried by genes located on the
sexchromosome . These genes or characters are said to be sex- linked and usually found in the X- chromosome
they expressed in male children even when the gene is recessive . Such phenotype are expressed in female only
when the two X – chromosomes are recessive or two x – chromosomes are recessive or carry the recessive
gene. Example of characteristics expressed by genes that are located on sex chromosome include colour
blindness, hemophilia , baldness.

MENDEL’S WORKS IN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884) was a Monk in Austtria. He is referred to as father of Genetics because of his
work which formed the foundation for scientific study of heredity and variation Mendels Experiment .

Gregor Mendel carried out several experiment on how hereditary characters were being transmitted from
generation to generation . He worked with garden pea called possum sativum.
Reasons for using the pea are follows.

_ Peas are usually self pollinating and he could pollinated them by himself.

_ They have a very short life span than animals and some other plants.

(1) He planted tall plants for several generation and discovered

that
the plant produced were all plants in the same way he planted short pea plants for several generation. He
also discovered that the plants produced were all short.

(2) He proceeded to plant tall plants and short pea plants . By the time the flowers were produced of the
collected pollen grains of the tall pea plants tagged of male and pollinated the stigma of the shrt plant which is
labeled as female.

He collected the pollen grain of the short plant and placed them on the stigma of the tall plant.

(3)Mendel area again picked the seed and he discovered that the plant were all tall. This he referred to it as first
filial generation (fi)

(4) Mendel them crossed the f1 plants, collected their got from this were tall and short in the ratio 3
: 1 . He then called this stage second filial generation.

tall plants

Short plants

Parents Tall plants

Tall plant
 Parents Tall plant (F1)
X Tall plant (F1)

3talls
1shorts

parentssssssssssssss

Tallness shortness

Gamete

T T X t t

F1genertion

PARENTS Tt x Tt

x
 GAMETES

TT
Tt
tt

Tt

F2generation

Phenotypic F2 are 3 tall plant 1 short plant

Genetypic ratio 1:2:1

Mendelian Traits:

Mendel discovered trait or characters that be transmitted from parents to offspring. He studied various inherited
characteristics in pea plant. The traits or character are: height/length, colour of seeds, surface of seed coat. Other
examples of traits that can be transmitted from parents to offspring include: the blood group, the Rhesus factor,
skin colour eye colour shape and body weight.

Mendelian Laws of inheritance

Mendel’s Laws of heredity explains the principals of Mendelian inheritance.mendel produced offspring of pea
plant by self-polling on and cross –pollination and as a result of his experiments,he came out with his certain
deductions termed mendel’s law.The two laws are

1. First law

Law of segregation states that genes are responsible for the development of individual and that they are
independently transmitted from one generation to another without undergoing any alteration.

ii. Second Law

Law of independence assortment of genes

This law states that each character behaves as a separate unit and pair of alleles for a given character distributes
itself in the gemetes during formation does not affect the way other allelic pair for other character distribute
themselves. OR the Law State that when more than one factors are considered, each character behaves as a
separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character.

How characters Manifest from Generation to Generation

a. Sex Determination-In human being,sex is determined by sex chromosome (23rd pairs).In female,the sex
chromosomes are similar in size and shape,,they are referred to as “X” chromosome hence female have XX in
(23rd) pairs. .Male on the other hand have contrasting (different) size and shape. One is an “X” chromosome while
other is a “Y” chromosome. M.ale chromosome is therefore XY.half of the male sperms contain X chromosome
and the other half is Y chromosome . Each egg of the female contain an X Chromosome. This implies they if an
X- sperm fertilizes an X- egg, the offspring will be a female (XX). Otherwise if Y- sperm fertilizes an X -egg,the
offspring is a male,having XY genetic constitution

Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884) was a Monk in Austria. He is referred to as father of Genetics because of his
work which formed the foundation for scientific study of heredity and variation Mendel’s Experiment.

Gregor Mendel carried out several experiment on how hereditary characters were being transmitted from
generation to generation. He worked with garden pea called possum sativum.

Reasons for using the pea are follows.

_ Peas are usually self-pollinating and he could pollinated them by himself.

_ They have a very short life span than animals and some other plants.

1. He planted tall plants for several generation and discovered that the plant produced were all plants in the
same way he planted short pea plants for several generation. He also discovered that the plants
produced were all short.
2. He proceeded to plant tall plants and short pea plants . By the time the flowers were produced of the
collected pollen grains of the tall pea plants tagged of male and pollinated the stigma of the shrt plant
which is labeled as female. He collected the pollen grain of the short plant and placed them on the stigma
of the tall plant.
3. Mendel area again picked the seed and he discovered that the plant were all tall. This he referred to it as
first filial generation (fi)
4. Mendel them crossed the f1 plants, collected their got from this were tall and short in the ratio 3 : 1 . He
then called this stage second filial generation.
Mendelian Traits:

Mendel discovered trait or characters that be transmitted from parents to offspring. He studied various inherited
characteristics in pea plant. The traits or character are: height/length, colour of seeds, surface of seed coat. Other
examples of traits that can be transmitted from parents to offspring include: the blood group, the Rhesus factor,
skin colour eye colour shape and body weight.

Mendelian Laws of inheritance

Mendel’s Laws of heredity explains the principals of Mendelian inheritance.mendel produced offspring of pea
plant by self-polling on and cross –pollination and as a result of his experiments,he came out with his certain
deductions termed mendel’s law.The two laws are

1. First law

Law of segregation states that genes are responsible for the development of individual and that they are
independently transmitted from one generation to another without undergoing any alteration.

1. Second Law

Law of independence assortment of genes

This law states that each character behaves as a separate unit and pair of alleles for a given character distributes
itself in the gemetes during formation does not affect the way other allelic pair for other character distribute
themselves. OR the Law State that when more than one factors are considered, each character behaves as a
separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character.

ii. Sickle cell Anemia

This is an inherited and genetically linked disorder-The red blood cells of the sufferer of the disease change
shape of round look to sickle or cresent form by a lowering in concentration of oxygen due to insufficient flow
of the blood to the part of the body. This results in sickle crisis with pain in bones and joints. Sickle cell
disease /trait is caused by recessive gene connoted by letter ‘S’ and normal situation connected by A. The trait is
carried by hemoglobin.

Parent

Both the normal and carrier do not feel the effect of sicked cell.

Some heretic disorder

i. Sickle cell Anaemia

HbAHbS
HbAHbS

PARENT
S X

HbAHbA

HbAHbS

HbAHbS

HbsHbS
 normal carrier carrier
sufferer

ii. Hemophilia – is a disease in which the correct protein (fibrin) for clothing are not produced. The result is
a serious bleeding even after trivial bruises who pass it to possible sufferers (males) don’t always suffer from it
in most cases.

iii. Colour blindness

iv. Rhesus factor

This is a type of agglutinogen found in red blood cells. It was first discovered in mokeys when present it is
termed rhesus positive (RH+) .

Lack of it is referred to as rhesus negative (RH–) .

Father Mother Compatibility

Rh +ve Rh + ve compatibles

Rh – ve Rh – ve compatible

Rh – ve Rh + ve compatible

Rh +ve Rh – v incompatible

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: Is a condition where neither of the contrasting characters are dominant over
each other. This result in a mixture or blend of the two characters. This phenomon is known as incomplete
dominance, blending inheritance or co-dominance.

Examples: Andalusian fowl: If a while featherds Andalusian fowl (WW) is crossed with a black fowl (BB) . The
offspring are BW (blue) parents WW x BB

PARENTS WW X BB

GAMETES X
F1 genertaion all blue fowls

Parents WB X WB

Gametes

F2 WW WB WB BB

Generation white blue blue black

CO-DOMINANCE – ABO blood group in man exhibit co-dominance. The blood group is determined by a
single pair of genes located or a homologous pair of chromo ones. There are three different alleles., TA for
antigen A, TB for antigen B , to for no antigen B, for no antigen .TA and TB are dominant while to is
recessive.

Blood group Alleles

A TA TA or TATo

B TB TB or TBTo

AB TA TB

O to to

DIHYBRID CROSS (DIHYBIDIZASTION)

The study of cross involving the inheritance pattern of two characters each of which is

determined by two alleles of a gene for instance, pea plant with seed colour and seed shape are used in garden
pea plant , round seed (RR) is dominant over wrinkled seed (rr) , yellow seed (Y) is dominant over the green
seed (y).

When a pure stock of plants having round yellow seeds is crossed with a pure stock of wrinkled and seeds ,
the F1 general offspring all round and yellow.

Parents ____ Round and yellow X wrinkled and green

RYRY x ryry

Gametes RY ry

F1 RYry (All round and yellow)

F2 is arranged in prunnet table as follow

RY, ry , X RYry

Gametes : RY, RY, ry , ry X RY , RY, RY, ry

RY RY ry ry
RY RYRY RYRY RYrY RYrg
Ry RyRy RyrY RyrY Ryry
Ry RYrY RyrY RyrY rYry
Ry RYry Ryry rYry ryry

Analysis of phenotype ratio

Round and yellow 9

Round and green 3

Wrinkled and yellow 3

Wrinkled and green 1

Analysis of genotyptic ratio

Homozygons romo yellow 1

Homozygons romo green 1

Homozygons wrinkled yellow 1

Homozygons wrinkled green 1

Homozygons Romo, heterozygons yellow 2

Homozygons romo yellow, Homozygons green 2

Homozygons wrinkled, Homozygons yellow 2

Homozygons romo and yellow 4

Questions

(1) A man with heterozygous genotype for blood group B marries a woman with heterozygous

A. what percentage of their children be universal donor?

2.The alternative form of a gene that represents constrasting character is a/an (A)allele (B)diploid (C)haploid
(D)homologue

(3) If two parents are sickle cell carrier their genotype would be (A) Hb A HbA and Hbs Hbs (b) HbsHbs
and Hbs Hbs (c) HbA Hbs and Hb A Hbs (D) Hba HbA and HbA HbA

CHROMOSOME (Basic of Heredity)

Chromosomes are thread like structure that occur in the nuclear of plants and animals and carry heredity
information from generation to generation.

There are seen only during nuclear division and occur in identical pair called homologous pair. The body cell
(somatic) of man has 46 chromosomes (23pairs). The sex cell (sperm, ovum) have 23 chromosomes. The 23pairs
of chromosomes are called diploid number (2N) and 23 chromosomes are referred is as haploid number
(N).chromosome are made up of two threads ‘chromatids’. Chromosome carry genes that are hereditary unit for
inherited traits

Structure of chromosome:

During the early cell division chromosome become condensed and visible, each, then ,duplicate or replicate to
produce a compact twins connected by a centromere. Each member of a bond pair is called a chromatid which
tread like in appearance
Chemical analysis: of chromosomes show that they are composed of proteins combined with nucleic acids
which are of two kinds.

i. De oxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Which is confined to the nuclear material of the cell which the primary
heredity material making up the gene.

ii. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) in some viruses.

The DNA consists of a double chains formed by repeating small chemical units known as Nucleotides. Each
nucleotide is composed of

i. deoxyribo sugar (s)

ii. Phosphate group (p)

iii. Nitrogeneous bases which may be purine (Adenine and Guanine)or

pyrimidine (cytocine and Thymine).

The two chain of nucleotides of DNA are coiled like a spring to give a structure called a double helix. The
nitrogenous base of the nucleotide pairs along the DNA chain.

Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) A-T while Guanine (G) pairs with cytocine

(C) G-C

Role of chromosome in transmitting hereditary characters.

1. Formation of gametes – gametes are formed by meiotic divisions of cells. Each sperm or egg producing
cell in reproductive organ is diploid that is having two sets of chromosome.

During meiosis the number of pair homologous separate first, then the twin chromatids separate The outcome of
the cell division result into four daughter cells.

haploid
 haploid

Haploid

homologous

chromosomes

sister chromatids haploid

2 It allows for reshuffment of gene by allowing crossing over. It happens during the prophase of meiosis. It
is important because it leads to new combination of alleles on a chromosome which leads to more types of allele
combination in gametes.

a. Homozygous chromosome pair up, each chromosome has already replicated

b. Exchange of genetic material takes place between chromatids of homologous pair of chromosome

c. crossing over result in re arrangement of alleles A and

Probability in Genetics

This explains the predicted ratio or chances of having a particular trait or character in a cross or transmission
from generation to another. This explains the predicted ratio of 3:1 for monohybrid cross and 9:3:3:1 for
dihybrid cross.

Probability = Number of times an event occur

Total number of trial

Probability is usually expressed in units ranging from 0-1. Two principles are necessary is understand the
importance or probability in genetics.
i. The result of one

trial of a chanced event does not affect the result of latter traits of the event

ii. The chance that two independent events will occur together simultaneously is the product of their
chances of occurring separate question

In a plant of genotype Tt, what is the probability that a gametes will contain gene t?

P= No of times an event occurs

Total number of trial

1
P= /2

Question

An albino man marries a normal woman (homozygous) for skin pigmentation). What is the probability the
couple could have an albino child?

Gene for albinism = aa

Gene for the Normal pigmentation = AA

(1) In a cross involving a heterozygous red flowered plant (Rr) and a white flowered plant (rr), what is the
probability that the offspring will be (Rr)?

2. What is the probability that two consecutive children of the same parent will be males?

3. In human beings, the albino trait is recessive is the probability of parents who are heterozygous for
albinism having an albino child?

Application of Genetics in Agriculture

i. It improves crop yield.

ii. It improves the quality of product of plant and animal.
iii. It leads to development of early maturing varieties of plant and animals
iv. It leads to development of disease resistant varieties of plant and animal.
v. It leads to production of crops and animal that can adapt to climatic condition.

Application of Genetics in field of Medicine

It help in determination of the paternity of a child.

The knowledge helps in blood transfusion who to donate and who should receive.

It enlightens the marriage partner about genotype through marriage counseling

i. The method is used in diagnosis of diseases

ii. The knowledge is used in crime detection
iii. The method is development of test tube baby
iv. The knowledge can be used to choose the sex of a baby
v. It can be used to know the sex of a baby.
vi. NB: Do crosses for the students.
Question on Genetics

1. Two varieties of maize, one with yellow seeds and the other with pink seeds were crossed with the parent
variety with pink seeds, half of the resulting offspring had yellow seeds white the other half had pink seeds.By
Means of labeled diagram only

a. Deduce the genotype of the seeds of Fi generation

b. How the results of the cross between the F generation and the parent pink variety.

2. How many X chromosome will the girl have in each body cell?

3. If the parents already have a family of one boy and two girls. What are the chances of their next baby
being a boy? Give a reason.

WEEK 11 - REVISION WEEK: 12-13 EXAMINATION