Computational Methods Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Solving Nonlinear Equations
Mulat Tigabu
Addis Abeba Science and Technology University

College of Engineering
Department of Electromechanical Engineering
Addis Abeba, Ethiopia
mulateme915@gmail.com
October 28, 2024
Mulat Tigabu Computational Methods October 28, 2024 1 / 23

Introduction to Nonlinear Equations
An expression of the form
f (x) = a0 x n + a1 x n−1 ..... + an−1 x + an
where a’s are constants (a0 ̸= 0) and n is a positive integer, is called a
polynomial in x of degree n. The polynomial f (x) = 0 is called an
algebraic equation of degree n. If f(x) contains some other
functions such as trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential etc., then
f (x) = 0 is called a transcendental equation.
The value a of x which satisfies f (x) = 0 is called a root of f (x) = 0.
Geometrically, a root of f(x) is that value of x where the graph of
f (x) = y crosses the x-axis.
The process of finding the roots of an equation is known as the
solution of that equation.
If f(x) is a quadratic, cubic, or a biquadratic expression, algebraic
solutions of equations are available. But the need often arises to solve
higher degree or transcendental equations for which no direct methods
exist.
Introduction to Nonlinear Equations
One of the most common problems encountered in engineering
analysis is given a function f (x), find the values of x for which
f (x) = 0. The solution (values of x) are known as the roots of the
equation f (x) = 0, or the zeroes of the function f (x).
The roots of equations may be real or complex. In general, an
equation may have any number of (real) roots or no roots at all. For
example, sinx − x = 0 has a single root, namely, x = 0, whereas
tanx − x = 0 has an infinite number of roots (x = 0, 4.493, 7.725, . . . ).
There are two types of methods available to find the roots of algebraic
and transcendental equations of the form f (x) = 0.
Direct Methods: give the exact value of the roots in a finite number
of steps. We assume that there are no round-off errors. Direct methods
determine all the roots at the same time.
Indirect or Iterative Methods: are based on the concept of successive
approximations. The general procedure is to start with one or more
initial approximation to the root and obtain a sequence of iterates (xk )
which in the limit converges to the actual or true solution to the root.
Indirect or iterative methods determine one or two roots at a time.
The indirect or iterative methods are further divided into two
categories: Bracketing and Open Methods. The bracketing
methods require the limits between which the root lies, whereas the
open methods require the initial estimation of the solution.
Bracketing methods begin with two initial approximations which
bracket the root. Then the width of this bracket is systematically
reduced until the root is reached to desired accuracy.
Graphical method
Bisection method
Method of False position.
Open-end methods are used on formulae which require a single
starting value or two starting values which do not necessarily bracket
the root.
Secant method
Fixed Point Iteration method
Newton-Raphson method
Muller’s method
Horner’s method
Lin-Bairstow method.
NRM is the most popular method for solving a nonlinear equation, and
has a high rate of convergence to a solution.
Bisection Method (Interval Halving Method)
After a root of f (x) = 0 has been bracketed in the interval (a, b), The
bisection method can be used to close in on it. The bisection method
accomplishes this by successfully halving the interval until it becomes
sufficiently small.The bisection method is not the fastest method
available for finding roots of a function, but it is the most reliable
method.
We assume that f(x) is a function that is real-valued and that x is a
real variable. Suppose that f(x) is continuous on an interval a ≤ x ≤ b
and that f (a)f (b) < 0. In other words, if there is a solution between
x = a, and x = b, then f (a)f (b) < 0.
Figure: Solution of f(x) = 0 between x = a and x = b

Figure: Bisection Method
Algorithm for the Bisection Method

Example 1

Example 2

Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is the best-known method of finding

roots of a function f (x). The method is simple and fast. One
drawback of this method is that it uses the derivative f (x) of the
function as well as the function f (x).
Newton-Raphson method is usable only in problems where can be
readily computed.we assume that f(x) is continuous and differentiable
and the equation is known to have a solution near a given point.



Example

Secant Method
The secant method is very similar to the Newton-Raphson method.
The main disadvantage of the Newton-Raphson method is that the
method requires the determination of the derivatives of the function at
several points.
To remove this drawback of the Newton-Raphson method, the
derivatives of the function being approximated by finite differences
instead of being calculated analytically. In particular, the derivative
f(x) is approximated by the backward difference.
f (xi ) − f (xi−1 )
f (x˙ i ) = (1)
xi − xi−1
where xi and xi1 are two approximations to the root but does not
require the condition f (xi ).f (xi−1 ) < 0. Now, from the
Newton-Raphson method, we have
f (xi ) f (xi )(xi − xi−1 )
xi+1 = xi − = xi − (2)
˙
f (xi ) f (xi ) − f (xi−1 )
Figure: Secant Method

Example 1

Example 2

Fixed Point Iteration
The fixed-point iteration method is a numerical analysis technique for

finding roots with fixed-point iteration. This method frequently uses
fixed-point concepts to calculate the solution to a given equation. The
fixed point is a point in the function f as f (x) = x. The given function
is algebraically transformed into the form f (x) = x; for example,
assume a function f (x) = 0, rewrite x as of xn+1 = xn . Label the left
side as xn+1 and right side with xn , choose x1 , and plug it into the
equation. Repeat the iteration until it converges, as shown below.
The fixed-point iteration method employs the principle of a fixed point
in a repeated approach to compute the solution of the desired
equation. It is a point in the function g (x) domain. The desired
function in the fixed-point iteration technique is algebraically
converted in the form of g (x) = x.


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Chapter 2 Solving Nonlinear Equations

Addis Abeba Science and Technology University

October 28, 2024

Mulat Tigabu Computational Methods October 28, 2024 1 / 23

Figure: Solution of f(x) = 0 between x = a and x = b

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Mulat Tigabu Computational Methods October 28, 2024 8 / 23

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The Newton-Raphson method is the best-known method of finding

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Mulat Tigabu Computational Methods October 28, 2024 15 / 23

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The fixed-point iteration method is a numerical analysis technique for

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