]EDU 300 BRIEF NOTES: A GUIDE TO UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

(2021)

HOW HUMAN BEINGS GET TO UNDERSTAND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 Observation
1. Humans get to understand their environment through observation. This helps
them learn through observational Learning.

Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of

others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various
processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to
occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or
teacher.

The Use of Observation in Research. Observation involves looking at a

particular setting, and can be done in various ways, from informally watching
what is going on to structuring the looking process in some way, such as by
noting what is observed at particular times or counting the number of people,
vehicles, or behavior at a particular site.

It can be by participant (where the researcher is part of what is happening)

or non-participant observation (where the observer is aloof and is not part of
what is happening).

 Research on the advantages and disadvantages of each one of these

ways of observations.
 Experience

The end of an experience is a great time to reflect on your learning. With every
research experience you will gain new skills, learn more about the type of
environment you enjoy being in, further explore your strengths and interests. It is
meant to examine, investigate, explore or find out.
 FEATURES OF RESEARCH
Generally, scholars are agreed on the view that research as an activity and
process, has distinct features and characteristics. Orodho and Kombo (2002) state
that the following are part of the characteristics in reference:
(a) Research is systematic in nature. It is systematic in that a general system or
pattern is followed. It involves identification of the problem, review of related
literature, data collection, data analysis and interpretation of the data and
drawing conclusions from the information and facts available.
(b) It is objective. Research tries to find an objective (neutral), unbiased solutions
to the perceived problem.
(c) Research is based on observable experience or what other scholars call
empirical evidence. It demands accurate observation and description.
(d) All good and credible research employs carefully designed procedures
and vigorous analysis. This is because research is not a onetime act.
Instead, it is an activity done through an established channel or process.

 With this in sight, one may want to know what educational research is.

2. WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH?

Several scholars give different meanings and definitions to educational research.

This is the main focus of us as teachers in the teaching fraternity.
The collection and analysis of information in the world of education for a) searching
after truths b) practioners and c) policy makers
Few examples make this point clearer:
(a) C.C Crawford states that research is a systematic and refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedure in order to
obtain a more adequate solution of an educational problem.
(b) Educational research is a careful inquiry or examination in the education field
seeking to find out facts, trends, problems, effects of some factors on educational
 aspects such as teaching methods, teacher education/training, students/learner
performance, learners and the learning process and classroom or school
dynamics and principles. It is a diligent investigation to ascertain something.

3. WHY CONDUCT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

There are three main reasons why we conduct educational research though this does
not mean that the reasons are completely restricted to these three only as indicated
below the three main reasons

 To explore issues including funding in education and specific questions such as”
if there is a relationship between coaching and educational attainment of young
people”
 To shape policy – this type of educational research is conducted to collect
information that can be used to make judgements in making policies or to find out
the impact of any particular policy
 To improve practice – trying to do something better than how it is done presently
such improving learners’ behaviours, improving access to education or improving
the quality of education, or improving quality with little resources and indeed
improving teachers’ effectiveness in their teaching.
 Other reasons could be based on wanting to:
 To test theories or develop theories
 To test hypotheses
 Solve identified problem
 Improve socio-economic status of individuals, communities and societies
 Improve human conditions
  Bring about innovations e.t.c

Since any research must have an identified problem, one may ask; where do we
find problems for educational research?

4. THERE ARE SEVERAL SOURCES PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH
 Policy development and implementation issues
 Curriculum development implementation issues
 Human resource issues in schools and other institutions of learning
 Financing in schools and institutions of learning
 Teacher professionalism
 Teacher recruitment
 Disciplinary issues
 Teacher competencies
 Teaching methods
 Curriculum implementation
 Learner performance
 School-community relationships
 Teacher performance
 Schools’ local policies
 Etc

5. TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Basic, pure or academic research – research mostly conducted as in
partial fulfilment of educational institutions for an award of a qualification
such as a certificate, diploma or degree.
 Applied research – practical research designed to solve a specific human
problem such as improving seeds in agriculture, finding a cure of a given
disease in medicines or improving the speed of a given means of
transportation in civil engineering.
  Action research – research conducted by a professional in his or her
professional field and working environment to solve a problem related to
that persons work and working environment and provision of a better
service to clients.

FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANT OF RESEARCH

Research has proved to be an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards
progress in all areas of human Endeavour. Without systematic research and its
application, there would have been very little economic, social, political and
scientific development. Sidhu, (2003).

It is important to note that functions and importance of research are one and the
same. For instance;
 Research is directed towards finding a solution of a problem.
 Research help in the development of generalizations, principles and theories
that help in predicting future occurrences.
 Research adds to the existing knowledge in an orderly way.
 The knowledge which accrues from research is verifiable. Thus the process by
which research knowledge is derived is replicable.
 All significant research leads to progress in one field of life or the other e.g. in
the education sector etc.

 Research shows us the way in our difficulties. It opens new avenues and
provides better alternatives.
 Research results are evident in the form of cure for diseases considered earlier
as incurable, machines capable to replace man, green revolution, taming of
rivers, diverse methods and techniques for every profession, scientific
 understanding of human behavior, knowledge explosion and other latest
developments.
 The goal of research is always progress and good quality life.
 Research enhances the efficiency of all agencies engaged in the welfare and
uplifting of mankind.
 Research is the only credible basis for making rational decisions – (policies) by
governments, organizations and individuals.

Activity
1. Outline the four key ways how humans get knowledge about themselves and
their environment.
2. Explain the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning giving
examples in each aspect.
3. State and explain the three types of research
4. Define research and educational research
5. Explain the functions or importance of research
6. Explain why we conduct educational research
7. What challenges do you have in your school environment that may need
research?
8. How has the Ministry of General Education as well as Zambia benefitted from
research?
9. Discuss challenges of conducting research in schools by teachers.
10. From your experience, what challenges are faced by student teachers in
effectively performing their tasks during school experience?

Research approach
Quantitative Methods Quantitative methods involve the processes of collecting,
analyzing, interpreting, and writing the results of a study. Specific methods exist in both
survey and experimental research that relate to identifying a sample and population,
specifying the type of design, collecting and analyzing data, presenting the results,
making an interpretation, and writing the research in a manner consistent with a survey
or experimental study. There are specific procedures for designing survey or
experimental methods that need to go into a research proposal.
Qualitative Approach
Qualitative approach to data collection, analysis, interpretation, and report writing differ
from the traditional, quantitative approaches. Purposeful sampling, collection of open-
ended data, analysis of text or pictures, representation of information in figures and
tables, and personal interpretation of the findings all inform qualitative methods. This
chapter advances steps in designing qualitative procedures into a research proposal,
and it also includes a checklist for making sure that you cover important procedures.
Ample illustrations provide examples from a number of research designs such as
narrative studies/inquiry, phenomenology, grounded theory, biography, ethnography,
and case studies.
Mixed Methods Procedures
Mixed methods involve the collection and “mixing” or integration of both quantitative and
qualitative data in a study. Mixed methods research has increased in popularity in
recent years, and this chapter highlights important developments and provides an
introduction in the use of this design. This chapter begins by defining mixed methods
research and the core characteristics that describe it. Then the three basic designs in
mixed methods research—(a) convergent, (b) explanatory sequential, and (c)
exploratory sequential—are detailed in terms of their characteristics, data collection and
analysis features, and approaches for interpreting and validating the research. In
addition, three advanced designs are also mentioned: (a) the embedded design, (b) the
transformative design, and (c) the multiphase design.

END OF PART ONE