GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

LESSON 1: RECOMBINANT DNA

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Define recumbent DNA (rDNA);
b. Enumerate the steps in rDNA technology; and
c. Solve a mystery game genetic engineering.

CONCEPTS
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms or their components to
make useful products.
Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of genes for practical
purposes.
DNA cloning is the process of making multiple, identical copies of a
particular piece of DNA.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a molecule containing DNA from two
different sources, very often different species.

B. PROCESS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

1. Identification and isolation of Gene of interest or DNA fragment to be
cloned.
2. Insertion of isolated gene in a suitable vector.
3. Transformation is the introduction of vector into a suitable host.
4. Selection of the transformed host cell.
5. Multiplication or expression of the introduced gene in the host.
C. Role of Enzymes in
Producing rDNA

● RESTRICTION ENZYME
is a DNA-cutting enzyme
that recognizes a specific
target sequence
(restriction site) and
cuts DNA into two pieces
at or near that site.

Example of Restriction enzymes:

● DNA LIGASES join together fragments of newly synthesized DNA to

form a seamless strand.

D. VECTORS
● Cloning
vector is a DNA molecule that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell
and be replicated there.
○ Example: PBR322, PUC

● PLASMID is a small, circular DNA molecule that is replicated

separately.
 ○ Bacterial plasmids are widely used as cloning vectors.

E. PROCESS OF BUILDING A RECOMBINANT PLASMID

1. IDENTIFICATION AND ISOLATION
1.1 IDENTIFICATION
Start with a target gene and a
circular plasmid.
● The target gene has two
EcoRI restriction sites near
its ends.
● The plasmid has one EcoRI
site in it, lying just after a
promoter that drives
expression in bacteria.
● The sequence of the EcoR1
sites is: 5'-GAATTC-3' 3'-CTTAAG-5

1.2 ISOLATION
a. Use EcoR1 to
separately digest (cut)
the gene fragment and
the plasmid.
● All of the ends have
an overhang of four
nucleotides, the
sticky ends.
● EcoR1's cut pattern:
5'-G|AATTC-3' 3'-CTTAA|G-5'
2. INSERTION
● Take the gene fragment
and the linearized
(opened-up) plasmid and
combine them along with
DNA ligase.
● The sticky ends of the two
fragments stick together
by complementary base
pairing.
● However, there are still
gaps in the sugar-
phosphate backbones of the DNA double helix at the junction sites
where the gene and plasmid DNA meet.

LIGATION
● The use of ligase joins the
fragments together.

● Once they are joined by

ligase, the fragments
become a single piece of
unbroken DNA. The target
gene has now been inserted
into the plasmid, making a
recombinant plasmid.
 ● Possible outcome of a ligation between gene and plasmid cut with
EcoRI.

3. TRANSFORMATION is the transfer of DNA into bacteria.

4. SELECTION - The use of antibiotic selection and DNA analysis methods
to identify bacteria that contain the plasmid we’re looking for.

Steps of bacterial transformation and selection

1. Specially prepared bacteria

are mixed with DNA (e.g.,
from a ligation).
2. The bacteria are given a
heat shock, which causes
some of them to take up a
plasmid.
3. Plasmids used in cloning
contain an antibiotic
resistance gene. Thus, all
of the bacteria are placed
on an antibiotic plate to
select for ones that took up
a plasmid
 4. Bacteria without a plasmid die. Each
bacterium with a plasmid gives rise to a
cluster of identical, plasmid-containing
bacteria called a colony.
5. Several colonies are checked to identify one
with the right plasmid (e.g., by PCR or
restriction digest).
6. A colony containing the right plasmid is
grown in bulk and used for plasmid or protein
production.

5. MULTIPLICATION
A. Bacteria as plasmid factories
● Bacteria can be simply used as "plasmid factories," making lots of
plasmid DNA that might be used in further DNA cloning steps (e.g.,
to build more complex plasmids) or in various types of experiments.
●
B. Bacteria protein factories
● Bacteria may also be used as protein factories where they are
induced to express the gene it contains and lysed (split open) to
release the protein.

LESSON 2: RECOMBINANT DNA: The Practical

Applications of DNA-based Biotechnology

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Discuss the application of genetic engineering;
b. Design a transgenic organism;
c. Collaborate with group members in doing the activity.

CONCEPTS
DNA-based biotechnology affects our lives in many ways. The number of
applications for genetic engineering are increasing as more and more is learned
about the genomes of different organisms. A few interesting or notable
application areas are described below.

1. Applications of Genetic Engineering or DNA-Based Biotechnology

A. Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases
● Identification of genes lead to ways of diagnosing, treating, and
even preventing genetic disorders / diseases, and understanding of
“non-genetic” diseases as well.
Example: Use of PCR (polymerase chain
reaction) leads to identification of genes for
human diseases like those for sickle-cell
disease, hemophilia, and cystic fibrosis,
Huntington’s disease, and Duchenne
muscular dystrophy, even before the onset
of symptoms.
PCR can also be used to identify
symptomless carriers of potentially harmful recessive alleles. The
COVID-19 RT-PCR test is used for detection of nucleic acid from
SARS-CoV-2.
● Gene Therapy

The introduction of genes into an

afflicted individual for therapeutic
purposes. Cells that reproduce
throughout life, such as bone
marrow cells, are ideal candidates
for gene therapy.
Example:
○ Gene therapy using a retroviral
vector. A retrovirus that has
been rendered harmless is used
as a vector in this procedure.
○ CRISPRCas9 system. In this
approach the existing defective gene is edited to correct the
mutation.

B. Pharmaceutical Products
Pharmaceutical products are synthesized using methods of either
organic chemistry or biotechnology, depending on the nature of the
product.

● Synthesis of Small Molecules for Use as Drugs

Determining the sequence and structure of proteins crucial for

tumor cell survival has led to the identification of small molecules
 that combat certain cancers by blocking the function of these
proteins.
Example: imatinib (trade name Gleevec) for chronic myelogenous
leukemia patients
● Protein Production in Cell Cultures

DNA cloning and gene expression systems for producing large

quantities of a chosen protein that is present naturally in only
minute amounts. The host cells used in such expression systems
can be engineered to secrete a protein as it is made, thereby
simplifying the task of purifying it by traditional biochemical
methods.
Example: human insulin and human growth hormone (HGH), and
tissue plasminogen activator (TPA).
TPA helps dissolve blood clots and reduces the risk of subsequent
heart attacks.
● Protein Production by “Pharm” Animals

A gene (or DNA) can be introduced from an animal into the genome
of another individual (often of a different species), which is then
called a transgenic animal.
Transgenic animals can act as pharmaceutical “factories.”
Example:
A transgene for a human
blood protein such as anti-
thrombin, which prevents
blood clots, can be inserted
into the genome of a goat in
such a way that the
transgene’s product is
secreted in the animal’s milk.
The protein is then purified
from the milk (which is easier
than purification from a cell culture).
C. Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles
Forensic Evidence
✓ Forensic laboratories can determine the blood type or tissue type by
using antibodies to detect specific cell-surface proteins from body
fluids or small pieces of tissue left at the scene of the crime.
Genetic Profiles or “DNA Fingerprints”
✓ Genetic markers that vary in the population can be analyzed for a
given person to determine that individual’s unique set of genetic
markers, or genetic profile.
✓ Analysis of genetic markers such as short tandem repeats (STRs) in
DNA isolated from tissue or body fluids found at crime scenes leads
to a genetic profile or “DNA fingerprint” as termed by forensic
scientists.

Use of genetic profiles can provide definitive evidence. It is also useful in

parenthood disputes and in identifying the remains of crime victims.
D. Environmental Cleanup
✓ Genetically engineered microorganisms may become important in
both mining (especially as ore reserves are depleted) and cleaning
up highly toxic mining wastes. Biotechnologists are also trying to
engineer microorganisms that can degrade chlorinated
hydrocarbons and other harmful compounds.
✓ These microorganisms could be used in wastewater treatment
plants or by manufacturers before the compounds are ever released
into the environment.
Example: many bacteria can extract heavy metals, such as copper,
lead, and nickel, from their environments and incorporate the
metals into compounds such as copper sulfate or lead sulfate, which
are readily recoverable.
E. Agricultural Applications
✓ Agricultural scientists have already supplied us a number of crop
plants with genes for desirable traits, such as delayed ripening and
resistance to spoilage, disease, and drought, and provided
modifications that added value to food crops, giving them a longer
shelf life or improved flavor or nutritional value.
 ✓ Crops engineered with a bacterial gene making the plants resistant
to an herbicide can grow while weeds are destroyed, and genetically
engineered crops that can resist
destructive insects reduce the need for
chemical insecticides.
✓ Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
are transgenic organisms that have
acquired by artificial means one or more
genes from another species or even from
another variety of the same species are
now already used as food.
Example:
Some salmon have been genetically
modified by addition of a more active
salmon growth hormone gene.
Bt-corn is a common GMO that
combines a gene from the Bt bacteria
with corn DNA to produce a crop that
is insect-resistant. The bacteria gene
used contains a recipe for a protein
that is toxic when consumed by
insects, but safe when consumed by humans.
2. Ethics
The main reason genetically modified organisms are not more widely
used is due to ethical concerns. Nearly 50 countries around the world,
including Australia, Japan and all of the countries in the European Union,
have enacted significant restrictions or full bans on the production and
sale of genetically modified organism food products, and 64 countries have
GMO labeling requirements. Some issues to consider when deciding
whether to create and/or use GMOs include:
o Safety: Are GMO foods safe for human consumption? Is GMO feed
healthy for animals?

Many opponents of GMO foods say not enough independent testing

is done before the food is approved for sale to consumers. In general,
research has shown that GMO foods are safe for humans. Another
safety consideration is the health of farmers and their families,
animals and communities who are put at risk with exposure to
chemicals used in tandem with GMO seeds.
 o Environmental Impact: Consider that genetic engineers have the
ability to create trees that grow faster than their unmodified
counterparts. This seems like a great deal for the lumber industry,
but might some unintended consequences result? Being outdoors
and grown in large quantities, the modified trees may cross-pollinate
with unmodified trees to form hybrids outside of designated growing
areas. This in return could create trees that could disrupt the
ecosystem. For example, they could overpopulate the area or grow
so large that they smother other plant life. This same scenario has
unintended and undesirable consequences when the pollen from
GMO crops drifts into non-GMO fields.

o Humans: Should humans be genetically engineered? Doing so could

have medical applications that reduce or prevent genetic disorders
such as Down's syndrome. However, the bigger question is where
should engineering humans stop? Should parents be allowed to
decide their children's eye colors, heights or even genders before
birth?

LESSON 3: Relevance, Mechanisms, Evidence/Bases,

and Theories of Evolution

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Describe general features of the Earth before life existed;
b. Make a flowchart of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major
groups of organisms present during these time periods;
c. Enumerate the Theories.

CONCEPTS
A. Estimated time of Formation
1. Formation of the Universe 20 B years ago.
2. Formation of Earth 4.5 B years ago
3. Life Originated 4 B years ago
B. Conditions on Earth at the Time of Origin of Life
1. Temperature was very high
 2. Lighter elements in the form of gases (CH4, NH3, H2, He, H2O vapor)
3. Heavy elements; Fe and Ni formed the core of the Earth
4. Ultraviolet rays were the source of energy, favoring photochemical
reaction.
C. Theories of the Origin of Life
1. Special Creation (Religious)
2. Abiogenesis
a) proposed by Von Helmont
b) Life originated from nonliving things
3. Biogenesis
a) proposed by Francesco Redi
b) Life originates from preexisting living forms.
c) Supported by the experiments of
(1) Spallanzani
(2) Pasteur
4. Panspermia Theory or Extraterrestrial Theory
a) Life originated in outer space and came to Earth in the form of
spores.
5. Chemogenetic Theory or the Modern Theory on the Origin of
Life
a) Chemogeni
(1) Chemical Evolution
(2) by Oparane and Heldane
b) Biogeny
(1) Biomolecule formation/ Complex biomolecule formation
(2) Central dogma of Biology (DNA → RNA → Protein)
c) Cogenogeny
(1) First life formation and its evolution
D. GEOLOGIC TIME
E. Geologic Record
 LESSON 4: THE EVOLUTION OF POPULATION

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Define evolution;
b. Demonstrate the importance of genetic variation;
c. Explain the mechanisms that produce a change in populations from
generation to generation.

CONCEPTS
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS
EVOLUTION is the change in the proportions of different genotypes in a
population from one generation to the next.
The descent of modern organisms with modification from preexisting life-
forms.

POPULATION is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the

same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring.

GENE POOL consists of all copies of every type of allele at every locus in
all members of the population.

B. GENETIC VARIATION MAKES EVOLUTION POSSIBLE

● Individuals within all species vary in their phenotypic traits.
○ Some observable phenotypic variation in humans;
a. Appearance: facial features, height, and voice.
b. blood type (A, B, AB, O) and other molecular traits
● Phenotypic variations often reflect genetic variation.
● Genetic variation is the differences among individuals in the
composition of their genes or other DNA sequences.

WHAT CAUSES GENETIC VARIATION?

1. Formation of New Alleles
● The mutation is the change in the nucleotide sequence of an
organism’s DNA.
 ● It starts at the DNA level but
shows its effect at the protein
level.
○ DNA level: Point
mutation and a
frameshift mutation
○ Protein level: Missense
mutation and
Nonsense mutation
○ Example: sickle-cell disease

2. Altering Gene Number or Position

3. Rapid Reproduction
● The mutation rate in plants and animals is averaging about one
mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation.
● In prokaryotes, the mutation rate is lower, but since they have
many more generations per unit of time, then mutations can
quickly generate genetic variation in their populations.

4. Sexual Reproduction (Recombination)

● Three mechanisms contribute to shuffling alleles:
a. crossing over,
b. the independent assortment of chromosomes, and
c. fertilization
● The combined effects of these three mechanisms ensure that
sexual reproduction rearranges existing alleles into fresh
combinations each generation, providing much of the genetic
variation that makes evolution possible.
 The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is used to determine if a population is
evolving or not. To know whether factors are causing evolution at a
particular locus we have to determine what the genetic makeup of a
population would be if it were not evolving at that locus.
● We can then compare that scenario with the data we actually
observed for the population. If there are no differences, we can
conclude that the population is not evolving. If there are
differences, this suggests that the population may be evolving.

C. Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, and Gene Flow Can Alter Allele
Frequencies in a Population

1. Natural Selection
● Proponents: Charles Darwin
● Individuals whose inherited traits are most advantageous tend to
survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals,
because of those traits.
● Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes
adaptive evolution.
2. Artificial Selection
● Artificial selection is also called "selective breeding”.
● Humans select for desirable traits in agricultural products or
animals, rather than leaving the species to evolve and change
gradually without human interference.

3. Genetic Drift
● A mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population
change over generations due to chance (sampling error).
● It occurs in all populations of non-infinite size, but its effects are
strongest in small populations.
● It may result in the loss of some alleles (including beneficial ones)
and the fixation, or rise to 100% frequency of alleles (reduction in
genetic variation)
● Two examples:
a. The Founder Effect
● mechanism: colonization
● When a few individuals become isolated from a larger
population, this smaller group may establish a new
population whose gene pool differs from the source
population.
b. The Bottleneck Effect
● mechanism: catastrophe
● This may drastically reduce the size of a population, resulting
in the bottleneck effect.
● By chance alone, certain alleles may be overrepresented
among the survivors, others may be underrepresented, and
some may be
absent
altogether.
4. Gene Flow
● The transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the
movement of fertile individuals or their gametes.
● Because alleles are transferred between populations, gene flow
tends to reduce the genetic differences between populations.
● If it is extensive enough, gene flow can result in two populations
combining into a single population with a common gene pool.
 LESSON 5: Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity:
Patterns of Descent with Modification

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. define species according to the biological species concept;
b. distinguish the various types of reproductive isolating that can be lead to
speciation;
c. discuss the different modes of speciation; and
d. explain how evolution produces the tremendous amount of diversity
among organisms.

CONCEPTS
Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively
isolated from other such groups – Ernst Mayer.
Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological barriers that impede two
species from producing viable, fertile offspring.

Different reproductive isolating mechanisms:

A. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms prevent fertilization and zygote
formation
a. Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation- potential mates occupy
different areas or habitat thus, they never come in contact.
b. Temporal or seasonal isolation- different groups may not be
reproductively mature at the same season, or month or year.
c. Behavioral isolation- patterns of courtship are different
d. Mechanical isolation- differences in reproductive organs prevent
successful interbreeding.
e. Gametic isolation – incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent
fertilization.
B. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but nonviable or
weak or sterile hybrids are formed.
a. Hybrid in viability – fertilized egg fails to develop past the embryonic
stages
b. Hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally
or there is abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis
c. Hybrid breakdown- F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2
contains many weak or sterile individuals.
 Speciation is the process by which one species splits into two or more
species. Speciation explains the features shared between organisms due
to inheritance from their recent common ancestor.
Modes of Speciation
A. Allopatric speciation- occurs when some members of a population
become geographically separated from the other members thereby
preventing gene flow. Examples of geographic barriers are bodies of
water and mountain ranges.
B.Sympatric speciation- occurs when members of a population that
initially occupy the same habitat within the same range diverge into two
or more different species. It involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly
lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals.
C. Parapatric speciation- occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate
species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow occurs but with great distance
is reduced. There is also abrupt change in the environment over a
geographic border and strong disruptive selection must also happen.

Adaptive radiation is the process by which a single species or a small

group of species evolves into several different forms that live in different
ways. For example, in the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches, more
than a dozen species evolved from a single species.

LESSON 6: Development of Evolutionary Thought

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. enumerate the scientists and cite their respective contributions in the
development of evolutionary thought;
b. describe Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s hypothesis on evolutionary change;
c. discuss Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection; and
d. explain the Modern Synthesis as the unified theory of evolution

CONCEPTS
Early scientist who contributed in shaping and developing evolutionary
thought.
 A. Aristotle- (384-322 B.C.) Species are fixed (unchanging) but recognized
similarities
B. Carolus Linnaeus – order in the diversity of life; hierarchy of taxonomic
categories
C. Thomas Malthus – ‘Essay on the Principle of Population’
D. Georges Cuvier – fossils, paleontology and the theory of Catastrophism
E. James Hutton – theory of Gradualism
F. Charles Lyell – principles of geology

Ideas that shaped Darwin’s thinking:

Jean Baptiste Lamarck - (1744-1829) One of first
scientists to recognize that living things changed over
time and that all species were descended from other
species.
➢ 1809- Published his ideas about “Inheritance of
Acquired Characteristics” the year Darwin was
born.
As basis for his observations, three assumptions
developed:
1. A desire to change- the theory of need
2. The theory of use and disuse
3. The theory of passing on acquired traits
The male fiddler crab uses its front claw to attract
mates and ward off predators.
“USE or DISUSE” = Use it or lose it

Through repeated use, the front claw becomes

larger

The fiddler passes on this acquired characteristic to

its offspring

In 1831, 22-year old Charles Darwin left England as naturalist aboard

the HMS Beagle for 5 year voyage around the world.
Mission: Chart the South American coastline

➢ Darwin noticed plants and animals were

different from those he knew in Europe. He
wrote thousands of pages of observations
and collected vast number of specimens.
➢ Darwin spent a month observing life on the
Galapagos Islands. Each island has
 different rainfall and vegetation and its own unique assortment of
plant and animal species.
➢ Although animals on Galapagos resemble species on the South
American mainland, many species were found nowhere else in the
world (ENDEMIC).

DARWIN’S FINCHES
Darwin collected 14 species of finches and hypothesized that the
Galapagos had be colonized by organisms from the mainland that had then
diversified on the various.
➢ Different beaks associated with eating different food for survival and
reproduction of beneficial adaptations to foods available on island.

After Darwin returned to England in 1836, he spent years examining

specimens he brought back from voyage and filling notebooks with his
ideas. He did not rush to publish his ideas because they disagreed with
the fundamental scientific views of hisday. In 1844 he wrote an essay
describing his ideas and asked his wife to publish it if he died.
➢ In 1858 Alfred Russel Wallace,
another Naturalist working in the West
Indies, wrote an essay describing his
work that summarized the same ideas
Darwin had been thinking about for 25
years.
➢ Suddenly Darwin had incentive to
publish the results of his work in 1859,
“On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection” presented evidence
and proposed a mechanism for evolution that he called NATURAL
SELECTION- because nature “selects” the survivors.
➢ Darwin’s theory can be summarized in 5 main points:
 1. ADAPTATION- Any inherited characteristic that increases an
organism’s chance of survival and reproduction.
2. OVERPRODUCTION of OFFSPRING- Capacity to over-reproduce
seems characteristic of all species.
3. STRUGGLE FOR EXISTANCE- means that members of each
species must compete for food, space, and other resources.
4. GENETIC VARIATION- is found naturally in all populations.
5. FITNESS- Ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its
specific environment.

SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

Organisms which are better adapted to their environment tend to
produce more offspring than organisms without those traits. Over time,
Natural Selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a
population. These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment.

DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION

It suggests that each species has descended with changes from other
species over time. This idea pertains that all living species are related to
each other and that all species, living and extinct, share a common
ancestor.

The Rise of Evolutionary Thought

- The figure shows Models of the Diversity of Life Have Changed
through Time. Visual models are helpful for comparing ideas. The models
shown here include only five living species, for simplicity. Each model is
explained in the text.
 LESSON 7: Evidences of Evolution

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. describe the evidences to support evolution; and
b. explain some modern evidences of evolution.

CONCEPTS
When Charles Darwin first proposed the idea that all new species descend
from an ancestor, he performed an exhaustive amount of research to provide as
much evidence as possible. The major pieces of evidence for this theory can be
broken down into the fossil record, embryology, comparative anatomy, and
molecular biology.

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Evidence from Fossils
Fossils are remains of ancient organisms trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen in ice
or embedded in Amber. The activities and behaviour of ancient life forms also
left behind fossil traces (such as footprints, dungs, gastric stones, nests and
burrows) which scientists can study.

The records found in the rocks show a gradual evolutionary descent from simpler
to more complex life forms. Paleontologists use the fossils found in rocks to track
the evolutionary history of many organisms.

Example:
The ancestors of modern
horses were short browsers
with diet of broad-leaved
plants, shrubs and trees.
They had more toes (four in
front, three at the back)
which prevented them from
sinking in the soft, marshy
ground. As the climate
changed to drier conditions,
foliage plants were replaced
by grass fields. Those with
the characteristics suited for
this (tooth structure fit for
eating hard, dry grass) survived better. The forced grazers also became runners
(with longer leg bones and lesser toes) to be able run more efficiently in the hard
ground and to escape from predators.

• Evidence from Structures (Comparative Anatomy)

Structures in different organisms can be compared to infer common lineage.
➢ Homologous Structures are structures with the same set of bones that
presumably evolved from a common ancestor. They appear different and
may have varied functions. Shown are images of the skeletal structure of
the front limbs of 6 animals: turtle, dolphin, human, horse, bird (chicken),
and bat. Each animal has a similar set of bones shown by shading but
different in selection pressures.

➢ Analogous Structures are structures that perform the same function but
have very different embryological development or set of structures like
bones.
The image shows
organisms that are
not necessarily
closely related and
have very different
anatomies but live
in similar
environments and
have similar
adaptations.
 ➢ Vestigial Structures are structures or attributes that have lost most of its
ancestral function in more recent species. Below are the examples of
vestigial structures (human vermiform appendix and whale skeleton).

Vestigial appendix: In humans the vermiform appendix is a vestigial structure;

it has lost much of its ancestral function.
Whale Skeleton: The pelvic bones in whales are also a good example of vestigial
evolution (whales evolved from four-legged land mammals and secondarily lost
their hind legs).

• Evidence From Embryology

Embryology is the study of the development of an organism from an embryo to
its adult form.

Common structures are

shared in the embryo stage
and disappear by the time
the embryo reaches the
juvenile or adult form.
Comparative embryology
reveals homologies which
form during development
but may later disappear. All
vertebrate embryos develop
tails, though adult humans
retain only the coccyx. All vertebrate embryos show gill slits, though these
develop into gill openings only in fish and larval amphibians. In humans, gills
slits form the lower jaw and Eustachian tube. Many scientists consider
developmental homologies evidence for ancestry, although some embryologists
believe that these particular drawings exaggerate the similarities.
 • Evidence from Molecular Biology
Many organisms have similar molecules of life (RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest
descent from a common ancestor with modifications. The near universality of the
genetic code reflects an evidence of common ancestry and relatedness and can
be inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences between and among
organisms.
Cytochrome c is a protein found in mitochondria. It is used in the study of
evolutionary relationships because most animals have this protein. Cytochrome
c is made of 104 amino acids joined together.

• Evidence from Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of geographical distribution of fossils and living
organisms. Organisms usually arise in areas where similar forms already exist.
Similar organisms may also be found in different locations which could mean
that the two places were previously connected.

Mara- native to South America (left)

Rabbit- native to North America
(right)
The mara exists in a niche similar to
that of the English rabbit. However,
Darwin realized that the mara was
more similar to other South
American species than it was to
rabbit because it shared a closer
ancestor with South American
animals