1.

Livelihood and food security

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required for a means of living.
A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and
maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not
undermining the natural resource base.
Food security is when all people have regular access of nutritious food to lead health and
active lives.
Individuals with no income have not enough access to food security thus they need to get
a safety net that improves their food security and make their livelihood better. That means
attaining improved food security is action call for improved livelihoods.

2. livwlihood Recovery
After the hurricane hit in indea, the people needed significant support thus by providing
aids like cash transfers can help them to make business transactions and modes of financing
as source of investment.
This will restart business activities and will make market strength recovery possible in
indea.

3.Relationship between livelihood and food security

Individuals with no income have not enough access to food security thus they need to get
a safety net that improves their food security and make their livelihood better. That means
attaining improved food security is action call for improved livelihoods.

4. Agriculture, climate and food security

Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry for
food and non-food products.

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.

Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. For
example, projected increases in temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, changes in
extreme weather events, and reductions in water availability may all result in reduced
agricultural productivity.

5. Climate change and food security in Ethiopia

Food insecurity in Ethiopia derives directly from dependence on undiversified livelihoods based
on low-input, low-output rain fed agriculture. Ethiopian farmers do not produce enough food
even in good rainfall years to meet consumption requirements. Given the fragile natural
resource base and climatic uncertainty, current policy emphases on agricultural intensification
are misguided, while institutional constraints such as inflexible land tenure and ethnic
federalism perpetuate this unviable livelihood system. Inappropriate food aid interventions by
donors add another layer of dependence, at both household and national levels.

6. 7 . Livelihood strategies and food insecurity income

diversification
Rural livelihood strategies include agricultural intensification (increasing farm size) and
intensification (raising farm yields), income diversification (off-farm economic activities), and
migration. This section examines three dominant livelihood activities in Ethiopia: agriculture,
income diversification, and pastoralist.

Livelihood intensification, where the value of output per hectare of land or animal is increased
by the application of more labor, capital or technology; Livelihood intensification, where more
land or animals are brought in to production at the same levels of labor, capital or technology;
Livelihood diversification, where households diversify their economic activities away from
reliance on the primary enterprise (livestock or cropping), typically seeking a wider range of
onand off-farm sources of income; and Migration, where people move away from their initial
source of livelihood, and seek a living in another livelihood system.

8. Sustainable livelihoods framework has seven guiding

principles
The sustainable livelihoods framework is a way to improve understanding of the livelihoods of
poor people.

A livelihood framework is a tool to improve our understanding of livelihoods, particularly the

livelihoods of the poor.

The guiding principles are:

• Be people-centered. Sustainable livelihoods framework/approach (SLA) begins by analyzing

people's livelihoods and how they change over time. The people themselves actively participate
throughout the project cycle.

• Be holistic. SLA acknowledges that people adopt many strategies to secure their livelihoods
and that many actors are involved; for example the private sector, ministries, community-based
organizations and international organizations.

• Be dynamic. SLA seeks to understand the dynamic nature of livelihoods and what influences
them.

• Build on strengths. SLA builds on people's perceived(gartay) strengths and opportunities

rather than focusing on their problems and needs. It supports existing livelihood strategies.
• Promote micro-macro links. SLA examines the influence of policies and institutions on
livelihood options and highlights the need for policies to be informed by insights from the local
level and by the priorities of the poor.

• Encourage broad partnerships. SLA counts on broad partnerships drawing on both the public
and private sectors.

• Aim for sustainability. Sustainability is important if poverty reduction is to be lasting.

9.livelihood assets
The DFID (Department for International Development of UK) framework sets out to
conceptualize:

10. Rights-based approaches to development

. This practice blurs the distinction between human rights and development. There are two
stakeholder groups in rights-based development, the rights holders (the community or the
group who does not experience full rights) and the duty bearers (usually government organs or
the institutions who are obligated to fulfill the rights of the rights holders). Rights-based
approach aims at strengthening the capacity of duty bearers and empowers the rights holders.

11. Participatory development approach

Participatory Development seeks to engage local populations in development projects.
Participatory development (PD) has taken a variety of forms since it emerged in the 1970s, when
it was introduced as an important part of the basic needs approach to development. Most
manifestations of PD seek to give the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit in the
hopes that development projects will be more sustainable and successful if local populations are
engaged in the development process.

Two perspectives that can define PD are the Social Movement Perspective and the Institutional
Perspective: The Social Movement Perspective defines participation as the mobilization of
people to eliminate unjust hierarchies of knowledge, power, and economic distribution. This
perspective identifies the goal of participation as an empowering process for people to handle
challenges and influence the direction of their own lives. The Institutional Perspective defines
participation as the reach and inclusion of inputs by relevant groups in the design and
implementation of a development project. The Institutional Perspective uses the inputs and
opinions of relevant groups, or stakeholders in a community, as a tool to achieve a pre-
established goal defined by someone external to the community involved.

Forms of participatory
participation Passive participation is the least participatory of the four approaches. Primary
stakeholders of a project participate by being informed about what is going to happen or has
already happened. People’s feedback is minimal or non- existent, and their participation is
assessed through methods like head counting and contribution to the discussion (sometimes
referred to as participation by information).

1. Participation by consultation is an extractive process, whereby stakeholders provide

answers to questions posed by outside researchers or experts. Input is not limited to meetings
but can be provided at different points in time. In the final analysis, however, this consultative
process keeps all the decision- making power in the hands of external professionals who are
under no obligation to incorporate stakeholders’ input.

2. Participation by collaboration forms groups of primary stakeholders to participate in the

discussion and analysis of predetermined objectives set by the project. This level of participation
does not usually result in dramatic changes in what should be accomplished, which is often
already determined. It does, however, require an active involvement in the decision-making
process about how to achieve it. This incorporates a component of horizontal communication
and capacity building among all stakeholders-a joint collaborative effort. Even if initially
dependent on outside facilitators and experts, with time collaborative participation has the
potential to evolve into an independent form of participation.
3. Empowerment participation is where primary stakeholders are capable and
willing to initiate the process and take part in the analysis. This leads to joint decision making
about what

12. Integrated rural development

The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) is a rural development program firstly
launched by the Government of India (in 1978) and extended throughout India by 1980. It is a
self-employment program intended to raise the income-generation capacity of target groups
among the poor. The target group consists largely of small and marginal farmers, agricultural
laborers and rural artisans living below the poverty line.

RDP is a major self-employment program for Poverty Alleviation. The objective of IRDP is to
provide suitable income generating assets through a mix of subsidy and credit to the poor with a
view to bring them above the Poverty Line. The objective of IRDP is to enable identified rural
poor families to cross the poverty line by providing productive assets and inputs to the target
groups.

13. Developmental state model and Characteristics of the

Developmental state
Developmental state, or hard state, is a term used by international political economy scholars to
refer to the phenomenon of state-led macroeconomic planning in East Asia in the late twentieth
41 century. In this model of capitalism (sometimes referred to as state development capitalism),
the state has more independent, or autonomous, political power, as well as more control over
the economy. A developmental state is characterized by having strong state intervention, as
well as extensive regulation and planning. The term has subsequently been used to describe
countries outside East Asia which satisfy the criteria of a developmental state. Botswana, for
example, has warranted the label since the early 1970s.

14. describe briefly the vulnerability and food insecurity issues in Ethiopia
Vulnerability refers to the extent an individual or a community or a country is exposed to certain
risks like food insecurity, famine, or any natural or manmade hazards. Resilience, on the other
hand, refers to the rate at which an individual, community or a country recovers 47 from such
setbacks. Both vulnerability and resilience are the function of varied interconnected factors like
asset position, access to information, level of development, social capital and the level of the
risks faced. More specifically, vulnerability refers to the inability to withstand the effects of a
hostile environment. In relation to hazards and disasters, vulnerability is a concept that links the
relationship that people have with their environment to social forces and institutions and the
cultural values that sustain and contest them. The concept of vulnerability expresses the multi
dimensionality of disasters by focusing attention on the totality of relationships in a given social
situation which constitute a condition that, in combination with environmental forces, produces
a disaster. It's also the extent to which changes could harm a system, or to which the
community can be affected by the impact of a hazard.

• Shocks can destroy assets directly (in the case of floods, storms, civil conflict, etc.). They can
also force people to abandon their home areas and dispose of assets (such as land) prematurely
as part of coping strategies. Recent events have highlighted the impact that

international economic shocks, including rapid changes in exchange rates and terms of trade,
can have on the very poor.

• Trends may (or may not) be more benign, though they are more predictable. They have a
particularly important influence on rates of return (economic or otherwise) to chosen livelihood
strategies.

• Seasonal shifts in prices, employment opportunities and food availability are one of the
greatest and most enduring sources of hardship for poor people in developing countries.

4.3. Vulnerability to livelihoods and food insecurity in Ethiopia: a glimpse

Ethiopia is suitable for a wide variety of crops such as cereals, pulses oil seeds and vegetable.
On average, cereals account for about 88% of the total food grain production in the country with
pulses (8.5%) and oilseeds (2.9%) accounting for the remainder. Other major land-use types in
the country are indicated in the figure below.
Ethiopia is characterized by abundant but shrinking diversity in biological resources: forest, woody
and grassy lands, shrubs and varied wildlife. It is also renowned for its massive mountain ranges,
high flat plateaus, deep gorges, river valleys, lowland plains, extensive wetlands and deserts.
About 70,000,000 hectares (about 60 percent of the total area) of the country's land is
agriculturally productive so long as appropriate input is available. About 45 percent of the
country, where about 88% of the population live, is highland with altitudes of greater than 1500m.
The geographical setting of the country is generally distinguished by the highlands in the central
part circumscribed by the flat lowlands. Overpopulation, extensive croplands, and frequent
incision by ravines and gullies characterize the highlands. The Great East African Rift System
bisects the central highlands into northwestern and southeastern sections. The altitude of the
country ranges from the highest peak of 4620m above mean sea level (amsl) at Ras Dashen, also
Ras Dejen, in the northwest down to about 120m below mean seas level (bmsl) at Danakil/Afar
Depression (in the northeast), one of the lowest and driest areas on earth. Another conspicuous
feature of Ethiopia is that it is the country where over 80 million people /50.46 percent male/ are
grappling with a range of natural and manmade problems including environmental degradation,
erratic rainfalls, prevalence of malaria and HIV/AIDS, poor but improving governance, and
widespread poverty. It is a country where about 84 percent of the people live in rural areas driving
their livelihoods from plow-based peasant agriculture, a sector suffering from lack of essential
inputs and erratic weather conditions. These, coupled with the existing rapid population growth
rate (2.6 percent per annum) and low per capita GNI /280 USD/, has left the country one of the
most precarious countries in the world. Ethiopia is also characterized by severe environmental
degradation of which the most notable ones are soil erosion, water depletion (such as the
disappearance of Haramaya Lake, near the town of Harar), and shrinking of vegetated lands.
Historical documents show that forest and woodlands covered over 40 percent of the total area
of the country at the beginning of the 20th century. This figure is estimated to be only about 10
percent at present. FAO (1986/1999) estimates the country's annual deforestation rate at about
62,000 hectares attributed primarily to the increased demand for farmland, fuelwood and
settlement sites. At any rate this has resulted in severe soil degradation (about 2 billion tons per
year), alteration of hydrologic regimes, disturbance of local and/or regional climates, loss of
biodiversity, and expansion of desert ecological conditions. Recurrent droughts and erratic rainfall
are also common in the Horn of Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular. This area has a
prolonged and frequent history of drought climatic conditions and drought-related enormously
distressing famines. Surprisingly, ‘one every three or four years is a drought year’ in Ethiopia, a
country also affected by high climatic vulnerability. These relentless agro climatic and
environmental disasters have been multifaceted in many ways. Millions of Ethiopians have died
of series of hunger or hunger-caused diseases or physical weaknesses besides other food shortfall
induced biological miseries like stunting, wasting and underweight. Others have been forced to
abandon their original residences and resettle somewhere either in urban areas or other rural
parts of the country where they hoped to be better off in landholdings, soil fertility, rainfall
distribution, forest cover and water supply. Such people, on the whole, abandon their home-
villages and resettle on other areas in group (large or small), individual or household bases.
Consequently, domestic food production has failed to meet national requirements, and the
number of food insecure people has been on the increase particularly since mid-1970s. For the
last three and half decades (1974-2009), for instance, the livelihoods of some 4.71 million people
had been affected per annum mainly by drought-induced food shortage calamities. As a result,
Ethiopia has become increasingly dependent on international food aid with an average food
scarcity of over 637, 000 metric tons per annum from 1974 to 2009. In general, as discussed in
this section, the causes of long-lasting livelihoods crises in Ethiopia have been a complex
interaction between multiple adverse factors. Agricultural production failure due to bad
bioclimatic and ecological factors, prolonged civil wars, policy mismanagement, low purchasing
power, inappropriate market linkage, unfair distribution of food to the disadvantaged group of
people, political nepotism and lack of good governance have been critical factors for the lengthy
and severe food crises in Ethiopian history.

15. Factors exerting influence on livelihoods

Factors exerting influence on livelihoods Discussions about causes of poor livelihoods (such as
famine, food insecurity, etc) have always been controversial. Some groups of the academia argue
that poverty is basically attributed to ecological degradation and adverse bioclimatic incidences.
This is associated with views of Malthusian school of thought which strictly argues the natural
resources depletion play critical roles in determining the food security status of a community. On
the other side, there are people who argue that unfair distribution of resources is the critical cause
of poor livelihoods in the world. It is the fervent belief of the compiler of this teaching material
that the cause of poor livelihoods in the world is the combination of the adverse impacts of
ecological degradation and bioclimatic factors (population pressure, soil loss, deforestation,
erratic rainfall, and pest and disease infestation, etc) as well as human-induced attributes (poor
policy framework, nepotism, inappropriate land tenure, rights to means of production, etc). The
proponents of the second category argue that poverty is a preventable socio-economic crisis.

16.state the major determinants of livelihoods and food security

5.1. Ecological/Agro-climatic determinants of livelihoods & food insecurity.

5.2. Environmental degradation vs livelihoods and food security

5.2.1. Water deterioration

5.2.2. Climate change and atmospheric temperature

5.2.3. Climate change and precipitation

5.2.4. Agriculture and environmental degradation

5.3. Disaster risks and livelihoods/food security

5.3.1. Natural disasters

5.3.2. Man-made disasters

17. Causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia

Discussions about causes of poor livelihoods and food insecurity in Ethiopia have always been
controversial. Some groups of the academia argue that famines in Ethiopia are basically attributed
to ecological degradation and adverse bioclimatic incidences. This is associated with views of
Malthusian school of thought which strictly argues the natural resources depletion play critical
roles in determining the food security status of a community. On the other side, there are people
who argue that unfair distribution of food is the critical cause of famine in the country. It is the
fervent belief of the writer of this material that the cause of poor livelihoods and food insecurity
in Ethiopia is the combination of the adverse impacts of ecological degradation and bioclimatic
factors (population pressure, soil loss, deforestation, erratic rainfall, and pest and disease
infestation, etc) as well as human-induced attributes (poor policy framework, nepotism,
inappropriate land tenure, rights to means of production, etc). The proponents of the second
category argue that poor livelihoods and food insecurity are preventable. On the other hand, the
general environmental and socio-economic picture of Ethiopia portrays the challenges and
opportunities related to the viewpoints of the two groups.

18. Household Food Balance Model (HFBM) and simple equation of HFBM

6.1. Household Food Balance Model (HFBM) This is a simple equation originally adapted by Degefa
(1996) from FAO Regional Food Balance Model and thenceforth used by different researchers in
Ethiopia. HFBM is employed to compute the net quantity of per capita food. The net available
food per household, as reported from household recall, is converted into dietary energy
equivalent using EHNRI/FAO (1998)'s Food Composition Table for Use in case of Ethiopia. Then,
the medically recommended level of calorie per adult equivalent (2100kcal/day/person for
Ethiopia) is used as a cut-off point for food insecure and food secure households or individuals.
The following simple equation of HFBM is modified and used by Messay (2011) for household
food security analysis is:

NGA = (GP + GB + FA + GG + CC + MP + DP) - (HL+ GU + GS +GV)

Where, NGA= Net grain available (quintal/household/year)

GP = Total grain production (quintal/household/year)

GB = Total grain bought (quintal/household/year)

FA = Quantity of food aid obtained (quintal/household/year)

GG = Total grain obtained through gift or remittance (quintal/household/year)

MP = Meat, meat based products and poultry (kilogram/household/year)

DP = Dairy and dairy based products ((kilogram/household/year)

HL = Post harvest losses due to grain pests, disasters, thievery, etc (quintal/household/year)

GU = Quantity of grain reserved for seed (quintal/household/year)

GS = Amount of grain sold (quintal/household/year)

GV = Grain given to others within a year(quintal/household/year).

19. Household Hunger Scale (HHS)
Household Hunger Scale (HHS) is a new and simple indicator to measure household hunger in
food-insecure areas. The HHS is different from other household food insecurity indicators in that
it has been specifically developed and validated for cross-cultural use. This means that the HHS
produces valid and comparable results across cultures and settings so that the status of different
population groups can be described in a meaningful and comparable way to assess where
resources and programmatic interventions are needed and to design, implement, monitor, and
evaluate policy and programmatic interventions. The HHS is a household food deprivation scale,
derived from research to adapt the United States (U.S.) household food security survey module
for use in a developing country context and from research to assess the validity of the Household
Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for cross cultural use. The approach used by the HHS is based
on the idea that the experience of household food deprivation causes predictable reactions that
can be captured through a survey and summarized in a scale.

In addition, a 4-week (30-day) recall period should always be used for collecting HHS data. It is not
recommended to use a different recall period for several reasons. Longer recall periods pose a
risk of measurement bias due to problems with accurate recall over an extended period of time,
and a recall period shorter than 4 weeks (30 days) may not capture the full extent of the
deprivation experience, since fluctuations of food accessibility are common within a month.
20. The trends of famine and food insecurity in
Ethiopia