VISION

Perception
Your brain codes the information in terms of which neurons respond, their
amount of response, and the timing of their responses. (akin to the binary
coding in a computer of data) That is perception; the property of anything
we see.
The law of specific Nerve Energies
Müller; whatever excites a particular nerve establishes a special kind of
energy unique to that nerve. In modern terms, the brain somehow
interprets the action potentials from the auditory nerve as sounds, those
from the olfactory nerve as odors, and so forth.
EYE

Light from the left side of the world strikes the right half of the retina, and
vice versa. Light from above strikes the bottom half of the retina, and light
from below strikes the top half. The inversion of the image poses no
problem for the nervous system.
Route with Retina
In the vertebrate retina, however, messages go from receptors at the back
of the
eye to bipolar cells, located closer to the center of the eye. The bipolar
cells send their messages to ganglion cells, located still closer to the
center of the eye. The ganglion cells’ axons join together and travel back
to the brain. Additional cells called amacrine cells get information from
bipolar cells and send it to other bipolar, amacrine, and ganglion cells.
Various types of amacrine cells refine the input to ganglion cells, enabling
them to respond specifically to shapes, movements, or other visual
features.
One consequence of this anatomy is that light passes through the
ganglion cells and bipolar cells en route to the receptors. However, these
cells are transparent, and light passes through them without distortion. A
more important consequence is the blind spot. The ganglion cell axons
form the optic nerve, which exits through the back of the eye. The point at
which it leaves (which is also where the blood vessels enter and leave) is
the blind spot because it has no receptors. In everyday life, you never
notice your blind spot, for two reasons. First, your brain fills in the gap, as
you just experienced. Second, anything in the blind spot of one eye is
visible to the other eye.

Fovea and Periphery of the Retina

 Fovea Overview:
o The fovea, meaning "pit," is a tiny, central area in the retina
specialized for acute, detailed vision.
o The area around the fovea has almost no blood vessels and
ganglion cell axons, leading to nearly unimpeded vision.
o Receptor density is tightly packed in the fovea, improving
perception of details.
 Direct Pathway for Detail Perception:
o Each receptor in the fovea connects to a single bipolar cell,
which connects to a single ganglion cell.
o The midget ganglion cells in the fovea respond to a single
cone, offering a direct pathway to the brain for perceiving
exact location and detail.
 Fovea Dominates Vision:
o The midget ganglion cells provide 70% of the input to the
brain, making vision primarily dependent on the fovea.
  Birds and Extra Foveas:
o Some birds have two foveas per eye, enabling them to
perceive detail both ahead and in their periphery.
o Hawks have more visual receptors in the top half of their
retina for better vision while looking down.
o Prey species, such as rats, have receptors concentrated in the
bottom half of their retina for improved vision above.

Peripheral Vision and Light Sensitivity

 Convergence in the Periphery:
o In the periphery of the retina, more receptors converge
onto bipolar and ganglion cells, reducing the brain's ability to
detect the exact location or shape of light sources.
o This convergence allows for better detection of fainter
lights in the periphery, though less detail.
 Acuity vs. Sensitivity:
o Foveal vision is known for better acuity (sensitivity to
detail), whereas peripheral vision has better sensitivity to
dim light.
 Limitations in the Periphery:
o The ability to detect detail in the periphery is often hindered
by interference from nearby objects.

Visual Receptors: Rods and Cones

 Rods:
o Rods are primarily found in the periphery of the retina and
are responsive to faint light, though they become useless in
daylight due to light bleaching.
o They are critical for night vision but do not contribute to
color vision.
 Cones:
o Cones are concentrated in and near the fovea and are more
active in bright light, contributing to color vision.
o Due to the distribution of rods and cones, color vision is
better in the fovea than in the periphery.
  Input to the Brain:
o Even though rods outnumber cones by a ratio of 20:1,
cones provide 90% of the brain's input.
o In the fovea, each cone has a dedicated line to the brain,
while in the periphery, rods share neural pathways with tens
or hundreds of others.
 Specialized Vision in Species:
o Nocturnal species such as the South American oilbirds have
a much higher ratio of rods to cones, as their retinas are
adapted to detect faint light at night.

Individual Variations in Visual Sensitivity

 Number of Axons:
o The human optic nerve contains an average of one million
axons, though some people have two to three times as
many axons, which enhances visual sensitivity.
o More axons also mean greater ability to detect brief, faint,
or rapidly changing stimuli.
 Role in Sports and Visual Tasks:
o High visual sensitivity is important in sports requiring quick
reactions (e.g., tennis, fencing), while less essential in
strength-focused sports (e.g., rowing).
 o Top athletes in visual sports show faster-than-average brain
responses to visual stimuli.
 Impact of Practice:
o Extensive practice, particularly in action video games, can
improve an individual's ability to detect subtle visual
details.

Photopigments and Light Sensitivity

 Photopigments in Rods and Cones:
o Both rods and cones contain photopigments, chemicals that
release energy when exposed to light.
o Photopigments are composed of 11-cis-retinal (a derivative
of Vitamin A) bound to proteins called opsins.
 Activation by Light:
o When light strikes these photopigments, 11-cis-retinal
converts to all-trans-retinal, releasing energy that activates
second messengers within the cell.
o This energy transfer does not reflect within the eye, as the
light is absorbed in the process.

Summary Table: Foveal vs. Peripheral Vision

 Foveal Vision:
o High acuity (detail sensitivity)
o Concentrated cones
o Direct pathway to the brain (one receptor to one ganglion cell)
 Peripheral Vision:
o High light sensitivity (especially in dim light)
o Predominantly rods
o Receptors converge, leading to less detailed vision but better
detection of faint lights
Color Vision (refer to book page 163 for diagrams and detailed
understanding)
Visible Light and Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Range of Visible Light:
Visible light consists of electromagnetic radiation ranging from
wavelengths less than 400 nm to more than 700 nm.
o Shortest wavelengths are perceived as violet, and
progressively longer wavelengths appear as blue, green,
yellow, orange, and red.
 Perception of Light by Receptors:
Human eyes are tuned to detecting visible light. Ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, although beyond human vision, is detectable by some
animals such as birds, fish, and insects. These species have
specialized visual receptors sensitive to UV radiation.
Theories of Color Vision
1. Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) Theory:
 Overview:
This theory suggests that color perception arises from the
comparison of the responses across three types of cones, each
sensitive to a different range of wavelengths.
o Three Cones:
 Short-wavelength cone (blue-sensitive)
 Medium-wavelength cone (green-sensitive)
 Long-wavelength cone (red-sensitive)
 Mechanism:
Color discrimination occurs through the ratio of activity across the
three types of cones. For example, light at 550 nm activates the
medium and long-wavelength cones equally, resulting in a yellow-
green perception.
 Perception of Brightness:
More intense light increases cone activity without changing the
ratio, making the color appear brighter without altering its hue.
 Distribution of Cones:
Long and medium-wavelength cones are more abundant than short-
wavelength (blue) cones, which is why tiny red, yellow, or green
objects are easier to see than blue ones.
 Limitations:
In the retina's periphery, cones are scarce, resulting in minimal
useful color vision in this area.
2. Opponent-Process Theory:
 Overview:
This theory suggests that color perception is based on the
processing of opposite pairs of colors:
o Red-Green
o Yellow-Blue
o White-Black
 Mechanism:
Bipolar cells receive input from different cones, and the activity of
these cells determines color perception. For example, a cell excited
by blue light and inhibited by red/green results in the perception of
blue.
  Afterimages:
Prolonged exposure to one color can fatigue the cells, leading to the
perception of the opposite color in an afterimage. For example,
looking at a blue image for too long may result in seeing yellow
when the stimulus is removed.
 Limitations:
The theory struggles to explain phenomena such as certain
afterimages, showing it is not a complete explanation of color vision.
3. Retinex Theory:
 Overview:
This theory explains color constancy, the ability to recognize colors
under different lighting conditions.
 Mechanism:
The brain compares colors from different areas of the retina and
adjusts the perceived colors based on the surrounding context. This
is why colors can look the same even when the lighting changes.
 Example:
If a green-tinted light is used, a banana will still appear yellow
because the brain compensates for the color shift.
 Importance of Context:
The perception of color is influenced by the context in which it is
viewed, further proving that color is not inherent to light but
depends on processing in the brain.
Color Vision Deficiency
 Overview:
Some individuals have color vision deficiency (commonly referred to
as colorblindness), which occurs when one or more cone types are
missing or malfunctioning.
 Types of Color Vision Deficiency:
o Red-Green Deficiency:
The most common type, where individuals have trouble
distinguishing between red and green. This is caused by the
long and medium-wavelength cones having the same
photopigment instead of different ones.
o Genetic Basis:
The gene responsible for red-green color vision deficiency is
located on the X chromosome. This explains why 8% of men
have red-green colorblindness, compared to less than 1% of
women.
  Complete Colorblindness:
True colorblindness, where individuals see only black and white, is
extremely rare.
Visual Perception and Brain Processing
 Photopigments:
Both rods and cones contain photopigments, chemicals that release
energy when struck by light. These photopigments consist of 11-cis-
retinal (a derivative of vitamin A) bound to proteins called opsins,
which modify the photopigments’ sensitivity to different
wavelengths of light.
 Processing of Light:
Light energy converts 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal, triggering a
cascade of events that leads to the activation of visual signals sent
to the brain.
Conclusion
Color vision and light perception are complex processes involving multiple
mechanisms, including the comparison of responses from different cones
and the brain’s interpretation of the information. The interplay between
different types of cones and brain processing allows humans to perceive a
wide range of colors, maintain color constancy across different lighting
conditions, and adapt to visual deficiencies.
Overview of the Mammalian Visual System (Diagrams super
important and in Book module 6.2. Refer to book for this chapter)
The mammalian visual system involves several components and
processes that allow for the perception of visual information. It includes
the retina, optic nerves, lateral geniculate nucleus, and visual cortex.
1. Retina and its Cellular Structure
 Rods and Cones: The retina consists of two types of
photoreceptors:
o Rods: Sensitive to light, used for low-light vision.
o Cones: Sensitive to color and high-resolution vision, mainly
present in the fovea.
 Cellular Connections:
o Horizontal Cells: These make inhibitory contact with bipolar
cells.
o Bipolar Cells: Act as intermediaries, receiving input from rods
and cones and transmitting it to ganglion cells.
 o Amacrine Cells: These cells receive input from bipolar cells
and regulate the signals transmitted to ganglion cells.
o Ganglion Cells: Their axons form the optic nerve, which
carries visual information to the brain.
2. Optic Nerve and Optic Chiasm
 Optic Nerve: The axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve,
which leaves the retina and travels along the lower surface of the
brain.
 Optic Chiasm: A structure where the optic nerves from both eyes
meet and partially cross.
o Nasal Half: Information from the nasal side of the eye crosses
to the contralateral hemisphere (opposite side of the
brain).
o Temporal Half: Information from the temporal side remains
on the ipsilateral hemisphere (same side of the brain).
In species with eyes positioned on the sides of the head, like rabbits,
nearly all axons cross to the opposite side.
3. Pathways of Visual Information
 Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN): Most ganglion cell axons
project to the LGN, a part of the thalamus involved in visual
processing.
o Superior Colliculus: Some axons also project here, playing a
role in orienting visual stimuli.
o Hypothalamus: A small number of axons reach the
hypothalamus to influence sleep-wake cycles.
4. Processing within the Retina
 Lateral Inhibition: A process where activity in one neuron reduces
the activity in neighboring neurons. This enhances the contrast at
the edges of objects, sharpening visual images. The receptors (rods
and cones) reduce their spontaneous output when struck by light.
This reduction leads to less inhibition of bipolar cells, resulting in net
excitation.
o Receptive Fields: Each cell in the visual system has a
receptive field, an area in visual space that excites or
inhibits the cell. Receptive fields increase in size and
complexity as they move through the visual processing chain.
5. Retinotopic Organization
  The neurons from the retina maintain their relative positions as they
travel to the LGN and then to the visual cortex. This organization
ensures that neighboring points in the visual field are processed by
neighboring neurons.
6. Ganglion Cell Types in Primates
Primate ganglion cells fall into three main categories:
 Parvocellular Neurons:
o Small cell bodies and receptive fields.
o Located mostly near the fovea.
o Sensitive to visual details and color.
 Magnocellular Neurons:
o Larger cell bodies and receptive fields.
o Distributed evenly throughout the retina.
o Sensitive to motion and large patterns but not color or fine
details.
 Koniocellular Neurons:
o Small cell bodies, located throughout the retina.
o Have various functions and their axons terminate in multiple
brain regions.
7. Receptive Fields and Visual Processing
 Receptive Field Structure: The receptive field of a ganglion cell
typically has a circular center that is either excitatory or inhibitory,
surrounded by a ring with the opposite effect. This arrangement is
critical for detecting contrasts in the visual field.
o Excitatory Field: A region where light increases neuron
activity.
o Inhibitory Field: A region where light decreases neuron
activity.
 Hierarchy of Receptive Fields: As visual information progresses
through the visual system, the receptive fields of neurons become
larger and more complex, integrating inputs from multiple lower-
level neurons.
8. Lateral Inhibition and Contrast Detection
 Lateral Inhibition: Enhances contrast by reducing the activity of
neighboring neurons. When light falls on an area of the retina, the
 bipolar cells at the edges of the light spot experience the highest
net excitation, while those in the center or in darkness experience
inhibition.
9. Visual Field Organization and Optic Pathway
 The visual field refers to the entire area that can be seen without
moving the eyes. Information from the right visual field is processed
by the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. This is because
of the partial crossing of optic nerve fibers at the optic chiasm.
10. Higher Processing in the Cerebral Cortex
 After passing through the LGN, visual information reaches the
primary visual cortex where it is further processed. Receptive
fields in the cortex become more complex, and neurons begin to
respond to specific features such as lines, edges, and movement.
Summary of Ganglion Cell Types
Type Location Sensitivity Function

Parvocellul Near the Fine detail and color

Small details, color
ar fovea detection

Magnocellu Throughout Movement, large Motion detection, no color

lar retina patterns sensitivity

Koniocellul Throughout Multiple functions, details

Varied
ar retina still studied
Key Terminologies:
 Retina: A layer at the back of the eye containing light-sensitive
cells.
 Bipolar Cells: Intermediate cells in the retina transmitting signals
from photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
 Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN): A relay center in the thalamus
for visual information.
 Optic Chiasm: The point where optic nerve fibers cross to opposite
brain hemispheres.
 Receptive Field: The region in visual space that affects a neuron's
activity.
 Lateral Inhibition: The process where one neuron's activity
suppresses the activity of neighboring neurons, enhancing contrast.