Environmental Management

UNIT III - WATER MANAGEMENT

Syllabus - Water cycle – global water distribution – fresh water supply system – water usage in different ways – water
quality and availability - water pollution and its sources – impact of water pollution – managing pollution of fresh water
– managing water related diseases.

INTRODUCTION
Water management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use
of water resources. Water is a basic necessity. No living creature can live without water. There’s a
scarcity of water. To avoid this scarcity, water is saved and managed efficiently.

The Water cycle

Figure 3.1 The main processes in the water cycle. The arrows represent the processes

Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
Rain is the most common type.
Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground surface, eventually finding its way into
streams and rivers.
Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s surface due to being obstructed by trees
and plants.
Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and
pore paces.
Through-flow: downslope movement of water through the soil, roughly parallel to the ground
surface.
Ground water flow:slow horizontal movement of water through rock.
Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other water bodies is changed from water droplets to
water vapour (invisible gas) in the atmosphere due to heat.
Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water from plant leaves.
Condensation: water vapour converted back into liquid (water droplets) or solid (particles of ice)
due to a decrease in temperature with increasing height by air currents, e.g. clouds.

CITY Page 1
 Environmental Management

Global water distribution

The Earth's surface is 70% ocean. Out of all the not suitable for drinking. So, there are many
water on Earth, 97% is salt water in the oceans. challenges to providing people with enough
This only leaves 3% as fresh water. Most of this clean, safe water.
fresh water is inaccessible because it is locked
up in ice caps and glaciers (79%) or as ground
water (water stored in rocks, 20%).

That means that only 1% of fresh water is

accessible in lakes, rivers and the atmosphere.
Some of this accessible water is found in the soil
and in living organisms. Plants take up the soil
moisture, which then becomes available to
animals eating the plants. In some desert areas
animals never drink but rely on plants for their
water supply.

Half of the available fresh water is found in just

six countries: Brazil, Russia, Canada, Indonesia, Figure 3.2 The distribution of the Earth's water.
China and Colombia. In addition, much of it is

Water supply
Water for use by people can be obtained from any of the following sources:
 underground storage
 aquifers (water-holding rock)
 wells
 Rivers
 Reservoirs
 Desalination plants

Fresh water is often very visible on the Earth's surface as lakes, rivers and swamps. This is called
surface water. Rivers, and sometimes lakes, are major sources for human use.

Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the ground.

Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rock;
Folded layers of rock so water accumulates the most in the down fold
Permeable rocks outcropping on the surface receive new supplies of rainwater.
Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone (porous) rocks below the water table.
Mechanical pumps, or human labour are used to raise water to the surface.

Rivers: A large, natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river.
They provide surface transfers of water to low-land areas where farms, villages, towns and cities
are concentrated.

CITY Page 2
 Environmental Management

supply, usually created behind a dam or by

Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of water supply,
the side of a river (bank-side
side reservoir). A reservoir may be created behind a dam or by the side of
side reservoir). In both of these cases the reservoir forms a large store of water.
the river (a bank-side
Usually, this water is not safe but can be treated to make it potable.
Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water is stored e.g. Water tower and Cistern.

Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water stored in them. A well can be dug by hand
ored into rock with machinery. If the water in the aquifer is not under pressure, it has to be
or bored
raised to the top of the well.

Desalination plants

The first method of desalination is distillation

in which the water is boiled and released as
vapour, leaving the salt behind. The vapour is
condensed as liquid water and can then be used.
Desalination by distillation is about 10
10–10%
efficient
The process produces large quantities of waste,
salt water (brine), which needs to be disposed
dispose
of. This can be a source of pollution.
Energy is needed for the distillation, and the
provision of this energy may itself cause
pollution Desalination plants using this method
are mainly found in energy-rich
rich countries, such
as those of the Middle East.

Figure 3.3 Distillation Process

The second desalination process is called

reverse osmosis,, in which salt water is pumped
at high pressure through very fine membranes
(Figure). Desalination by reverse osmosis is
about 30– 30% efficient.
As with distillation, brine is a byproduct of
reverse osmosis and requires disposal. This
process also requires energy, but less than
distillation. Most new desalination plants use
the technique of reverse osmosis.

Figure 3.4 Reverse Osmosis

CITY Page 3
 Environmental Management

Water usage /Demand

Domestic
In the home water is, of course, used for drinking and cooking, but this only accounts for about 3%
Of domestic use. In more economically developed countries (medcs) about 50% of domestic water
Is used for washing and flushing the toilet and a further 20% for washing clothes. Much less
Domestic water is used for washing, flushing the toilet and laundry in less economically developed
Countries (ledcs), although the actual proportions vary. In some situations quite a lot of water is
Used for watering the garden and a substantial amount is often lost in leaks. The proportions of
These uses and losses varies. Water for domestic use needs to be especially safe.

Industrial
Water is used in a vast range of industrial processes. One of the largest uses is for cooling in the
Production of electricity. Another use of water relies on the fact that a very wide range of
Substances is soluble in it. Water is often described as the universal solvent.

Agricultural
By far the greatest use of water in agriculture is for irrigation.The use of water for Irrigation often
forms the largest proportion of water use for a whole country. Plants need water to Transport
minerals and food, to keep their cells rigid and to combine with carbon dioxide to make Food in
photosynthesis . This means that, for successful growth of crops, a reliable Supply of water will be
needed. In addition, domestic animals require a reliable source of water.

WATER QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY

Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh water supplies:

Some are large countries with plenty of land for rain to fall on e.g. Russia, Canada, China, and some
with the world’s greatest rivers flowing through them e.g. Amazon, Yangtze, Mississippi.
However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g. Australia, Argentina, Sudan, due to
containing substantial areas of desert within its borders.

• Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh water supplies:

Dominated by desert countries.
Except Singapore and Mauritius since they receive high precipitation totals, but are tiny island
states that have only small areas for rain to fall on.

• Water conflict: conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access to water resources.

• Physical water scarcity: not enough water to meet both human demands and those of ecosystems
to function effectively.
Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity.
It also occurs where water seems abundant, but resources are over-committed.

• Economic water scarcity: caused by a lack of investment in water infrastructure or insufficient

human capacity to satisfy the demand of water in areas where the population cannot afford to use
an adequate source of water.

CITY Page 4
 Environmental Management

• Unlike Rural areas, Urban areas have higher access to safe drinking water because:
Cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices;
On average, people’s incomes are higher;
Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to make improvements;
Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;
Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close together.

Water quality
Water quality is important to reduce the risk of disease. Water that is used by people for drinking
must be treated to kill bacteria and parasites and to remove any harmful contaminants such as
heavy metals. In developed countries large water treatment plants are built and waste water
treatment plants process waste water and sewage so that water supplies do not become
contaminated.
In developing countries sewage treatment is not available in many communities and drinking water
supplies may become contaminated with sewage containing bacteria and parasites. Children are at
great risk of getting diseases, which may kill them.

Multipurpose dam projects

Project, but the benefits are usually great. In many cases dams are constructed with a number of
aims in mind. A dam may help with:
 The generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants
 Flood control
 Irrigation
 Tourism and leisure
 The provision of water
 Creation of habitat for wetland species
 Access by boat to otherwise inaccessible areas.

The disadvantages of dam projects include:

 Relocating people
 Flooding land
 Disrupting the life cycles of fish and other
aquatic organisms
 Altering the water supply for people
downstream of the dam
 Reducing the enrichment of soil downstream
of the dam (which natural flooding of the
original
 River course would have contributed to)
 The dam may become redundant as sediment
in the river sinks to the bottom of the
.
reservoir Figure:3.5 The structure of a dam.
(siltation).

CITY Page 5
 Environmental Management

The following factors should be considered when siting a dam:

 Choice of site steep-sided valley with narrow area suitable for dam
 Impermeable and solid rock for dam foundations in geologically stable area
 Enough rainfall in catchment area or meltwater from glacier
 Accessibility for construction and maintenance
Sustainability - area with little erosion to cause sedimentation in the reservoir, maintain tree cover
on valley sides to reduce sedimentation and increase precipitation
Upstream impacts - reduce these to acceptable environmental disturbance
Downstream impacts - reduce these to acceptable environmental disturbance
environmental damage - cost of repair and restoration
Economic benefits - jobs during construction, improved standard of living especially if electricity
available, better access roads
Social damage-cost of compensation
Cost compared with benefit - cost-benefit analysis

Water pollution and its sources

Using water very often results in it then becoming unusable as a result of pollution. Not
surprisingly, therefore The main causes of water pollution are:
 Domestic waste from urban and rural settlements
 Industrial processes
 Agricultural pesticides and fertilisers
 Sewage and waste water.

Domestic waste
Sewage is waste matter carried away from houses and other buildings in both cities and small
villages. Detergents, metals and other manufactured products contain traces of toxic chemicals.
It is taken away in drains called sewers and is then dumped or converted into a form that is less
harmful.

Sewage and waste water.

waste matter that is rich in organic matter, thus microbial organisms can thrive in it. It is usually
disposed in water bodies, and thus has to be treated.

Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps and
chemicals. In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines
and dishwashers. Businesses and industries also contribute their share of used water that must be
cleaned.

Industrial processes
Industry produces and uses a wide range of chemicals that can be harmful to both humans and the
environment. Because of its excellent solvent properties, many of these chemicals end up in water
bodies and cause pollution. Outfalls from industry often discharge into rivers and lakes.

Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form acid
rain. The bodies of living things are at least 75% water and so these water-soluble pollutants can
easily enter organisms and cause problems.

CITY Page 6
 Environmental Management

Agriculture
Modern agriculture makes use of many chemicals called agrochemicals. These include pesticides,
herbicides and fertilisers. All of these are water-soluble and can cause pollution in water bodies,
with a variety of consequences for humans and the environment.

Figure:3.6 The sources of excess organic matter and minerals in water.

Impact of water pollution

Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment:
developing countries have difficulty treating water and sewage compared to developed countries
as people aren’t educated and can’t put pressure on the government..

Risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and

cholera: water-borne diseases are caused by drinking contaminated water.

Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers: reduces oxygen
in lakes and rivers, causing reduction in photosynthesis and death of fish and insect larvae.

Biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains:

increases concentration of a toxic substance (e.g. mercury and pesticides) in the tissues of organisms
at successively higher levels in a food chain, causing illness.
Bioaccumulation: accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular organism.

Formation of acid rain:

Burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (nox)
that are blown long distances and react with water in the atmosphere.
SO2 dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, and nox dissolves to form nitric acid that fall in the
form of rain.
pH: measured by acidity or alkalinity. Ranges from very acidic, 1, to very alkaline, 14. 7 is neutral

CITY Page 7
 Environmental Management

The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes:

 Lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life;
 Fish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are malformed;
 Leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and mercury from the soil into the water;
 Aluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation;
 Minerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake or
river,
 reducing algae growth and leaving less food for fish and other animals.

Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication:

 Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a water body causes algae bloom
(rapid growth of algae).
 Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that acts as food for bacteria as they
decompose the dead algae.
 Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen conten in the water and causing the death of
organisms.

MANAGING POLLUTION OF FRESH WATER

Pollution control and legislation
Some countries have laws for the control of water pollution. These laws include:
 Restrictions on the release of toxic substances into water
 testing of potable water to check it is safe to drink
 testing of river water to check for pollutants
 Testing of water at bathing beaches for harmful bacteria
 Making polluters pay for any damage from pollutants
 Licences for release of substances into water courses.
Other methods of control include environmental impact assessments for new developments such as
factories and mines to reduce the impact of any possible pollutants into watercourses..
Improve sanitation
An improved sanitation facility is defined as one that separates human excreta from contact with
humans. This can be achieved using a variety of toilets and latrines.
Waste can be removed by:
 Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage,that collects human faeces, urine and
waste water.
 Connection to a septic system, which consists of an underground, sealed settling tank.
 Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that prevents smells.
 Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by hand for flushing.
 Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in a hole in the ground that is sometimes
ventilated to take away smells.
 Composting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste, straw, grass, sawdust, and ash are
added to the human waste to produce compost

Treatment and distribution of water: Treatment of water for drinking depends on how dirty it is.
Water from aquifers may be very clean as it is filtered by the rocks it comes from. River water may
be very dirty as point and diffuse sources of pollution may have entered it. Treatment of river water
is shown in the diagram.

CITY Page 8
 Environmental Management

Water treatment: Water is made potable by undergoing Coagulation treatment, being filtered and
disinfected.
Coagulation: Particles in the water are stuck together and settle to the bottom of the container.
Water is then filtered through sand.
Chlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is added as a disinfectant.

Figure:3.7 The stages in the treatment of water to produce potable water.

Sewage treatment and improved sanitation:

Treatment of waste water is important for health and to reduce the pollutants entering water
courses. Waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid can be prevented if sanitation is
improved and clean water is provided to communities. Treatment of waste water and sewage is
shown in the diagram .
In some developing countries where water is in short supply simple compost toilets can improve
sanitation facilities and reduce the risk of infection from waterborne diseases.

Treatment of sewage:
aims to reduce the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the sewage.
Sewage outfall: waste water from homes and industries is taken to a sewage treatment plant in
sewers.
Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and is taken to the next stage.
Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it.
This encourages the growth of bacteria and other microbes that break down organic matter, which
cause BOD.
Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water enters, where bacteria settle to the bottom,
forming more sludge.
This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank as effluent, usually discharged into a river.

Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created that encourage the growth of bacteria which
can break down the sludge, releasing methane, that can be burnt.
Treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic fertiliser on farmland.

CITY Page 9
 Environmental Management

Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or its chlorination which produces even
cleaner effluent that protects the habitat in which it is released
.

Figure:3.8 The stages in a sewage treatment plant.

WATER-RELATED DISEASES/ MANAGING OF WATER RELATED DISEASE

Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water and spreads the disease by biting its victims.
Example: malaria.
Malaria: a life-threatening disease which is transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles
mosquito (vector) that carries the Plasmodium parasite. Once bitten, the parasite reaches your
bloodstream.
Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhea, dehydration and feeling weak.

Strategies to control malaria:

 Sleeping under mosquito nets and using antimalarial drugs in and around homes;
 Draining marshes and stagnant pools to eliminate breeding grounds;
 Put kerosene over the tops of pools to choke the larvae;
 Spray antimalarial drugs on stagnant areas of water to kill the larvae;
 Use vaccinations;
 Educate people on the risks of malaria by setting up campaigns and programmes.

Water-born disease:spread by consuming contaminated water due to poor sanitation and untreated
sewage, or by washing food, pots and pans, or hands and face in dirty water.
Examples: cholera and typhoid.
Two major diseases caused by water contaminated with human faeces are cholera and typhoid. The
main features of these two diseases are shown in Table

CITY Page 10
 Environmental Management

Cholera Typhoid
Infective bacterium Vibrio cholerae Salmonella typhi or Salmonella
(pathogen) paratyphi, which causes a less
severe illness
Time before onset of A few hours up to 5 days 6–6 days
symptoms after
infection
Symptoms Diarrhoea and vomiting Fever, abdominal pain with a skin
rash
Diarrhoea and vomiting are not
uncommon
Consequence Can be mild but can lead to 3–3% of infected people remain as
dehydration and death carriers with no symptoms
If untreated, fatal complications can
arise
Treatment Rehydration Antibiotics
A vaccine exists A vaccine exists
Occurrence in 2015 172 454 cases were notified to Around 21 million a year with
WHO about
from 42 countries, including 1304 161 000 deaths worldwide
deaths

Cholera: intestinal infection that causes severe diarrhea that may lead to dehydration and
eventually death.
Causes: poor sanitation, contamination of water and food, disruption of piped water supplies after
a natural disaster occurrence.
Strategies to control cholera:
 Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept separate;
 Sewage removed directly into a treatment works;
 Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes;
 Do not use contaminated water to wash food;
 Hands should be washed after contact with any faecal material;
 Boiling water and chlorination.

Textbook/References

o Muriel Fretwell & Dr Liz Whiteley "Environmental management for Cambridge IGCSE& 0
Level " revision Guide, Oxford Publications,2017- Join now:https://t.me/igcse_files
o Gary Skinner, Ken Crafer, Melissa Turner, Ann Skinner and John Stacey Cambridge IGCSE®
and O Level Environmental Management Coursebook
o CIE IGCSE ENV. MGMT. 0680 - (ZNOTES // IGCSE SERIES)
(visit www.znotes.org)

CITY Page 11