Christian Thought

Revision Guide

Name:

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www.philosophycat.org
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 How to plan and write an essay

A-B-C

SAMPLE QUESTION: ‘Episteme can be gained through reason not doxa’

Introduction

1. General statement referring to the key concept or issue referred to in the question.
2. Specific statement outlining the scholars for and against the issue.
3. Thesis statement stating the direction and aim of the essay.

Thesis: ‘Though Aristotle believed knowledge derives through experience of the physical world,
physical experience is liable to give changing opinion, and so I will argue through Plato’s
Theory of Forms that it is through reasoning that we gain true knowledge.’

A. Plato’s Theory of Forms points to knowledge coming from reason (claim)

1.
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3.
4.
Concluding Statement (linking back to thesis)

B. Aristotle’s challenge to Plato and claim knowledge comes from experience (counter claim)

1.
2.
3.
4.
Concluding Statement (linking back to thesis)

C. Weaknesses of counter claim and defence of original position

1.
2.
3.
4.
Concluding Statement (linking back to thesis)

Conclusion

1. Thesis statement should be restated and a judgement reached on the question.

2. A specific statement giving a summary of what has been argued and justifying the
position.
3. A general statement presenting the implications of your argument or posing questions
that it provokes.

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 3.1 Augustine on Human Nature
Will: the part of human nature that makes free choices
Sin: disobeying the will and commands of God
Grace: in theological terms, God’s free and undeserved love for humanity,
epitomised in the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross
The Fall: the biblical event in which Adam and Eve disobeyed God’s command
and ate the fruit from the forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden; also used to
refer to the imperfect state of humanity
Neoplatonism: philosophical thinking arising from the ideas of Plato
Redeemed: in theological terms, ‘saved’ from sin by the sacrifice of Christ
Concordia: human friendship
Cupiditas: ‘selfish love’, a love of worldly things and of selfish desires
Caritas: ‘generous love’, a love of others and of the virtues; the Latin
equivalent of the Greek word agape
Concupiscence: uncontrollable desire for physical pleasures and material
things
Ecclesia: heavenly society, in contrast with earthly society
Summum bonum: the highest, most supreme good

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 Augustine – Evaluation Table

Paradox of Human Nature: Man is both made in the image of God and yet sinner.

Augustine Objections Response/ Strengths

Weakness of will is defining characteristic of human 1. Dawkins: Evolutionary biology Response to Dawkins
nature Dawkins: (i) It is absurd to image the corruption of all Barbour: agrees that evolutionary biology
humans rests on two individuals if humans emerged from less means the idea of an original event makes
Before the Fall sophisticated animal forms which lacked kind of little sense but suggests suffering, conflict
Starting Point is Genesis consciousnesses and death long preceded humanity. Genesis
Will is God-given and can choose to do good or evil ii) Even if the Fall is symbolic, it does not rid Christianity with 3 is an imaginative story about humans use
Will driven by selfish love (cupiditas) or selfless love its unhealthy obsession with sin associated with sex of their potential and relationship with the
(caritas) iii) Idea God should want to restore human nature by killing world. Creation, Fall, redemption are not
Jesus on the cross is sado-masochistic. separate events but continuing processes in
Friendship expresses caritas as amor Dei (love of God). each individual’s life.
After fall more fraught with anguish. 2. Psychology of sex
Freud: Rejects Augustine’s connection between original sin Response to Freud
After the Fall and its transmission to future generation through sexual Augustine understands and attempts to
Pride is Adam’s sin intercourse and pleasure is part of it. Freud argues sex is not account for human emotions
Will becomes divided and man is no longer able to control just for reproduction but natural aspect of human
his libido and appetitive or desiring aspect of the soul is development. Human disorders result of environment Response to Kant
dominated by concupiscence (family, education, religion) not passed down. Reinhold Niebuhr: immoral society
Niebuhr argued though post-Enlightenment
Sin an ontological condition of human existence not just a 3. Kant’s The Good Will thinkers have made it unfashionable to talk
description of our behaviour on occasions. No one is Augustine said salvation only through grace. Kant says about sin, it is wrong to think reason can
good. ‘salvation’ through reason. Kant recognises there are bring about just and fair societies. (war,
powerful human emotions but no such thing as sin, just lack poverty, cruelty)
Grace of reason. Moral life seeks to rise above animal instincts and
Pelagius argues that humans can live morally pure lives rests on the ‘good will’ obedient to reason. Colin Gunton observes that modern
after the Fall if they tried hard debates have failed to mention Augustine’s
Augustine argues that human can only be saved through 4. Sartre: Bad Faith important insight that science and
God’s grace not good works Sartre rejects the notion of an essential human nature as philosophy do not consider the religious
suggests we can never be truly free to develop our own dimension of being human.
personalities. Man is ‘condemned to be free’ and is defined
by his choices. To deny our freedom to choose how we act is
to be in bad faith.

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 3.2 Death and Afterlife
Disembodied existence: existing without a physical body
Resurrection: living on after death in a glorified physical form in a new realm
Beatific vision: a face-to-face encounter with God
Purgatory: a place where people go, temporarily, after death to be cleansed
of sin before they are fit to live with God
Election (in a theological sense): predestination, chosen by God for heaven
or hell
Limited election: the view that God chooses only a small number of people
for heaven
Original Sin: a state of wrongdoing in which people are born (according to
some Christians) because of the sin of Adam and Eve
Unlimited election: the view that all people are called to salvation but only a
few will be saved
Universalism: the view that all people will be saved
Parable: a story told to highlight a moral message
Particular judgement: judgement for each person at the point of death
Parousia: used in Christianity to refer to the Second Coming of Christ

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 Afterlife – Evaluation Table

Heaven Hell Purgatory

Aquinas: human beings have souls which are Hick argues for universal salvations and believes 2 Mac 12:42-46: The Maccabean text shows that
different from other creatures. Other life forms’ an eternal hell would contradict Christian Judas, and the Jewish priests and people believed
souls die when the body dies but we have a concept of a benevolent God. Is any sin so bad that those who died in peace could be helped by
rational soul which enables life after death. The that it deserves eternal punishment? prayers and sacrifices offered by the living
beatific vision is a timeless moment rather than
length of time which stretches onto infinity. Pope John Paul II: The Church has condemned no Mt. 12:32: Christ warns the Pharisees that
Escapes from problem that heaven would be one to hell, not even Judas, it is God that decides. anyone who speaks against the Holy Spirit will
boring as there would no before or after. However, the God of love is also the God of not be forgiven either in this world or in the next
justice. implying opportunity to be forgiven after death.
Bible reference: Jesus had physical body after
Resurrection that ascended to heaven so it must Augustine: we have all failed to live in God’s Pope Innocent IV: “the souls … are purified after
have gone to a physical place. image and likeness and all deserve eternal death and can be helped by the prayers of the
Biblical descriptions of heaven: physical place full punishment in hell. Church.”
of angels. It must be everlasting length of time
because Bible refers to activities in heaven such Mark 9:47–48 Jesus warns, "[I]t is better for you Calvin: Little biblical basis for purgatory and
as singing God’s praise or learning about God. to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than undermines teaching about God’s saving grace
Singing and learning take place in time i.e. one with two eyes to be thrown into hell, where the Jesus’ sacrifice on cross sufficient to defeat sin,
note follows the next, new piece of knowledge is worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” enabling people to go straight to heaven if they
added to another. are accepting Jesus’ salvation.
Dante: Hell might be allegory and symbol of a
Dante: Heaven might be allegory and symbols of person’s moral life as experienced on earth. Martin Luther: Doctrine of Purgatory abused and
a person’s moral life as experienced on earth gave rise to selling ‘indulgences’ in Middle Ages
heaven when blissfully happy, hell when in to reach heaven. Indulgences way of reducing
despair. Avoids problem of life after death but suffering of a loved one in purgatory e.g. prayer,
discards biblical teaching. fast, buy token from Church.

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 3.3 Knowledge of God’s existence
Faith: voluntary commitment to a belief without the need for complete
evidence to support it
Empiricism: a way of knowing that depends on the five senses
Natural theology: drawing conclusions about the nature and activity of God by
using reason and observing the world
Protestantism: a form of Christianity which rejects the authority of the
Catholic Church and places greater emphasis on the Bible and on personal faith
Revelation: ‘uncovering’. In theological terms, this is when God chooses to let
himself be known
Immediate revelation: where someone is given direct knowledge of God
Mediate revelation: where someone gains knowledge of God in a secondary,
non-direct way.
Grace of God: God’s unconditional and undeserved gifts
Wisdom literature: a genre of writing from the ancient world, teaching about
wisdom and virtue. In the Bible, books such as Proverbs and Job are classified
as wisdom literature

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Discuss critically the view that Christians can discover truths about God using human reason.

This question invites a discussion of natural theology, and will requires an exploration of the extent
to which reason can lead Christians to knowledge of God, if at all. You will need to consider the
views of those who support natural theology as well as those who disagree with it.

Introduction
Key Issue: Natural knowledge of God distinguished from revealed knowledge of God in terms of
the ways in which people have arrived at such knowledge i.e. one through reason the other
through faith. However, as Aquinas argued, God can reveal truths to us through our reasoning,
and that our reasoning was given to us so that we might learn more about God, the distinction
becomes blurred.

REASON 1 Supporting Natural Theology = order and beauty of universe

• Propositional knowledge (generally Catholic approach): knowing or accepting something

is so.
• Propositional revelation is faith as acceptance of truths revealed by God, as propositions
to be accepted.

Aquinas = Existence of the world points to the existence of God

• Aquinas’ Five Ways (First three ways are the cosmological argument)
• Paley’s Teleological Argument

Objection: Mackie observes that traditional arguments for the existence of God have been
criticised to the extent that no rational proof of God’s existence is possible and that most
believers acknowledge that most believers must hold that God’s existence is known in some
other, non-rational way. Note: Aquinas didn’t intend his 5 Ways to be proofs for the existence of
God but rather demonstrate the rationality of belief.

RESPONSE –

John Leslie – anthropic principle (universe finely tuned to such degree suggests designer)
• Principle of special relatively ensures that forces such as electro-magnetism have an
invariable effect regardless of whether they act as right angles to a system’s direction of
travel. This enables genetic codes to work and planets to hold together when rotating.
• Quantum laws prevent electrons from spiralling into atomic nuclei.
• Electromagnetism has one-force strength which enables multiple key processes to take
place.

REASON 2 SUPPORTING NATURAL THEOLOGY - Calvin = innate sense of divine

• Bible: supports idea that people are born with a sense for God e.g. Genesis God breathes
into Adam with his own breath. We are made in the image of God and so can appreciate
beauty and goodness in the world which are manifestations of God’s goodness and
creativity.
• Calvin: sensus divinitas – seed of divinity – innate sense of God
• Anyone who reflects on the natural world and its beauty and order should be able to
understand the existence and character of God.
• Created world is a ‘mirror’ or ‘theatre’ for God.

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 • Epistemic distance between God and man is created by human beings: God’s existence is
obvious and it is only human sin that clouds understanding.

Objection to Natural Theology: reasoning is flawed – God can only be known through revelation

Gap too great between humans and God to accept the sensus divinitas

Revealed Theology

• Non-propositional knowledge (generally Protestant approach): knowledge of how to do

something and gain skills through experience e.g. knowing how to ride a bike. My
knowledge of such things will increase the more I practice them.
• Non-propositional revelation: faith of a personal encounter with God through
experience.

Objection against Natural Theology from Augustine: original sin prevents people from knowing
God

Augustine
• Faith is superior to reason
• ‘I believe in order to understand’ – faith
• SYNOPTIC LINK: AUGUSTINE ON HUMAN NATURE (cupiditas and conucsipenience, effects
of original sin, humans fall away from image of God)

Martin Luther
• Martin Luther had low estimate of reason as a human faculty because he considered it to
be corrupted by egoism and sin.
• Like Augustine, he argued that faith, being above reason, was a more reliable path to
truth. But if it was to be a saving faith, it required taking the risk of trust (fiducia)

Karl Barth
• Witness to rise of Nazism in Germany
• Human reason is fallible and cannot lead into any knowledge of God and it is arrogance to
believe we are clever enough to access absolute and eternal truths.
• God can only be known when God chooses to discloses himself (revelation)
• People are incapable of working out right and wrong by themselves and need to follow
God’s commandments as revealed in the Bible.
• God revealed through Jesus Christ and so no truth to be found in other world religions.
• Augustine: original sin prevented people from being able to know God because they had
become corrupt in their will and could never be holy enough to approach God through
their own efforts.

RESPONSE:
• If people have no way of judging between true and false belief then how can we
distinguish different claims by people e.g. one person might claim God had disclosed a
truth to him, another something different
• Aquinas’ Five Ways 0 God has given us the ability to use our senses and reason for a
purpose. Reason and Revelation work together.
• Bible suggests that humans can gain natural knowledge of God e.g. writings of Paul

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Objection against Natural Law – leap of faith is required

Soren Kierkegaard
• Faith is a leap of the will unsupported by rational evidence like the feeling of being
suspended over 60,000 fathoms.
• The decision to make the leap of faith is not simply a suspension of reasoning but a
conscious and morally intelligent decision which enables us to find religious
enlightenment in a world of frustration and mystery.
• Kierkegaard – human beings cannot use observation of the national world to support
belief that God exists but that does not alter the fact that God exists or not. Human beings
must make a choice.
• Yet object of faith is a paradox – the paradox of God’s love
• Leibniz – what human observe might reflect objective truths but we cannot know with
certainty because we cannot escape our subjectivity

Quotes
“I do not believe… that God exists but I know it” – truth is beyond our comprehension
“there is no gradual accumulation of sensory data or rational proof for God’s existence or for the
resurrection for Christ etc. One performs a willed act of faith despite fear, doubt and sin. The leap
of faith is not out of thoughtlessness but out of volition”

Objection: faith is not sufficient

• Dawkins: faith encourages people to be lazy in their thinking. Where there is a gap in
human knowledge it is described as a mystery and that evidence is not necessary.
• Nietzsche: faith in God who is dead was an obstacle to living a morally courageous life and
human flourishing.
• Belief in God based on faith is like belief in the tooth fairy. It cannot be conclusively
disproved but there is no evidence to support them, and therefore no good reason to
commit to them.
• Hume: ‘a wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.’ We should look to evidence.
Cf. Probability Argument against miracles

Response
• Many Christians would agree that faith alone is not sufficient but that it builds on
knowledge developed through reasoning. The fact that we exist in a beautiful ordered
world underpins Christian faith. This makes it a very different claim to ‘there’s a teapot
orbiting Mars.’ At the same time, the knowledge gained through sense experience and
reason does not provide conclusive evidence and hence why faith is necessary.
• Many cases where we have insufficient empirical or rational evidence on which we base
our decisions, e.g. whether we have free will or whether the sun will rise tomorrow. Some
beliefs can be justified by emotion, memory or intuition.

Conclusion

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 Natural and Revealed Theology – Evaluation Table

Natural Theology Revealed Theology

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Calvin’s Innate sense of the divine Hume’s criticisms of the Design Barth: Witness to rise of Nazism in The Problem of Fideism is that by
Creation is mirror of God Argument Germany. ruling out reason, there is no means
Anyone who reflects on the natural i) The analogy is false. A watch is a • Human reason is fallible and of testing true or false beliefs. The
world and its beauty and order mechanical and static device, cannot lead into any knowledge Roman Catholic position stated at
should be able to understand the whereas the world or universe is of God and it is arrogance to the First Vatican Council (1869–70)
existence and character of God. organic. It would be better to believe we are clever enough to in the ‘Dogmatic Constitution of
Epistemic distance between God compare the universe with an access absolute and eternal Faith’ outlawed fideism preferring
and man is created by human orange. if there is no obvious truths. instead a midpoint between the
beings. God’s existence is obvious creator of the orange, then there is • God can only be known when rationalism of natural theology and
and it is only human sin that clouds no obvious creator of the universe. God chooses to reveal himself faith position of revealed theology
understanding. Ii) Epicurean thesis. As all things • People are incapable of working
require some kind of stability to out right and wrong by The problem of distinguishing
Design Argument exist then the universe can sustain themselves and need to follow different truth claims. If people
William Paley’s Watch Analogy some degree of randomness. This God’s commandments as have no way of judging between
Thomas Aquinas’ Five Ways being so, then it is likely that an revealed in the Bible. true and false belief then how can
infinite universe over infinite time • God revealed through Jesus we distinguish different claims by
Paul demonstrates logic in his will develop patterns and order to Christ and so no truth to be people e.g. one person might claim
debate with the Jewish leaders as give the appearance of design. found in other world religions. God had disclosed a truth to him,
he tries to show them similarities iii) Like effects do not imply like another something different.
between the Messiah they are causes. Even if the universe has an Augustine: original sin prevented
expecting and the figure of Jesus. apparent design (effect) the cause people from being able to know Dawkins: faith encourages people
does not have to be attributable to God because they had become to be lazy in their thinking. Where
Swinburne: order, purpose, a single design cause. corrupt in their will and could never there is a gap in human knowledge
regularity in universe be holy enough to approach God it is described as a mystery and that
Criticism from RT through their own efforts. evidence is not necessary.
Barth: Human reasoning is fallible
Kierkegaard: leap of faith Hume: Probability Argument

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 3.4 The person of Jesus Christ
Son of God: a term for Jesus that emphasises he is God incarnate, one of the
three persons of the Trinity
Liberator: a general term for someone who frees a people or group
Rabbi: a Jewish teacher, often associated with having followers
Hypostatic union: the belief that Christ is both fully God and fully human,
indivisible, two natures united in one person
Homoousios: of the same substance or of the same being
Word: from the Greek logos, another name for the second person of the
Trinity, used at the beginning of John’s Gospel to describe the incarnation
which existed from the beginning, of one substance with and equal to God the
Father
Redemption: the action of saving or being saved from sin, error, or evil
Incarnation: God born as a human being, in Jesus Christ
Zealot: a member of the Jewish political/military movement that fought
against Rome in the first century AD
Messiah: in Christianity, the word is associated with Jesus Christ, who is
believed to be the Son of God and the Saviour. In Judaism the word is
associated with individuals who rose up against oppression, the people
of Israel

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Jesus' role was just to liberate the poor and weak against oppression.' Discuss.

Introduction

Context: Roman Occupation of Israel

• Jewish people lived under Roman occupation through a client king in the north and the
Roman Procurator, Pontius Pilate, in the south.
• AD 73 Great Revolt – Jerusalem Temple burnt down, tens of thousands enslaved, million
dead
• One of the groups leading the revolt were the Zealots – who called for violent revolution
• Jews had history of oppression e.g. Exodus Story of freedom from slavery in Egypt – re-
enacted in feast of Passover
• Many Jews hoped God would send a military Messiah to lead a rebellion against Roman
rule.

1) Jesus’ message for freedom for poorest, outcasts, most needy and he associated with outcasts
(social liberation)
2) Some scholars have gone further (Reza Aslan, Zealot) – Jesus was interested in political
liberation for Jewish people under Roman occupation.
3) For Christians, Jesus is much more than a figure in history. Bible speaks of liberation from sin
and death.

1. Entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday

• Jesus was Jewish and held the Passover (with narrative of liberation from slavery). Jesus
chose to celebrate it in Jerusalem at a time when violent revolution was in the air.
• People spread cloaks on the road = like when Israelites spread cloaks when Jehu was
declared king
• People waved branches = like in remembrance of Macabees who liberated Israel.
• Jesus requests donkey = fulfilment of Zechariah’s prophecy “your king is coming to you…
humble and riding upon an ass”
• He is hailed with politically contentious titles - hailed as Lord, King
• Jesus’ followers have suspicious names e.g. Simon the Zealot, Judas Iscariot (= Sword =
Zealot)

Objection: Jesus could not be a ‘zealot’, a member of the Zealot Party because it did not exist until
another 30 years after his death.

Response: Question not whether a zealot but that his views on violence are more complex than
sometimes suggested.
Church may have tidied his views to avoid persecution

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2. Behaviour in Temple’s public courtyard

• No law that forbids presence of vendors in court of the gentiles

• Outer court was free-for-all arena that served as bazaar and administrative headquarters
of the Sanhedrin, supreme Jewish council
• Jesus says to destroy the Temple – capital offence of sedition punishable by crucifixion.
An attack both on the Sanhedrin and the Temple’s relationship with Rome.

3. Lawful to Pay Caesar

• Question to test zealotry

• Rome’s demand for tribute a clam of ownership over the land and its inhabitants.
• Jesus’ answer ‘give back to Caesar what is Caesar and give back to God the property that
belongs to God.

Objection: Jesus is saying to give taxes to Caesar and give our ‘heart’ to God; worship and
obedience. At most compromised answer between the priestly and zealot position between those
who thought it lawful to pay taxes and those who did not.

Response: apodidomi = verb, give back = specifically used when paying someone back property to
which he is entitled to. Caesar is entitled to be given back his denarius coin because it is his coin,
with his picture stamped on it, not because he deserves tribute. By extension, God is to be given
back his land that was seized by the Romans. = sedition
Cf. Leviticus 25:23 ‘The land is mine.’

4. Arrest in the Garden of Gethsemane

• Cohort of soldiers arrest Jesus carrying torches and weapons.

• In preparation, Jesus made sure his disciples were armed. After the Last Supper instructs
‘if you do not have a sword go sell your cloak and buy one.’
• When his disciples response ‘here are two swords’, Jesus responds ‘it is enough’. (Luke
22:36-38)
• Jesus guilty of civil crime not religious crime. He is crucified with two bandits (lestai). As
with every criminal who is crucified, a plague detailing his crime is placed above his head
stating his crime. His titulus reads ‘King of the Jews’ = not mocking him, his crime is
sedition (claiming to be king and messiah)
• Jesus one of many people tried for same crime: e.g. Hezekiah and Judas

Objection: Jesus explicitly rejects violent revolution

• he stops his disciples from defending him with violence
• he does not confirm messianic title Pilate accuses him
• Jesus sidesteps questions about Roman rule
• Emphasised peace “Blessed are the peacemakers”… “those who live by the sword, die by
the sword”, “love thy enemies”

Conclusion

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 Jesus Christ – Evaluation Table

Liberator Teacher God

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Reza Aslan: Ratzinger: against LT Hick, Jesus’ ability to Bonhoeffer: Early Christians Hume: no evidence for
i) Jesus’ followers have Jesus rejects violent be aware of and act on incarnation linked to identified Jesus with miracles e.g.
suspicious names e.g. revolution: “those who God’s will is not unique human salvation and God. The New Probability Argument
Simon the Zealot, live by the sword will but shared with understanding that we Testament applies the
Judas Iscariot and they die by the sword” (in prophets e.g. Moses meet God in human term ‘God’ to Jesus. Schillebeeckx: Jesus
had weapons e.g. Gethsemane), he does Treating incarnation as beings. We encounter Paul speaks of Jesus as miracles = metaphor
Gethsemane not confirm messianic metaphor sets aside God in the oppressed, God’s ‘own son’ e.g. calming storm =
• When arrested and title Pilate accuses him, questions about Jesus’ the struggle for justice. implying unique status. source of calm > But
put to death on civic sidesteps questions divine nature but still how?
not religious crime about Roman rule, holds significance as Hick’s understanding of Baptism of Jesus and
“King of the Jews” = “Blessed are the model to live a moral salvation is personal Transfiguration Wright: Jesus healing
sedition peacemakers” life. salvation which is suggests Jesus is people who have been
• Entrance on Palm different from uniquely close to God. excluded > jesus
Sunday orchestrated to Aslan assumes Jesus is Burton Mack: Jesus salvation from sin and showing power to
fulfil Messianic poor but as a carpenter not a liberator but a death and lacks Council of Nicaea: unite all Israel for
prophecy (Zechariah he would not be. Jesus Cynic - wise men political message of Jesus of one substance renewed covenant and
9:9) is also called a rabbi whose parables and Gospel. with the Father forgiveness of sins to
• “Give to Caesar what suggesting he is aphorisms were (homoousios) inaugurate a Kingdom
is Caesar’s, and to God educated. Jesus’ designed to challenge Hitchens: Jesus is not of Heaven on Earth.
what is God’s” = disciples were not poor their audiences and wise e.g. his teaching Council of Chalcedon:
liberate land of Israel men e.g. fishermen are make them question ‘whoever is without sin Christ is in two natures, Not Unique - Prophets
small businessmen. their values may cast the first which come together in the bible who heard
Cone: Jesus is ‘black’ stone’ - if only non- in one person and one God’s voice, martyrs
because he belongs to COUNTER: Possible the •Jesus provides sinners have the right hypostasis without who gave up their lives
an ethnically Early Church tried to guidance on the to punish, how can we confusion like Jesus on the cross,
oppressed group. Jesus hide Jesus’ application of the law prosecute offenders? healers who looked
sided with poor and revolutionary to moral problems and Miracles esp. after people like Jesus
death due to corrupt tendencies to avoid is sometimes called resurrection did.
society. persecution rabbi.

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 Jesus Christ’s Self Knowledge – Evaluation Tables

Problem of Jesus’ Self-Knowledge Response

Begin this answer by discussing Christian beliefs Sanders’ Historical Jesus saw himself as last Rahmer: human consciousness must have
that Jesus is fully human and fully divine above. messenger unknown future in front of it. If Jesus was
● Jesus saw himself ‘as God’s last messenger conscious of God the Father’s awareness all the
If Jesus was aware of his divine nature, how can before the establishment of the kingdom’. time, then it would not be human.
he be a human being? As a child he would know ● He considered that the Temple would be
adult aspects of his life. He would know what renewed and the twelve tribes of Israel would be His solution is to think of an onion: psychologists
was going to happen and what other people reassembled. sometimes describe human self-consciousness as
were thinking. (omniscient). If this is the case ● Like other charismatic leaders of his day, his layered like an onion. We have a deep
how can we understand moments of questioning vision of society was that there would be a major understanding of our self within us but it is not
did he feign emotions? but that would suggest reversal in society where the poor, meek and always on the surface of our consciousness.
dishonesty? lowly would have leading places.
● He was a popular figure among the ordinary Therefore, in the Garden or on the cross or in the
If he wasn’t divine, how could he have said the people who were attracted to him because of his desert his human self-consciousness was close to
things with authority on death and sin, healings – some even thought he would be like the surface but his divine was deep within.
forgiveness and God’s love? How meaningful is it other great figures from Israel’s past as a ‘son of
if Jesus is fully divine if he did not have full access God’. O’Collins challenges the idea these questions can
to his divine consciousness? ● His miracles, teaching on non-violence, hope ever be answered.
for outcastes, eschatological hope or teaching of 1. It is very difficult to undertake any study
God’s grace make him substantially different of the inner world of any being,
from others at the time, but these are not especially for one who has left no writing
sufficient to make him unique. of his own
2. To make any claim on Jesus’ self
knowledge requires an understanding on
the complexity of the multi-layered
structure of how we can experience
reality with memory, emotion,
experience, intuition
3. Consciousness is not the same as
knowledge of a separate object.

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 3.5 Christian Moral Principles
Bible/Scripture: the collection or canon of books in the Bible which contain the
revelation of God
Church tradition: the traditions of how Christian life in community works, in
worship, practical moral life and prayer, and the teaching and reflection of the
Church handed down across time
Sacred Tradition: the idea that the revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated
in two ways. In addition to Scripture, it is communicated through the apostolic
and authoritative teaching of the Church councils and the Pope
Agape love: unconditional love, the only ethical norm in situationism

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‘The Bible is all that is needed as a moral guide for Christian behaviour.’ Discuss.

For this question you need to consider whether the Bible is totally sufficient as a guide for Christians
or whether it needs to be supplemented or even overruled by other sources of moral authority.

Introduction
Aim: It will be argued that the Bible is not all that is needed as a moral guide for Christian
behaviour.
Outline: This essay will consider the limitations of a propositional approach to the Bible and argue
that the Church Tradition (prima scriptura: holding the Bible as principle source of authority but in
light of Church tradition) and the Sacred Tradition (the Bible and authority of the Magisterium and
Church Tradition holding equal authority) are more convincing.
Context: Even if the Bible is the ‘Word of God’, we cannot straightforwardly say that its meaning
will be plain. Even if it is communicating truths about God, the Bible is written in human words
and understood in human ways. For example, if God is timeless or outside time, he will have to
communicate to us in a language we speak with human tenses and the words within those senses
will be human words that we can understand and could not be absolutely literal when describing
God. To reduce the Bible to its literal sense would be in danger of committing idolatry – making
God in our own image.

Sola Scriptura
Some Christians may argue that the Bible contains propositional knowledge and is all that is
needed as a moral guide for Christian behaviour, however this is problematic.

• Propositional approach to bible – God revealed directly through the words on the page
= commandments are fixed moral principles & parables have fixed meaning
• What those truths are will vary from tradition to tradition … see page 70

• Evangelicals = literal Word of God

• Amanuensis = writers recorded what God dictated Cf. Jeremiah ‘I have put my words in
your mouth.’
• Sola scriptura = scripture alone = bible is supreme authority and self-authenticating (we
do not need an interpreter)
• Contains Propositional revelation
• Inspiration – different interpretations
• Strength - Mouw: argues against situational ethics – other commandments and teachings
– there can be parallels between the history recorded in the Bible and present issues

Problems with sola scriptura

• Objection: impossible to read without interpretation – we are all humans with our own
experience and context and cannot separate ourselves from that when reading the Bible.
• Objection: different styles – if God dictated the Bible word for word how come it contains
different styles of writing e.g. John more mystical suggesting influence from other
Gospels, Matthew contains Jewish allusions as if writing for a Jewish audience, Luke
explains different aspects of Judaism as if his audience is unfamiliar with it, Mark is
written in a simple Greek.
• Objection: conflicting commands - Jesus teaching on the Sermon on the Mount
contradict some earlier teachings in the Hebrew Scripture. Some rules in Hebrew
Scripture are not followed by Christians today e.g. touching pig skin.

20
Prima Scriptura = Why Bible needs to be supplemented with Church teaching

In addition, Anglicans may argue that the Bible may come first but it cannot be separated and
needs to be supplemented with Church tradition.

• prima scriptura = bible principle source of authority but understood through Church
tradition and reason
• Church tradition = early traditions of the first Christians + current traditions of the Church.
• Tradition = life of prayer, worship, organisation of the Church and teachings of the Church.
• Church and tradition work together:
• Church tradition = How community worships and prays using scripture
• Bible = starts Church tradition because it record the life of the first Christians
• Bible = already interpreted by tradition, the Church chose which texts were
reliable

Sacred and Church Tradition

•
•
•
•
•
•

Evaluation & response

•
•
•
•
•

Agape

•
•
•
•

Evaluation & response

•
•
•
•

Conclusion

21
 Moral Principles – Evaluation Table
Bible Church Agape
Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Bible is inspired word William Spohn: Vatican II: Bible and Martin Luther • Tilich: justice, love, • It shares with
of God. scripture cannot be Sacred Tradition linked criticised practices wisdom utilitarianism the
interpreted in isolation within the Church such : difficulty of predicting
Neil Messer: guidance from Christian Apostolic Succession = as paying indulgences• Agape is central to Jesus into the future.
in Bible found not just communities and Pope and bishops to shorten time in teachings cf. ‘Greatest•
commandments but in traditions in which it inherit their authority purgatory Commandments ‘love• There are many
role models and stories functions from the apostles, who God and love your differences among
have inherited their Jesus attitude to neighbour’ Christians about what
Richard Mouw: there There are different authority from Christ. tradition – traditions • exactly is love and how
can be parallels styles within the Bible criticised by Jesus as • Influential on Fletcher it is shown E.g. abortion
between the history e.g. John more rules of men rather (see Situation Ethics) •
recorded in the Bible mystical, Luke writing than commandments • Richard Mouw
and present issues to non-Jewish audience of God. • Robinson: An ethic for Prioritising one biblical
so explains different ‘man come of age’ principle (agape) over
Jeremiah ‘I have put aspects of Judaism, Ruether: church • other biblical principles
my words in your Mark is simple Greek excludes women – • Pope Francis: revisiting cf. ‘If you love me, keep
mouth.’ (Amanuensis) Ruether – tradition and some of the rules and my commandments’
There are conflicting bible both shaped by traditions of the •
commands e.g. Jesus’ male experience of life. Catholic Church to • Jesus broke only
teaching on Sermon on remind people of the religious conventions
Mount contradict Concern about reason emphasis on love. He (e.g. Sabbath Law)
some earlier teachings being set against faith criticises approaches rather than moral laws.
in the Hebrew Bible cf. Barth, Bonhoeffer which take an
authoritarian, rigid • Love of neighbour
Hays: Bible cannot be attitude and aims to depends on fidelity to
interpreted in vacuum show compassion and God’s laws.
but shaped by the openness to the grace•
Church. of God. • Macquarrie: Situation
Ethics is incurably
individualistic

22
 3.6 Christian Moral Action
Discipleship: following the life, example and teaching of Jesus
Cheap grace: grace that is offered freely, but is received without any change in
the recipient, and ultimately is false as it does not save
Costly grace: grace followed by obedience to God’s command and discipleship
Passion: Jesus’ sufferings at the end of his life
Solidarity: an altruistic commitment to stand alongside and be with those less
fortunate, the oppressed, those who suffer

23
To what extent, if at all, does the theology of Bonhoeffer have relevance for Christians today.

To truly answer this question you must consider whether there are some aspects of his thought that
are more relevant for today (e.g. solidarity with the poor) than others (e.g. his emphasis on suffering
which was heavily influenced by the extreme ideologies of his time).

Introduction
• Run an illegal seminary for the Confessing Church first in Zingst and then Finkenwalde
• The Cost of Discipleship = his most influential book
• Lived during the Nazi era

Discipleship = Path of costly grace (AO1)

• Receiving grace = total obedience to God.

• Costly Grace is grace that is worth sacrificing everything for to get.
• BIBLE REF: Christ presents the model of cost of discipleship especially by following the will
of his father through his sacrifice on the cross.
• Path of discipleship begins with baptism = death
• But costly grace goes beyond martyrdom; simply to hear the word of God where God
chooses to speak it
• Cheap grace endangers salvation and involves no cost on part of believer
• Cheap grace arises when grace is universalised as a principle e.g. taking God’s forgiveness
taken for granted for breaking commandment

• Church has become too secularised and has lost this sense of costly grace.
• It has taken the values of modern age cf. early church integrated in Roman Empire and
monks that lived apart.
• Luther an example of someone who has taken path of costly grace.

Irrelevant = Too much emphasis on suffering? (AO2)

• Discipleship = passion and death of Jesus.

• Not the same as general suffering but a specific suffering essential to Christian life.
Rejection and suffering not for a cause for the sake of Christ.
• Costly Grace
• Temptation and burden

Objection
• Bonhoeffer overemphasises suffering as a concept of discipleship. Bonhoeffer lived at a
time of extreme ideologies (communism and fascism) and great suffering (Great
Depression).
• Bonhoeffer downplays the joy and hope of the Resurrection. Gospels = Good News. Jesus’
Passion includes suffering but he goes beyond it. Bonhoeffer is stuck on the cross.

Response
• Bonhoeffer’s message is about solidarity not just suffering. Many people suffer injustice,
illness, betrayal or bereavement. They can find consolation through friendship.
• Bonhoeffer would say we need to pass through our own cross if we are to follow Christ.

Discipleship = being obedient to God’s will

24
 • First disciples responded to obedience to Christ
• Bible ref: “there is only obedience to the call of Christ”
• All other legal ties nulled = discipleship above law and responsibilities of citizenship
• Luke 9:57-62 – a man says he has to first bury his father (legal responsibility) but Jesus
says ‘let the dead bury the dead’.
• Reason, conscience, responsibility and piety are obstacles to ‘single-minded obedience.’
• P. 181 = Sermon on the Mount; not just not to commit adultery discipleship involves the
extraordinary “be as perfect as my Father in heaven”; love as your enemy

Irrelevant = distorted view of God’s will over the state?

• Duty to God outweighs duty to the state

• ‘There is no standing amid the ruins of one’s native town in the consciousness that at
least one has not oneself incurred guilt.’ doing nothing in face of evil as bad as doing evil.
• Spoke out against Nazi ideas in the university where he worked and lost his job. He spoke
against the Nazis at public lect6ures and was banned. He criticised his own confessing
church for faltering to pressure from Hitler. He participated in illegal seminary. He
described Hitler as the anti-Christ. he helped the allies and smuggled Jews into
Switzerland.

Objection = is it possible to know God’s will

• Bonhoeffer’s interpretations of God’s will in the Bible may be wrong. If we cannot be

confident what God wills, how can we act confidently in the way Bonhoeffer thought
disciples should.
• p. 179 Mark 2:41 Jesus calls his disciples and they follow with no time lapsed. Bonhoeffer
interprets this to mean that a disciple should not eight up reasons for and against God’s
calling but just obey, but this may not be accurate.
• Bonhoeffer encouraged distorted views of God’s will. He became involved in an
assassination attempt which encourages violence. This could be the result of uncertainty
about God’s will.

Response
• Common life together reduces risk of distorted meaning. Bonhoeffer advocated a life in a
community based on shared reflection and reading of scripture. i.e. seminary he led. Only
through common life with the Bible that we can understand all of the Bible not just the
parts we want to read.
• Bonhoeffer did not encourage distorted views of God’s will. Most Christians would
sympathise with Bonhoeffers criticism of the German Christian movement and Confessing
Church as it kotowed to Hitler.

Objection: state loyalty

• Bonhoeffer encouraged distorted views of God’s will. He became involved in an

assassination attempt which encourages violence. This could be the result of uncertainty
about God’s will.

25
Church = community

• ‘visible community of the church.’ > be a sign for others

• Bible ref: ‘salt and light’ > just as salt adds flavour to food, Christians must be light and act
as moral people
• Good works
• Bonhoeffer founding member of Confessing Church. Jesus central over worldly leaders
like Hitler. God has authority over a person’s life not another ideology (National
Socialism).
• Bonhoeffer led a secret and illegal seminary (training new pastors) way to evade Aryan
law restrictions and train ministers from Nazi ideology.

Conclusion

26
 Bonhoeffer – Evaluation Table

Bonhoeffer Objections Response/Strengths

1. Role of suffering 1. Bonhoeffer overemphasises suffering as a 1. Bonhoeffer’s message is about solidarity not
Discipleship = path of passion and death of Jesus. concept of discipleship. Bonhoeffer lived at a just suffering. Many people suffer injustice,
Not the same as general suffering but a specific time of extreme ideologies (communism and illness, betrayal or bereavement. They can find
suffering essential to Christian life. Rejection and fascism) and great suffering (Great Depression). consolation through friendship.
suffering not for a cause but for the sake of He is stuck on the cross
Christ.
Costly Grace
Temptation and burden

2. Discipleship is being obedient to God’s Will 2. Bonhoeffer’s interpretation of God’s will could 2. Common life together reduces risk of distorted
First disciples responded to obedience to Christ be wrong. He became involved in an meaning. Bonhoeffer advocated a life in a
All other legal ties nulled = discipleship above law assassination attempt which contradicts Jesus’ community based on shared reflection and
and responsibilities of citizenship teachings on violence. This could be the result of reading of scripture. i.e. seminary he led. Only
Luke 9:57-62 – a man says he has to first bury his uncertainty about God’s will. through common life with the Bible that we can
father (legal responsibility) but Jesus says ‘let the understand all of the Bible not just the parts we
dead bury the dead’. want to read.
Reason, conscience, responsibility and piety are
obstacles to ‘single-minded obedience.’

3. Duty to God outweighs duty to the state 3. Christianity should be inclusive and adopt 3. Bonhoeffer’s challenge to abandon
Spoke out against Nazi ideas in the university values of modern age. Bonhoeffer encouraging comfortable Christianity gives people prospect of
where he worked and lost his job. He spoke us to follow God’s commands not trends of the meaningful life. In western societies there is an
against the Nazis at public lectures and was day but state loyalty is important today. obsession with material benefits and self-interest
banned. He criticised his own confessing church alongside deep sense of unhappiness.
for faltering to pressure from Hitler. He
participated in illegal seminary. He described
Hitler as the anti-Christ. he helped the allies and
smuggled Jews into Switzerland.

27
Year 2

28
 3.7 Religious Pluralism and Theology
Exclusivism: the view that only one religion offers the complete means of
salvation
Inter-faith dialogue: sharing and discussing religious beliefs between members
of different religious traditions, with an aim of reaching better understanding
Theology of religion(s): the branch of Christian theology that looks at the
relationship between Christianity and other world religions from a Christian
perspective
Inclusivism: the view that although one’s own religion is the normative (setting
the standard of normality) means of salvation, those who accept its central
principles may also receive salvation
Pluralism: the view that there are many ways to salvation through different
religious traditions
Particularism: an alternative name for exclusivism, meaning that salvation can
only be found in one particular way
Vatican II: the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, held from 1962 to 1965 to
discuss the place of the Catholic Church in the modern world
Noumena: a Kantian term to describe reality as it really is, unfiltered by the
human mind
Phenomena: a Kantian term to describe reality as it appears to us, filtered by
the human mind

29
 Pluralism – Evaluation Table

Exclusivism Inclusivism Pluralism

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Barth: 1 Timothy: God wants Rahner: Catholic • The Christian Hick: Copernican - undermines Jesus’
-Jesus = “The way, the all people to be saved theologian message is diluted if Revolution → God= death +resurrection
truth the life” -God is benevolent - • Christianity is the there is the suggestion Central not doctrine (more central to
- Christ= fully unique → suggestion that God absolute religion with a that Christ need not be -PoE = Benevolent God Christianity than idea
‫؞‬the only reliable way condemns people who unique offering of necessary for salvation. guarantees universal of judgement)
of gaining knowledge haven’t heard the salvation through the • Inclusivism is still salvation - Christian doctrine
of God Christian message to grace of God in Christ arrogant, stating that -demythologise states ‘Extra ecclesia
Cf. “No one comes to hell goes against this • People could be Christian belief is the religion →which uses nulla salus’
God but through me” idea ‘annoymoys best and putting itself myths (phenomena) in = Outside the church
- Reasoning can be - Matthew 25 – Christians’, following as the judge and noumena reality of there is no salvation
mistaken ‫ ؞‬Rejects salvation based on Christian ideals measure of other God - Hick’s Pluralism
natural theology actions not beliefs – without realising faiths. Cf. Sheep/Goat – assumes Kant’s
implies universal • Non-Christians may • People who have Matthew 25 philosophical approach
D’Costa: salvation achieve salvation if made free choices to →Salvation/judgement is correct (is not, idea is
- Broad exclusivist - exclusivism leads to they seek God with a have beliefs that are based on action not significantly weakened)
(salvation is only for wars and conflict + sincere heart not Christian should beliefs ‫ ؞‬compatible - idea of a ‘Real’ in
those baptised into the treating others as less • Partial truth in other not be labelled as with Pluralism+ terms of divine being
church ) As opposed to valuable people – non-Christian religions ‘anonymous universal salvation rejected by many
narrow exclusivist ( completely against • Some people through Christians’; if they forms of Buddhism
salvation only available church teachings eg: no fault of their own wanted to be Panikaar: -Emphasises - If Christianity
to those belonging to ‘Love one another as I are not exposed to the Christians, they would a transhistorical Christ
specific denomination) have loved you’ Christian message e.g. say so. - Window, rainbow,
- Nature of God cannot those who lived before mountain analogy
Calvin/Augustine be fully understood by Jesus - Christ= present in all
- Salvation happens humans (He is infinite, religions
after death we are finite) ‫؞‬
- Christian doctrine impossible to say that
states ‘Extra ecclesiam anyone can have full
nulla salus’ control of truth)

30
 3.8 Religious Pluralism and Society
Multi-faith societies: societies where there are significant populations of
people with different religious beliefs
Encyclical: an open letter sent to more than one recipient
Missionary work: activity that aims to convert people to a particular faith or
set of beliefs, or works for social justice in areas of poverty or deprivation
Synod: the legislative body of the Church of England
Social cohesion: when a group is united by bonds that help them to live
together peacefully

31
 Pluralism and Society Evaluation Table

Mission & Interfaith Dialogue Scriptural Reasoning Movement

For Against For Against
Jesus: told his followers to ‘make disciples Rahmer: If an inclusivist position is • Scriptural Reasoning began amongst • The Movement assumes that
of all nations’ (Matthew 28:19) taken to the theology of religion, Jewish scholars in the USA with there is something to be learned
people of other faiths could be meetings to discuss Jewish sacred texts. from the scriptures of religions
Sharing the Gospel of Salvation (2009) – considered to be ‘anonymous • Christians from the UK asked if they other than Christianity, which
Church of England Christians’ without needing to could join in as listeners and the suggests that Christianity is not
Reaffirms that God’s plan for the salvation convert explicitly. Scriptural Reasoning Movement absolute.
of the world is uniquely achieved in Jesus developed into an inter-faith forum, • The Movement assumes that
Christ and that the Church has a mission to Hick: If a pluralist position is taken, part of the Cambridge Inter-faith there is something to be learned
be a witness to this. there is no need for people of Programme. from the way adherents of faiths
faiths other than Christianity to be • The goal is not to achieve agreement other than Christianity approach
Redemptoris Missio (1990) – Catholic converted as they are on their own but to look deeply at beliefs in different scripture, which assumes that
Church path to salvation in a way that is contexts, to foster a spirit of openness Christian approaches might not
• Christians should be empowered by the culturally appropriate for them. and respect. always be the best or the only
Holy Spirit to bring other people to • They recognise that there are approaches.
Christian faith. Assuming that others need to differences of belief and try not to over- • The Movement does not allow
• John Paul II said that inter-faith dialogue share Christian beliefs is arrogant emphasise points of similarity in a people to try to convert others to
part of Christian mission rather than in and intolerant. superficial way. their own faith during meetings,
opposition to it. God wishes to share his • There is an agreement not to use which suggests that this might not
revelation with people of all faiths even Conversion to Christianity from meetings as an opportunity for be seen as an urgent task for
though other religions could contain ‘gaps, other faiths could cause the missionary work, although participants Christians.
insufficiencies and errors’. convert family difficulties or even can talk about their own commitment • It might be argued that
• He underlined the need for respect in danger. to their faith. relativising Christianity is wrong,
inter-faith dialogue. He said that the • It might be argued that relativising because Christianity holds the full
Catholic Church gladly acknowledges all Christianity is right, because it allows revelation of God through Jesus
that is true in Buddhism, Hinduism and openness, inter-faith dialogue and a and is not just one option amongst
Islam. However, Christians still have a duty more inclusivist or pluralist approach to many world religions.
to emphasise that the way to salvation is the theology of religion, which could be
through Jesus Christ. Christianity is unique argued to be better than an exclusivist
in offering the means to salvation. approach.

32
 3.9 Gender and Society
Feminism: the name given to a wide range of views arguing for, and working
for, equality for women
Gender biology: the physical characteristics that enable someone to be
identified as male or female
Gender identification: the way people perceive themselves in terms of
masculine, feminine, both or neither
Gender expression: the ways in which people behave as a result of their
gender identification
Socialisation: the process by which people learn cultural norms
Patriarchal society: a society that is dominated by men and men’s interests

33
 Gender and Society Evaluation Table

Gender Roles Family

For Against For Against
Mulieris Dignitatem (‘On the dignity of • Women cannot achieve dignity and • The Bible contains teaching about • Family life is different in
women’) was written in 1988 as an open letter respect unless they have access to the importance of families and different cultures, for example
by Pope John Paul II artificial contraception, abortion and about how family life should be in more industrial societies
• Men and women have different, divorce which the Catholic Church organised, including relations people tend to live in smaller
complementary characteristics given by God. does not allow. between husband and wife, parents nuclear families, whereas in
Women are naturally more capable than men of • Simone de Beauvoir wrote in the and children, and masters and more agricultural societies
attending to the needs of others 1940s that motherhood forces women servants, showing that family life is people tend to live in wider
• Women are naturally disposed to to crush their own personalities so part of God’s plan for procreation, extended family groups.
motherhood both physically and psychologically that they can care for others. mutual protection and the • Different people have
• No one would be here at all unless women • The sociologist Ann Oakley wrote education of the young. different views of what a family
fulfilled their unique role in bringing the next about the negative side of • Natural law ethics supports the might consist of, for example
generation into the world. Jesus’ incarnation motherhood, saying that it often view that family life with there are different views about
was made possible by a woman. leaves women powerless and heterosexual married couples raising same-sex marriage, which could
• Both virginity and motherhood are admirable. restricted. children is part of God’s purposes suggest that the family is
• Daly: Traditional Christian gender for humanity. whatever people say it is.
Genesis teaches that: i) men and women are roles have been challenged by some • People all over the world live in • Living in families has practical
both made in the image of God ii) the man is as ‘biblical patriarchy’ – written by family units, suggesting that there is advantages which provide a
created first, and the woman second to be a men, led by men’s interests, to something universally right about better explanation for the
‘helper’ and companion for the man iii) the reinforce male dominance. family life. existence of family units than
woman was the first to succumb to temptation • Secular ideas suggest there are not • It could be argued that the view that God ordained the
iv) men and women are both made in the image simply two separate genders created relationships within a family are family.
of God by God but that gender is a social affected by and affect the norms of
construct, which can put Christians in society, but the existence of the
Paul’s Letters: i) an orderly household has the uncomfortable positions over issues family itself as a unit is ordained by
man as the head of the house ii) husbands such as transgender rights. God.
should love their wives in the way Christ loves • Secular ideas encourage women to
the Church iii) the wife should accept the seek positions of authority in the
authority of her husband iv) women should not Church even though this contravenes
teach or speak in Church. some biblical teaching.

34
 3.10 Gender and Theology
Post-Christian theology: religious thinking that abandons traditional Christian
thought
Reform feminist theology: religious thinking that seeks to change traditional
Christian thought
Davidic Messiah: a Messiah figure based on the kingly military images of the
Hebrew scriptures (the Old Testament)
Servant king: an understanding of the Messiah that focuses on service rather
than overlordship
Sophia: Greek for ‘wisdom’, personified in female form in the ancient world
Thealogy: studying God based around the goddess (‘thea’ is Greek for
‘goddess’)

35
‘Christianity should be abandoned by feminists because it is essentially sexist.’ Discuss.

Introduction
Feminism and Feminist Theology
Problem: Christian monotheism reinforces social hierarchy of patriarchal rule. God as Sky-Father is
modelled after patriarchal ruling class and address male heads of families directly only. This marks
change from previous depictions of God as mother, with connotations of womb.
Solutions: Daly (post-Christian) and Daly (reform Christian)

Daly: Christianity should be abandoned by feminists

AO1
Trinity of Rape, Genocide and War
Rapism, Soverigns of Sado-Society, Gynocide

•
•
•
•
•

1. Problem of Androcentric language for Christianity

AO2
Daly: Christianity dependant on androcentric language
Phallic Morality
Alternative: Thealogy
•
•
•
•
•

AO2
Simon Chan (in defence of male language, objection to Daly)
• Helps to explain relational concept of God (God as Father, God the son and God the Holy
Spirit)
• Use of male language doesn’t feminine qualities of God e.g. Isaiah 54: 5-7 God is
described as acting with ‘deep compassion’
• Describing God as heavenly father explains our relationship to him, both male and female
• Describing God as father reinforces idea that God and his creation are separate in
contrasts with earlier ideas of God as mother connected with earth

AO2
Ruether (language needs reform)
Antipatriarchal use of God language exists in Old and New Testament
• God as Prophetic God challenges male-ruled society (e.g. prophets protests against )
• God breaks ties within male-ruled society e.g. Abraham has to break ties with his family,
Exodus the Israelities break ties with their overlords

36
 • Proscription on idolatry means words like Father should not be taken literally but as
analogy.
• Equivalent images for God as male and female e.g. Parables of Lost Sheep and Lost, God
compared to shepherd and woman, but both metaphors equivalent in meaning

All language is analogy and therefore must abandon male language and work towards

Apophatic language as solution?

2. Problem of Male Saviour for Feminists

AO2
Daly argued that the idea of a uniquely male saviour is one more legitimisation of male
superiority. As a consequence, far from Jesus being a figure of salvation for women, he is a figure
of male domination and enslavement.

AO2 (Objection to Daly: Universalisation)

Universalisation - Jesus was not black, eldery, Chinese etc. Woman are not exclusively cast as
outsiders.
Daly’s Response: problem is not that Jesus is male, young and a Semite, but that the image of God
is objectified in Jesus, and that Christ’s maleness has affected Church tto detriment to women,
unlike his other particularities (women excluded from priesthood on basis Christ is male).

AO2
Fiorenza (feminist defence of Jesus Christ)
• Fiorenza argue that women living in patriarchal societies can take strength from the
depictions of Jesus engaging with women, enabling women to be at important events in
his ministry and speaking with them as he speaks to men.
• jesus can offer a vision of salvation for women enslaved by patriarchal societies today

AO2
Ruether (Jesus = Servant King, Ruether)
• Messiah is God’s ‘anointed’ one; a son of David who will restore Israel and deliver people
from bondage through battle.
• Davidic Messiah is a conquering warrior who liberates people from their enemies. There is
therefore a maleness associated with Christ: ‘the Messiah can only be imagined as male.’
• Ruether argues that Jesus is not the traditional warrior Messiah. Traditional messiah is not
expected to die and suffer. The future that Jesus brings is not the military victory of the
male Messiah.
• Jesus is a servant king focussing on serving his people rather than ruling over them,
attending to the poor and disposed rather than highest in social order. He is critical of
Jewish authorities.
• Ruether argues that Messiah concept should not contain the Davidic Messiah idea but
self-sacrificing, servant Messiah.

3. Problem of Trinity for Feminists

AO1:
Trinity can be reformed to incorporate feminine

AO1

37
Ruether (Christianity is salvageable- need to rediscover Sophia)
• Female wisdom has been obscured behind the patriarchal view of the male messiah,
Jesus.
• Jesus is closely linked to divine wisdom. The Messiah, is not simply a male part of God but
is also the incarnation of wisdom, which is female.

Ruether (Gaia and Ecofeminism)

• Ruether refers to God as Gaia (ref. goddess of earth, links divinity with earth). Attempt to
recover concept of God found in Christianity which has been supressed by patriarchy.

•
•
•
•
•

Objection
• Simon Chan, argue that you cannot rewrite the Christian story to give more prominence
to women because it is the story itself that shapes Christian identity. Belief in the concept
of the Trinity (of God as Father, Son and Holy Spirit) is central to Christianity.
• Chan, Christianity should resist the temptation to abandon the male language for God.
God is never called ‘mother’ and that this was unique in ancient times. Previously, gods
and goddesses were paired e.g. Isis and Osiris or Tiamet with Marduk in Babylon.

Conclusion
Lay out problems and suggest solution.

38
 Feminist Theology – Evaluation Table
Daly – Post-Christian Ruether – Reform-Christian
Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Daly: Men have sought to oppress Fiorenza: Feminist objection: Ruether: Jesus comes not as David Chan: argues that Reuther is wrong to
women and used religion to enforce Jesus can offer a vision of salvation for warrior messiah but instead as the try to rewrite Christianity to give more
oppression. women enslaved by patriarchal servant messiah focussed on serving his prominence to women because beliefs
Women must go beyond religion (cf. societies today. Women living in people rather than ruling over them, in doctrines such as that God is Father,
Nietzsche) patriarchal societies can take strength attending to poor rather than upper Son and Holy Spirit are central to
Christianity defined by unholy trinity of from the depictions of Jesus engaging classes, critical of Jewish authorities and Christian tradition.
rape, genocide and war with women, enabling women to be at reigning powers, who sacrifices himself
Religious language is androcentric and important events in his ministry and for others. Chan points out that many religions
women need new spirituality speaking with them as he speaks to have had goddesses as well as gods,
men. She makes links between Jesus as the celebrating the feminine in deities as
Hampson Word of God and the idea of God’s well as the masculine, but the societies
i) Theme of female sacrifice in bible Simon Chan: Father language wisdom (Sophia), saying that Jesus is holding these beliefs have nevertheless
ii) Christ = salvation through man i) explains relationship within Trinity God’s wisdom in human form and been patriarchal societies. He argues
reinforces male patriarchy ii) relationship between man and therefore has both masculine and that therefore changing ideas of God to
iii) covenants reinforce male authority women and God feminine aspects. feminine as well as masculine would
iv) agape love which demands one party iii) Distinguishes God as father who is make no difference.
sacrifices is patriarchal compared to separate from creation, from earlier Refer to God as Gaia = recapture female
philia which is based on equal conception of Goddess as mother earth quality of God, which was the name of Hampson: a modern post-Christian
transaction who is one with creation. the ancient Greek goddess of the earth. theologian, argues that Christianity and
She argues that she is recovering an feminism are essentially incompatible.
Hampson says that some of the stories ancient notion of God in the feminine, a Christianity is too tightly interwoven
of the Bible are inherently sexist (such notion that has been covered up by with patriarchy to be reinterpreted with
as the story of Adam and Eve) and some patriarchy, rather than inventing a new a feminist agenda. She thinks that
of the morality of the Bible is sexist way of talking about God. trying to carry out a radical feminist
(such as the teaching about how to run transformation of Christianity, in the
an orderly household). She argues that way Reuther is attempting, is
it is better to interpret ideas about the impossible.
love of God in new ways and to leave
Christianity behind.

39
 3.11 The challenge of secularism
Secularism: a term that is used in different ways. It may mean a belief that
religion should not be involved in government or public life. It may be a
principle that no one religion should have a superior position in the state. It
often entails a belief in a public space and a private space, and that religion
should be restrained from public power
Secularisation: a theory developed in the 1950s and 1960s, developed from
Enlightenment thinking, that religious belief would progressively decline as
democracy and technology advanced. Sociologists now doubt such a linear
decline
Secular: not connected or associated with religious or spiritual matters. Used
colloquially in widely differing ways by atheists, pluralists and those who are
anti-religion. Historically, the term was used to distinguish priests who worked
in the world (secular priests) from those who belonged to religious
communities, such as monasteries
Wish fulfilment: according to Freud, wish fulfilment is the satisfaction of a
desire through a dream or other exercise of the imagination

40
How fair is the claim that Christianity has a negative impact on society?

This question invites discussion of the challenge that Christianity does more harm than good in
society. For AO1 you need to be able to show an understanding of the reasons people might present
this challenge. For example, they might think that Christianity encourages sexism or is divisive or
homophobic. They might think that belief in God is infantile or that religious belief hinders scientific
progress. You might be able to refer to specific thinkers who present different challenges. You also
need to show knowledge and understanding of counter arguments, for example the argument that
Christianity has been the driving force for social changes such as education and many aid agencies.
For AO2 your argument should assess the strength of the challenge and reach a well-justified
conclusion.

Introduction

Key Issue: There is a difficulty in talking about ‘what Christianity does’. Does this mean ‘what
(some) Christians do’, or ‘what (some) Christian institutions do’, or ‘the impact that (some) forms
of Christian thought might have’? Making a link between people’s actions, the rules and systems
of institutional bodies, and the systems of thought within them can be difficult, especially when it
refers to a movement, such as Christianity, that takes on multiple cultural forms around the
world.

Christianity’s negative impact on education

Faith schools

BHA: a secular state should not fund schools with a religious character.

Richard Dawkins: religious fundamentalism subverts science, replacing an evidence-based

approach to understanding the world with superstition, which leads to the fundamentalists
missing the engrossing and fascinatingly beautiful truths of evolution and science

He is concerned that teaching that evolution is one theory alongside other theories, such as
creationism, in science classes fails to give credit to the evidence that supports evolution and
places a literal, geological interpretation of the Bible above more robust scientific accounts.
Dawkins is also more generally concerned that religious schools are teaching children ‘from their
earliest years, that unquestioning faith is a virtue

RESPONSE: Christianity integral to education

In England, the school system was established by Christian Churches long before the national
government was prepared to ensure education for all children

Churches built schools for the poor in England, and indeed continue to own a lot of school
property, and so removing schools from Church control would be an act of robbery. Additional
arguments are that such schools give parents who want an education framed by a religious ethos
the choice to have such schooling, and that a plural and diverse society should have plural and
diverse kinds of schools. Furthermore, it is not clear that religious schools are necessarily less
diverse than non-religious schools when the measure is ethnicity. Catholic populations in
England often have a greater proportion of poorer migrant families, and the resulting school
populations may have richly diverse cultural and linguistic traditions as a result. Moreover,

41
religion is not the only factor that segregates school pupils in England. Socio-economic and
cultural factors can also result in poor integration.

The claim that ‘separate’ schools produce children who are less open to living in religious
diverse societies and who are more prejudiced against people from other religious backgrounds
is not supported by sound empirical evidence according to researchers at the Warwick Religions
and Education Research Unit.

Critics of Dawkins note that his arguments against religious schools stem from a view of religion
that is narrowly fundamentalist and extreme. If religion equates only to fundamentalist extreme
belief, then religious schools would have serious questions to answer because they would limit
children’s ability to develop the skills of reason and logic. However, if religion is viewed as a
cultural phenomenon, that is associated as much with identity and cultural practices as with
belief, then the Dawkins argument is significantly weakened. Dawkins rejects this critique,
suggesting that ‘liberal’ religion simply makes way for religion, and literal belief (which narrows
thinking) is at the heart of religion. However, if a secular state is defined, not as a de-religionised
space, but as a radically plural space containing many communities, many voices, multiple
modernities, where different groups can experiment with different models of the good life, then
shouldn’t schools reflect that diversity?

Charles Taylor argues, in ‘The Politics of Recognition’ (Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of
Recognition, eds. Gutmann and Habermas, 1994), that there should be recognition that societies
are increasingly multicultural. Every person should be recognised for their particular identity
rather than living in a way that leads to a loss of distinctiveness and individual peculiarities. No
culture, including an atheistic one, should impose itself on others because this causes minority
cultures to diminish and vanish.

Dawson points out that, where education systems have been dominated by a consciously
antireligious ideology, as was found in communist countries, religion became endangered. In
other words, a professed neutrality towards religion in secular education revealed a
programmatic intention to remove it entirely. Removing religion from culture, art, architecture
and music not only deprives religion of a means of outward expression, it also deprives people
of the ability to make sense of their own culture given the extent to which culture is steeped in
religion.

Professor James Conroy argues that religious schools have an important role in a liberal
democratic state. He suggests religious schools perform a ‘liminal function’ that serves to test the
perspective of human flourishing that is offered by the liberal democratic state in state-run
schools (Conroy, Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Imagination, Education and Democracy, 2004,
p. 143). They exist to counter the general view that the market should define human flourishing
and determine the aims of education, that individual people are little more than cogs in the
machine of the economy. They instead propose an idea of the other that transcends capitalism.
‘The student is not a resource for a nation, or one who is to be cultivated within a consumer
teleology’

Christianity hinders scientific progress

Freud – religion mass delusion

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Dawkins - Christianity can encourage infantile and ‘unscientific’ views of the world. For example,
Dawkins points to the role he says Christianity has played in the criminalisation of homosexuality
(which was illegal in the UK until 1967). He points to the ‘American Taliban’ (evangelical Christians
who say that Aids is God’s punishment on homosexuals) as an illustration of how upsetting ideas
can be developed through religion

An absolutist faith also has a negative influence on society in the area of the sanctity of human life
and the attempts to restrict or limit women’s access to abortion, Dawkins suggests. He offers up
the example of George W. Bush. While Governor of Texas, Bush oversaw more than a third of the
executions that took place in the USA at the time, while simultaneously preventing medical
research on embryonic life. Dawkins sees applying the death penalty on the one hand, while
preventing scientific research that might alleviate suffering on the other, as an example of the
damage religious absolutism causes to society.

RESPONSE

Although some forms of religion do seek to indoctrinate or brainwash people, the testimonies of
many scientists are evidence that it is not correct to assume religion and faith necessarily closes
down thinking, particularly scientific thinking. To take just one example: Francis Collins was born
in 1950 and is an American physician-geneticist who has made important discoveries about
disease genes and led the Human Genome Project. At university he described himself as an
atheist, but his work with dying patients led him to question his views.

Christianity encourages social division

Mary Daly

See Feminism and Society

RESPONSE

• Anglican Bishops were instrumental in the decriminalisation of homosexuality in the 1960s, at a

time when other parts of the British establishment resisted change.
• Many prominent civil rights activists who played a leading role in challenging segregation in the
USA, such as Martin Luther King Jr, were religious.
• Many of the food banks run by volunteers throughout the UK today were set up and are now
run by Christians and local churches.

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 Secularism – Evaluation Table

Freud Dawkins
Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
• Freud said that religion is infantile • Many religious people have been • He criticises traditional arguments • Dawkins could be criticised for
and a ‘mass delusion’. particularly strong and courageous for the existence of God and gives taking isolated, extreme examples
• Freud thought religion is a product in standing up for their beliefs in the scientific explanations of and using them to draw general
of wish fulfilment. People experience face of danger. phenomena that are sometimes conclusions.
vulnerability as children, and God is • The demands of leading a Christian used as evidence for God. • He glosses over the many positive
desire for father figure (cf. Feminist). life are difficult rather than • He argues that human life is contributions religion has made to
• Freud related religious belief to his comfortable (see Bonhoeffer’s meaningful without reference to societies, such as the founding of
ideas about the Oedipus complex. ‘costly grace’). religious ideas. schools, the campaigning for civil
He thought that male children • Religious beliefs might be said to • He argues that religion is rights, the work for the poor and the
secretly wanted to kill their fathers be more uniform than would be responsible for division, war and pressure for social change.
and marry their mothers. They expected if different individuals conflict in society, both in the • He does not take account of the
know, however, that it is wrong, so made them up. modern world and throughout many scientists who have also held
they overcompensate by inventing a • Jung: Religious can be a healthy history. religious beliefs and have been
cosmic father-figure God to worship. path towards individuation. • He argues that religious belief motivated by their faith to continue
• Religious believers invent a God discourages scientific enquiry by their scientific exploration (e.g.
who seems stern but is actually allowing a lazy mindset that says ‘it’s Polkinghorne)
loving and forgiving. They invent a a divine mystery’ rather than looking • It could be argued that keeping
life after death that will begin a new for answers. children away from learning truths
existence, where the good will be • He claims that religions are about God is abusive.
rewarded and the wicked punished, repressive, and singles out religious
to compensate for the injustices of dress codes as an example of the
real life. repression of women.
• Religion represses human desires • Dawkins is particularly concerned
such as sexual violence, theft and about the indoctrination of children
murder. into religion, citing examples of
• Freud thought that religion is where babies are initiated into
fundamentally unhealthy. religious faiths before they can
understand what is happening.

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 3.12 Liberation Theology
Exploitation: treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work or
resources
Alienation: the process of becoming detached or isolated
Capitalism: an economic system in which the means of production are
privately owned and operated for profit, in contrast with communism where
trade and industry is controlled by the state
Conscientisation: the process by which a person becomes conscious of the
power structures in society
Basic Christian communities: Christian groups that gather together to try to
directly resolve difficulties in their lives
Structural sin: the idea that sin is not just a personal action, but something
that can be brought about through unjust organisations and social structures
Preferential option for the poor: the idea that Jesus Christ stood with the poor
and oppressed, and that the Church should focus on the poor and oppressed
and stand in solidarity with them

45
‘Christianity is better than Marxism at tackling social issues.’ Discuss

This question invites a comparison between Christianity and Marxism in relation to social issues such
as poverty, low literacy rates and substance abuse.

In order to gain high marks for AO1, you should show knowledge and understanding of the ways in
which both Christianity and Marxism understand and tackle these issues. For example, you might
refer to the Christian understanding of social issues as symptomatic of a world that has been
corrupted by human sin since the Fall, and the Marxist understanding of social issues as
symptomatic of alienation due to private ownership of the means of production.

For AO2, you need to make a comparison between ways in which Christianity and Marxism tackle
these issues, and say which you think is better. You could explain what you mean by ‘better’, for
example whether you mean that it has longer-lasting results or reaches a greater number of people.
You might want to argue that some kind of combination of Christianity and Marxism is most
effective.

When an essay question asks you to make a comparison, try to look at the two ideas side by side
throughout the essay rather than writing about Christianity on its own and then Marxism on its own.

Introduction
Context: Liberation Theology and Marxism; Preferential Option for the Poor
Aim: What will you argue towards?
Outline:

1. Marxism
Marx argues capitalism created a world in which wealth and power are concentrated in the hands
of the few at the expense of the many.

i) Alienation: humans alienated from each other and open to exploitation

ii) False consciousness: religion, and the idea of God, is a source of alienation
iii) Praxis: a better society is achieved through putting ideas into action
iv) Private ownership of property: ownership of land gives individuals power over others which
can lead to war
v) Telos of history: state of real freedom and real happiness free from false ideologies

AO2: In agreement with Marxism’s utility:

In their critique of capitalism and means to analyse structural oppression, Marxism provide a
starting point for LT.
Boff: hierarchy of Church not how first envisaged but corrupted after becoming Roman state
religion.
Torres: words without action are empty - revolution

AO2: Limitations of Marxist analysis:

Miranda: bible writers understand it better

i) Marxism has underestimated the insight of biblical writers that capitalism is due to subjective
human condition. The Fallen aspect of human nature is much fuller reason than Marx to explain
why humans exploit each other.

46
ii) The Ten Commandments warn against idolatry and its abandonment has led to exploitation.
Need to return to negative theological view that God is wholly different from material world.

2. Liberation Theology

Biblical basis for prioritising poor

• Beatitudes ‘blessed are the poor in spirit as theirs is the kingdom of heaven
• Exodus: liberation of God’s people from Egyptian oppression
• Magnificat: announces coming change ‘he has filled the hungry with good things but has
sent the rich away empty
• ‘It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle…’

Objection 1: Liberation Theology fails to appreciate Marx’s fundamental belief on violent

revolution

Biblical basis: Jesus Christ as liberator

• Christ = Davidic Messiah
• Reza Aslan: put to death on civic crime; followers have suspicious names (e.g. Simon the
Zealot, Judas Iscariot) and carry weapons; ‘zealous’ actions in Jerusalem (e.g. kicking the
tradesmen from the Court of Gentiles in the Temple of Jerusalem)
• = Church born out of resistance to Roman occupation of the poor

Response:

Part 1: Liberation theology fails to fully appreciate the significance of Marx’s fundamental belief in
the need for revolution, which contradicts Jesus’ rejection of violence (John Paul II).
• ‘blessed are the peacemakers’
• ‘turn the other cheek’
• ‘Those who live by the sword die by the sword’ – stops his disciples from defending him
with violence upon his arrest in the Garden of Gethsemane.
• ‘Give unto Caesar what is Caesar’s and give to God what is God’s’ - sidesteps questions
about Roman Rule
• John Paul: Christ is revolutionary = by advocating reconciling love!

Part 2: Marx claimed that, through revolution, many social problems would ultimately lead to a
socialist, classless society. Yet many today would argue that communism was unable to respond
effectively to suffering and poverty in society.
e.g. China, Soviet Russia

Part 3: Liberation Theology misreads Marx (Ratzinger)

• Marxism is not a science and you cannot pick and choose among its tenants.
• Landless peasants of Latin American poor rather than being proletariat of Marxist thinking
are more like the lumpenproletariat that Marx thought useless for revolution. In any case,
poor of the gospel cannot be set up as a popular church in opposition to the church
hierarchy.

Part 4: At the heart of Marxism lies atheism

See page 316
Response: Via Negativa might make Marxism and Christianity compatible

47
Due to Liberation Theology’s reliance on Marxism, which it has been argued is itself
problematic, this means it is less satisfactory than Christianity at resolving social issues such as
poverty.

Objection 2. Liberation Theology pits one group over another by defining the poor as
economic/material rather than spiritual

Many Christians are deeply concerned about the poor and the oppressed, and many religious
orders focus their vocation on working with those in greatest need.

Liberation Theology takes things one step further and suggests that God takes the side of the
poor against the rich and actively works for the poor
Boff: God does not sit back and disengaged with world but takes sides with the poor
Gutiérrez, ‘to know God as liberator is to liberate, is to do justice’

Liberation theology identifying poor with proletariat in Marxist’s thinking and therefore
advocating class warfare.

Vatican:
• Liberation Theology manifests a dangerous preoccupation with the poor and oppressed in
Latin America’
• Rich people can be as much in need as the poor. The message in the bible ‘blessed are the
poor in spirit’ as much about spiritual poverty as material poverty.
• Vatican II (Gaudium et Spes): ‘The Christian who neglects his temporal duties, neglects his
duties towards his neighbour and towards God, jeopardising his eternal salvation.’
• Alternative: Preferential Option for the Poor: John Paul II argued that the advancement
of the poor constitutes a great opportunity for the moral, cultural and even economic
growth of all humanity. However, he made it clear that the preferential option for the
poor includes a concern for spiritual poverty, and does not focus exclusively on material
or economic poverty
• Christians should work to reduce poverty of all kinds; in reducing spiritual poverty, rich
are encouraged to live more socially responsible lives and to share their wealth with their
poorer neighbours, this will impact material poverty, and improve the lives of the poor
and dispossessed
• The Kingdom of God is both here now, in righteous actions, and in the future, in the
realisation of a fully just and fair and loving world.

Objection 3: Liberation Theology is wrong to prioritise personal sin over structural Sin

Liberation Theology better because of its understanding of structural sin?

Structural sin: the idea that sin is not just a personal action, but something that can be brought
about through unjust organisations and social structures

Hélder Câmara: Spiral of Violence (1971) structural injustice (level 1 violence) leads to rebellion
(level 2 violence) and repressive reaction (level 3 violence)

Response:

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Ratzinger: Accepts structural sin, which some conservatives wanted to reject. However, all
structures, good and bad, are result of human action.
Bible ref: Jesus reached people in their personal lives and spoke of individuals coming back to God
through forgiveness and reconciliation e.g. Parable of the Lost Coin

Is this response sufficient?

For the starving oppressed poor, is liberation from personal sin the most important liberation?
• Is change happening for the people in our world who live in poverty?
• Salvation and liberation may first be about inner spiritual change, but is there not a point when
someone has to do something: see Matthew 25 ‘Parable of the Sheep and the Goats/Last
Judgement’, which focuses on human actions for the most needy.

Objection 4: Liberation Theology is wrong prioritise orthopraxis over orthodoxy

Liberation theology claims Truth must be understood within social and political sphere.
Orthopraxis =

Orthodoxy =

Within this context, authority can come from below in the Church.

Response:
• Truth not human or rational truth but truth that comes from God i.e. orthodoxy – sources
of authority scripture + tradition
• Priests role is to be teachers of this truth, not to propagate liberation.
• Unity of church condition for effective preaching of the gospel… cannot make distinction
between official church and new church springing from poor

Conclusion
Must be justified and follow argument in essay.

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 Liberation Theology Evaluation Table

Marxism Liberation Theology

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses
Marx: Miranda: bible writers Freire: Education as Ratzinger: LT is too Marxist
i) Alienation: humans alienated understand it better conscientisation. i) LT wrongly emphasises political
from each other and open to i) Marxism has underestimated liberation instead of liberation from sin
exploitation the insight of biblical writers that Exodus paradigm: God calls Moses ii) Salvation and redemption is
ii) False consciousness: religion, and capitalism is due to subjective to revolutionary action against achieved through God’s grace not
the idea of God, is a source of human condition. The Fallen Pharaoh. In Latin American terms, praxis and revolution
alienation aspect of human nature is much Pharaoh represents rich iii) LT wrongly emphasises structural
iii) Praxis: a better society is fuller reason than Marx to landowners, government officials sin, which it equates with praxis, and
achieved through putting ideas into explain why humans exploit each and Church hierarchy who own the not personal sin, which requires God’s
action other. means of production. grace.
iv) Private ownership of property: ii) The Ten Commandments warn
ownership of land gives individuals against idolatry and its Justice and Judgement: Amos Kee: LT not Marxist enough
power over others which can lead abandonment has led to mocks and condemns the rich Basis of Marxism is a criticism that all
to war exploitation. Need to return to ideologies are false human projections
v) Telos of history: state of real negative theological view that Mary’s Song of Reversal on reality. Religion for Marx is the
freedom and real happiness free God is wholly different from (Magnificat) ‘opium of the people’. LT cannot be
from false ideologies material world. selective and cherry pick passages they
Matthew 25 – Sheep and the Goats like.
in their critique of capitalism and Those who consider themselves
means to analyse structural religiously good but are without
oppression, Marxism provide a praxis are singled out for
starting point for LT. condemnation

Boff: hierarchy of Church not how Jesus as Liberator (see 3.4)

first envisaged but corrupted after
becoming Roman state religion.

Torres: words without action are

empty - revolution

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51