CHAPTER 2 ORIGIN OF CHORDATES

Living chordates consist of three groups of unequal size:

1. Cephalochordates
2. Urochordates
3. Vertebrates

Chordates - have a fluid filled internal body cavity termed coelem.

- Bilateria, animals built upon a bilateral, symmetrical body plan.
Protostomes - which includes molluscs, annelids, arthropods
- referred to as the clade of animals that form their mouth first during embryonic formation before their anus
has developed.
- Divides into lophotrochozoa and ecdysozoa
Deuterostomes - includes echinoderms, hemichordates, and chordates
- referred to as the clade of the animals which form their anus before the formation of their mouths during
their embryonic development

Protostomes Deuterostomes

Blastopore ( mouth) Blastopore ( anus)

Spiral cleavage Radial Cleavage

Schizocoelic coelem Enterocoelic Coelem

Ectodermal skeleton Mesodermal/ Calcified skeleton

➢ Both bilaterian groups, the egg begins to divide repeatedly after fertilization, a process termed cleavage
➢ Dividing cells of the embryo are offset from each other, a pattern known as spiral cleavage.
➢ The dividing cells are aligned, a pattern termed radial cleavage
➢ Gastrulation - one wall of this ball of cells begins to indent and grow inward. The opening into this
indentation is the blastopore, and the intended cells themselves are destined to become the gut of the
adult.

Three basic tissue layers:

1. Outer ectoderm
2. Inner endoderm that forms the layer between the two
3. Mesoderm - forms the layer between the two

Schizocoelom - a solid mass of mesodermal cells splits to form the body cavity within them.
Enterocoelom - the mesoderm arises as outpocketings of the gut that pinch off to form the body cavity

Chordates Characteristics

Most vertebrates have an endoskeleton, a system of rigid internal elements of bone or cartilage beneath the skin.
- Endoskeleton participates in locomotion
- Support and protect delicate organs
- Terrestrial vertebrates use their jaws to feen on big food particles
Cephalochordates and Urochordates are marine animals and all lack a bony or cartilaginous skeleton.
- Are suspension feeders, having a sticky sheet of mucus that strains small food particles from streams of
water passing over a filtering apparatus.

ALL THREE TAXA, SHARE A COMMON BODY DESIGN SIMILAR IN AT LEAST FIVE FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES:

1. Notochord
- A slender rod that develops from the mesoderm in all chordates. Lies dorsal to the coelem but
beneath and parallel to the central nervous system
- The mechanical properties of an elastic rod, so it can be flexed laterally from side to side, but cannot
be collapsed along its length like a telescope
- The outer wall encloses a fluid core, are called Hydrostatic organs
- It lies along the body axis to allow lateral flexion but prevents collapse of the body during
locomotion
- In adult mammals with a full vertebral column, the notochord is reduced to a remnant, the nucleus
pulposus. This is a small core of gel-like material within each intervertebral disk that forms a
spherical pad lying between successive vertebrae
2. Pharyngeal slits
- The pharynx is a part of the digestive tract located immediately posterior to the mouth.
- also called pharyngotremy which means pharyngeal holes
- Gill slits is a specialized derived structure of fish and larval amphibians composed of tiny plates or
folds that harbor capillary beds for respiration in water,
- The slits have no significant role in respiration. But in primitive chordates, these openings serves in
feeding, but in embryos they play no respiratory role; therefore gill slits is a misleading term
- When slits first evolved, they likely aided in feeding. They allowed one-way flow of a water current–
in the mouth and out through the pharyngeal slits.
- Therefore, the current of water passing through pharyngeal slits can simultaneously support
feeding and respiratory activities.
3. Endostyle or thyroid gland
- A glandular groove in the flood of the pharynx.
- Involved in filter feeding
- Produces two major hormones— the thyroid gland.
- Involve in iodine metabolism, further suggesting a homology between the two, with the endostyle
being the phylogenetic predecessor of the thyroid.
- Jawless fish “lampreys” have a true endostyle when they are young larvae, that becomes a true
endostyle when they become adults
- Thus, all chordates have endostyles or thyroids
4. Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord derived from ectoderm.
- Central nervous system of all animals is ectodermal in embryonic origin, but only in chordates does
the nerve tube typically form by a distinctive embryonic process namely, by invagination
- Future nerve tube cells of the early chordate embryo gather dorsally into thichecked Neural plate
within the surface ectoderm of the back. This neural plate of cells folds or rolls up and sinks inward
from the surface as a tube to take up residence dorsally within the embryo, just above the
notochord.
- A nerve cord produced from a thickened plate by invagination is also called a neurulated nerve
cord
 - The nerve cord lies above the gut and is hollow along its entire length or more accurately, Neurocoel,
a fluid filled central canal

5. Post anal tail

- Represents a posterior elongation of the body extending beyond anus.
- Primarily an extension of the chordate locomotor apparatus

Chordate body plan

The five primary characteristics of all chordates may only be present briefly during embryonic development or
they may persist into the adult stage, but all chordates exhibit them at some point of their lifespan

Chordates also show segmentation. Myomeres or blocks of muscles are arranged sequentially along the adult body
and tail as part of the outer body wall.
- Myomeres are typically straight or v-shaped.

Protochordates
- Are an informal assemblage of animals.
- Are not a proper taxonomic group, but a collection of convenience where members share some or all five
features of the fundamental chordate body plan.
- Are all marine animals that feed by means of cilia and mucus
- As larvae, they become pelagic, residing in open water between the surface and the bottom.
- Unattached, most free floating larvae have limited locomotor capability and are therefore, Planktonic,
riding from place to place primarily in currents and tides rather than by their own efforts of long- distance
swimming. As adults, they are benthic, living in or within a bottom marine substrate. Some burrow into
the substrate, or are sessile and attached to it. Some adults are solitary, living alone; others are colonial
and live together in associated groups.
- Some are dioecious, with male and female gonads in separate individuals. Other are monoecious, with both
male and female gonads in one individual.

Hemichordata
- Are marine “worms” with apparent links to chordates on the one hand and echinoderms on the other
- Shares pharyngeal slits
- Some hemichordates have a postanal appendage, a larval structure or, as adults, a device helping to hold
them in a burrow tunnel. But is not a derivative of the locomotor system
- Lacks a true post-anal tail and a notochord
- Are deuterostomes, their mouth forms opposite to the embryonic blastopore, and they exhibit the
characteristic deuterostome patterns of embryonic cleavage and coelem formation.
- Within the hemichordates are two taxonomic groups, the enteropneusts, burrowing forms, and the
pterobranchs, usually sessile forms.

Enteropneusta — “Acorn Worms”

- Are marine animals of both deep and shallow waters
- Have a body with three regions namely: proboscis, collar, and trunk.
➢ Probscis - used in both locomotion and feeding, includes a muscular outer wall that encloses a fluid- filled
coelemic space.
➢ Suspension Feeders - extracting tiny bits of organic material and plankton directly from the water.
Sets of adjacent slits open into a common chamber, the dorsally placed brachial pouch, that in turn pieces the outer
body wall to form the brachial pore, an undivided opening to the outside environment

Cephalochordata
- Resemble the earliest chordates
- Their body plan is dorsoventrally inverted compared to that of earlier deuterostomes including
hemichordates.
- Built upon the characteristic chordate pattern
- These animals are anatomically simple, with an approach to food gathering we have seen in other
protochordates, namely suspension feeding based on a pharyngeal filtering apparatus surrounded by an
atrium.
- Slits open the walls of the extensive pharynx to allow exit of one-way feeding current driven by cilia.
- Lancelets or amphioxus
- Dorsoventrally inverted compared to the early deuterostomes and hemichordates
- Amphioxus prefer well aereted coastal areas and lagoons
- Locomotion system is based on segmental muscles of the body wall and hydrostatic notochord
- Tubular nerve cord does not enlarge anteriorly into a differentiated brain, it does not show swellings
indicative of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

Urochordates ( tail backstring”)

- Also called tunicates, inspired by the characteristic flexible outer body cover, the tunic.
- “Tail backstring”, a reference to the notochord
➢ Tunic - a flexible outer body covering
- Sometimes referred to by the more general term test

- Marine organisms: ascidians, larvaceans, thaliacea

- Suspension feeding
- Pharynx is expanded into complex straining apparatus, the branchial basket.
- Blood flows in our direction and then reverses itself.

Overview of Protochordates
- Possess some ( hemichordates) or all (cephalochordates, urochordates) five characteristics defining
chordata
- Maybe present alternately throughout its lifecycle
- Marine organisms
- Larval and adult stages structurally different and with different lifestyles: Planktonic larvae and benthic
adult
- Food consists of suspended particles extracted from water propelled by cilia
- Excess water is diverted outside through lateral pharyngeal slits
- Notochord, when present, along with tail muscles is part of the locomotor apparatus
- Phylogenetic history preceding vertebrates

The Vertebrate Story

Vertebrate Classification
Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are termed as tetrapods.
Tetrapods - four footed
Amnion - a delicate, transparent, saclike membrane that encases the embryo in a protective water compartment.
Examples: reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Anamniotes - those without amnion. Examples: fishes and amphibians

Two of these innovations — the vertebral column and the cranium.

Vertebral Column
- Inspires the name vertebrates and is composed of vertebrae, a series of separate bones or cartilage blocks
firmly joined as a backbone that defines the major body axis.
- Squeezed between successive vertebrae are thin compression pads, intervertebral disks or bodies
Vertebra - consists of a solid cylindrical body, or centrum, that often encloses the notochord, a dorsal neural arch
enclosing the spinal cord, and a ventral hemal arch enclosing blood vessels.

Cranium
- Or skull which came “craniates” for the vertebrates or a vast subgroup of them
- A composite structure of bone and/or cartilage that supports sensory organs in the head and encases or
partially encases the brain
Cephalization
- Refers to the anterior clustering of specialized sensory organs such as paired eyes, ears, nose, and other
sensory receptors.
➢ Neural tube, the anterior part, which services these sense organs, enlarges to form a distinct brain
that bulges, suggestive of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (medulla oblongata)
➢ Concentrating neurons into a brain at one end of the animal and evolving sensory organs at the
same end
➢ Arthropods (crustaceans, insects, and family ), annelids (segmented worms), and chordates have all
undergone increasing cephalization

Agnathan
- These are jawless fishes that lack a biting apparatus derived from pharyngeal bars
- Are envisioned to be suspension feeders
- Lacks such rigid hinged elements supporting the borders of the mouth

a. Agnathan Cyclostomes
- Round and mouth
- Often treated as proxies for the most primitive of vertebrates
- Lacks scales
- Cartilaginous skeleton
- Has holes or slits on the side of the body
- Persisting notochord
- Rasping tongue
b. Agnatha Ostracoderms
- Shell and skin
- Ancient vertebrate fishes encased in body armor.
- First vertebrates to possess an intricate lateral line system, an inner ear with two semicircular
canals, and bone
- Heavily armored on their head
- Believed to be detritus feeders because of their jawless mouth
 - Endoskeleton not well developed and when present usually made of cartilage
- Lateral system - sensory system responding to vibrations in the surrounding water
Hagfish - purely marine organisms
- Scavengers
- Nostril opening at top of snout
- Branchial pouches of some hagfish do not open directly outside but to a common external opening
- Direct development with no larval stage

Lamprey - anadromous
- Parasitic as adults
- Sigle nostril opening at the top of the head & having a hypophysial pouch
- Has spherical pouches with tubes connecting pharynx and body surface
- Undergoes metamorphosis

Gnathostomes Jawed vertebrates

- Jaws a derived character. Switched from detritus feeding to active predation on smaller animals
- Jaw and mouth
- The anterior pharyngeal bar enlarged, becoming the jaws.
- Active predation on large prey became a common lifestyle
- Development of paired fins: Pectoral fins ( anterior) and pelvic fins ( posterior)
- Supported by bony or cartilaginous girdles
- The paired fins conferred stability and control, allowing a swimming animal to maneuver within and prowl
its marine environment actively
a. Gnathostomes Placoderm
- Plate and skin
- Most were encased in a heavy bony armor, the tail was small, and the head shield was composed of
large, fused plates of dermal bone
- Jaws carrying bony projections
- Bottom feeders
- Benthic life
- Presence of head shield
b. Gnathostomes Chondrichthyes
- Includes sharks and rays
- Cartilaginous fishes
- Members of this group have skeletons composed predominantly of cartilage impregnated with
calcium.
- Denser than water, so they tend to sink
- Have large livers with buoyant oil, pectoral fins and tails that help maintain their place within the
vertical water column

c. Gnathostomes Osteichthyes
- Bony fish
- Presence of bone in the endoskeleton ( exception for sturgeons, paddlefishes, and lungfishes)
- Small overlapping scales
- Recognizes the pervasive presence of bone, especially throughout the endoskeleton
- Possess a gas-filled swim bladder that provides neutral buoyancy
- Actinoptergii ( ray finned)
- Sarcopterygii ( fleshy-finned)
 - Bony operculum covering gills

d. Gnathostomes Acanthodians
- “Spiny forms” partially ossified internal skeleton
- Bony plates persisted in the head but did not form a composite unit such a head shield
- Dermal armor reduced to scales across the body surface
- Gill slits were covered by body operculum

Aves
- Flight - soar , hover, sprint fliers, long distance fliers
- Flightless ( ex. Penguins, served as flippers), ostriches loss use of wings

Feathers
- Specialization of the skin
- Feathers evolved before birds - initially perhaps as insulation, aiding the thermoregulation of body
temperature
Archosauria ( the “ruling reptiles)
- Includes the crocodiles, dinosaurs and birds
- Crocodiles and its close allies and birds are the only living representatives
- Diapsid skull with additional antorbital fenestra and mandibular fenestra
- Trend toward increasing bi-pedalism or two - footed locomotion
- Hindlimbs drawn under the body becoming weight - bearing and locomotor appendages

Evolution of Tetrapods

Tetrapods - characterized by a chiridium, a muscular limb with well- defined joints and digits ( fingers and toes)
- Means four footed, includes snakes

Labyrinthodonts
- named for their complex tooth structure, were once thought to be an early tetrapod clade.
- Contains the lateral line system, a strictly aquatic sensory system found in fossils of young, but absent in
adults of the same species.
- At metamorphosis, living terrestrial amphibians also lose the lateral line system of their aquatic larvae.
- Aquatic as juveniles, terrestrial as adults
- Tiktaalik - an early tetrapod and sarcopterygians

Lepidosauria
- Diapsid skull design
- Sphenodonts - sphenodon
- Presence of complete temporal bars (primitive character)
- Squamates - lizards & snakes
- Some lizards are limbless like snakes
- Lizards lack the lower temporal bar and snakes lack upper and lower temporal bards
- Increased jaw mobility
- Enhances capture and swallowing of prey
- Lizards have movable eyelids and external auditory meatus, while snakes lack both
Lissamphibia —Modern Amphibians
- Frogs, salamanders, caecilians
- Lacks shells and amniotic membranes, are laid in water or moist locations
- Mucous glands of the skin deep amphibians moist, and granular (poison )skin glands
- produce chemicals unpleasant or toxic to predators.
- Arise within the labyrinthodont radiation
- Includes frogs, salamanders, & caecilians
- Occur in tropical and temperate regions
- External fertilization in frogs, while internal fertilization for most salamanders and all caecilians
- Undergo metamorphosis
- Paired lungs are present but maybe reduced or absent in some salamanders

Common characteristics on Amphibians

1. Cutaneous Respiration
- Mucous glands to keep skin moist
2. Auricular Operculum
- An extra ear bone used to transmit sound
3. Pedicellate Teeth
- Calcified root and crown but separated by a zone of noncalcified tissue

Amniotes
- Packaged in a calcareous or leathery shelled egg

Amniote Egg - Bear embryos enveloped in extraembryonic membranes enclosing the developing embryo
- Modern amniotes include reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Mammalia
- Arose within the therapsid radiation in the Late Triassic, initially small and shrewlike
- Living forms include the monotremes ( platypus and anteaters), Theria ( pouched marsupials), and
Eutherians ( placental mammals)

Characteristics of Mammals
- The two primary characteristics of mammals are hair and mammary glands,
- Mammals are endothermic furry animals nourished from birth with milk secreted by their mothers. The
pelage, insulates the mammalian body to hold in heat,
- The hair has a sensory function as a recorder of fine touch.
- Whiskers, are specialized long hairs called “vibrissae”

Living Mammals
- Monotremes have hair, suckle their young, and are endotherms. However, they lack nipples, lack external
ears, and embryos develop in shelled eggs.

Placenta
- A vascular organ connecting the fetus and the female uterus.
 - A temporary “placenta” forms between the early embryo and the female uterus in some marsupials.

Vertebrate Placentae

Insectivora - the group was once thought to give rise to most other placental orders.
Edentata ( anteaters) - as the most primitive group of living eutherians
Chiroptera - or bats are the only mammals with powered flight
Cetacea - includes toothed whales ( odontocetes) and the baleen whales ( mysticetes) and the Sirenia, which
includes the manatees

Ungulate - is a descriptive term of convenience and refers to hoofed animals.

- Includes the Perissodactyla ( horses, rhino, tapirs) and Artiodactyla ( pigs, camels, cattle, deer, etc.) Cetacea (
whale and porpoises, together with what are often called the subungulates
Carnivora - the term fissiped used for land carnivores ( cats, dogs, bear, skunks), and the term pinipped refers to
semi aquatic carnivores( seals and walruses)

Rodentia - largest of the eutherian groups and is divided informally into the sciuromorphs, the myomorphs, and
the hystricomorphs.
Primates - are arboreal or had ancestors who were, and they possess grasping fingers and toes tipped by nails.
- Lower primates or prosimians, includes lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers
- Higher primates or anthropoids, encompass the catarrhine monkeys, which lack prehensile tails
Monkey - is a general term that has no formal taxonomic definition.
The term apes refers to the paraphyletic pongids ( orangutans, gorillas, chimps) and the term hominids to humans
and their immediate ancestors of the Hominidae

Chapter 4 Biological Design

Biological Design- Gives a better understanding of movement as it describes movement in living creatures.

Factors of Biological Design Include:

A.) Size
Consequences of size due to geometry: The larger the animal, the greater the significance of gravity whereas, the
smaller the animal, the more it is ruled out by surface forces.

If shape remains constant, but body size changes: It is likely to affect the relationship between length, surface
area, volume and mass as they also may change. Therefore, a change in size is likely to be accompanied by a
change in design to maintain overall performance.

Size influences: Locomotion, Performance, and Design

Note: The increase of Mass is faster than that of Surface Area (increases in proportion to the square of its linear
dimensions) and Mass increases as fast as Volume (increases even faster in proportion to the cube of its linear
dimensions).

B.) Surface Area

This helps multiple bodily processes function appropriately. Structures that promote exchange of materials (ie:
lungs, gills, intestines, and capillaries) typically have large surface areas making it efficient for material exchange.
Large animals typically have slower metabolism compared to small animals as they require less oxygen due to
their size thereby reducing the use of energy usage in their bodies. They also have large surface areas to help
sustain the bulk of the organism.
Heat loss is proportional to surface area and heat generation is proportional to volume.

C.) Volume and Mass

Both volume and mass are directly proportional to one another.
Mass of the body is borne by the limbs and the strength of the limbs is propto their cross-section
area.
Due to the disproportionate increase in mass compared to surface area, gravity of the earth holds more
significance for organisms that fall under this category (ie: large animals)

D.) Shape
To remain functionally balanced, an organism must have different shapes at different ages (sizes). Allometry is the
change in shape in correlation with a change in size. Size changes do not only occur during ontogeny.

Consequences of size: The larger an animal, the more its design must be modified in order to carry its relatively
larger weight ( a consequence of the increasing effects of gravity).

Types of growth found in Allometry: geometric growth; length is multiplied by a constant in each time
interval, arithmetic growth; a constant is added to its length in each time interval.

Allometric Relationships describe the changes in shape that accompany changes in size.
- Allometric Plots describe relative change in size and proportion through time. Compared with a reference
part, a positive allometry means it exhibits a “faster than” growth, a negative allometry exhibits a “slower
than” growth, and isometry describes growth in which the proportions remain constant, and neither
positive or negative allometry occurs.

D’Arcy Thompson- popularized a system of transformation grids that express/describe overall changes in shape.
The technique compares a reference structure to a derived structure. It can be used to emphasize, graphically,
phylogenetic differences in shape between species.

Note: Design is concerned with the consequences of geometry. Changes in the relationship among length,surface,
and volume as an object increases in size. This is the major reason why change in size is necessarily accompanied
by a change in shape.

Biomechanics
- Allows us to understand the physical forces an animal experiences. It gives us a clarity to biological design
that we might not otherwise expect,

Biomechanical principles:

A.) Basic Quantities: Length, Time and Mass

Length is a concept of distance, Time is a concept of the flow of events, and Mass is a concept of inertia.
Mass vs Weight:
Mass is a property of matter and weight is a measure of force. They are not the same concepts.

Units are conventions. They are standards of measurement that when attached to length, time and mass, give
concrete values. The English system of measurement is used in most English speaking countries including the
U.S. (Pounds, Feet, and Seconds for mass, length and time respectively.) During the French Revolution, a simpler
system based on the meter was introduced. This system is The Système Internationale, or SI, an extended version
of the older metric system. (Meter, Kilogram, and seconds for dimensions of length, mass and time respectively.)

B.) Derived Quantities: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, and Relatives

Velocity and Acceleration both describe motion of bodies.
- Velocity describes the rate of change in an object’s position. Acceleration is the rate of change in its
velocity. Positive acceleration = accelerate; Negative acceleration = decelerate.
- Force describes the effect of one body acting on another through their respective mass and acceleration.
- Density is mass divided by volume.
- Pressure Is force divided by the area over which it acts.
- Work is the force applied to an object multiplied by the distance in which it travels/moves in accordance
with the direction of the force.
- Power is the rate at which work is done. It is work divided by time.

Force laws by Isaac Newton

1. First law of inertia- every body continues in a state of rest or in a uniform path of motion until a new
force acts on it to set it in motion or change its direction.
2. Second law of motion- the change in an object’s motion is propto the force acting on it.
F=ma.
3. Third law of action, reaction- Between two objects in contact, there is for each action an opposite
and equal reaction.

A free-body diagram graphically depicts the isolated part with its forces. Assisting us in calculating forces.

Note: The most common reference system is the Rectangular Cartesian Reference System
a.k.a the Cartesian Coordinate System by René Descartes.
Note: Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist a change in its state of motion.

C.) Center of Mass

Center of gravity. It is the point about which an animal is evenly balanced.

D.) Vectors
Describe measurements of variables with a magnitude and direction.
A measurement with only magnitude and no direction is a scalar quantity.

E.) Torques and Levers

One way of representing how muscles and skeletal elements generate and apply force.

Terms:
 - Fulcrum: The point at which the lever rests or is supported and on which it pivots (pivot point.)
Usually a “joint”
- Lever arm: The perpendicular distance from the fulcrum of a lever to the line of action of the effort
or to the line of action of the weight. Described as the “moment arm.” Usually a “length of bone”
- Torque: A twisting force that causes rotational motion. Described as the “moment.” Is the
“leverage”

Land and Fluid

Terrestrial vertebrates experience external forces that arise from the effects of gravity.
- Gravity acts on an object to accelerate it, its average acceleration is about 9.81ms-2. Gravitational pull
constitutes the animal’s weight affecting performance in proportion to body size.

Dynamic Fluids are water and air. When a body moves through a fluid, the fluid exerts a resisting force in the
opposite direction of the body’s motion. This resisting force is termed drag.

Static fluids exert a pressure on objects within them, Types of drag:

1.) Friction Drag (skin friction)
2.) Pressure drag
3.) Profile drag (relates to the profile or shape of an object)

➢ A streamline describes individual paths in a fluid traveling in flow.

➢ The boundary layer is the thin fluid layer closest to the surface of the body.
➢ Flow separation is the parting of layers within the flow which usually occurs when the particles in the
boundary layer passing around an object are unable to make sharp turns smoothly behind the object.
➢ Buoyancy is the tendency of a submerged object in a fluid to sink or rise. A positive upward force of
buoyancy will occur only if the density of the object is less than that of water. A negative downward force
occurs when the object’s density is greater than water. Water density is 1000 kilograms per cubic meter.

4 physical characteristics that affect how the fluid and body dynamically interact:
1.) Density of the fluid
2.) Size and Shape of the body as it meets the fluid
3.) Resistance
4.) Velocity of a fluid
5.) Viscosity of a fluid

MACHINES
- It is a mechanism/device for transferring or applying forces.

➢ A kinematic chain(linkages) represents the main elements of an animal.

➢ Kinematic chains can either be unconstrained (floppy and without control) or constrained (restricted in
motion).
- A constrained chain constitutes a mechanism. A kinematic mechanism stimulates the relative
motions of the parts of the animal it represents to help identify the role of each element.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Types of forces:
 1. Compressive Forces-forces that press down on an object to compact it.
2. Tensile forces-forces that stretch an object.
3. Shear forces-forces that slide its sections

BIOLOGICAL DESIGN AND BIOLOGICAL FAILURE

➢ Fatigue fracture- experienced by bones caused by prolonged or heavy use.

➢ Load fracture- experienced by bones when they are loaded asymmetrically caused by uneven load and
weight not centered.

Biological design of:

A. Bones: composite material consisting of several substances with different mechanical parts.
Collagen fibers and hydroxyapatite crystals are the main materials of the bone matrix. Internal
bone tissue consists of areas of compact bone and spongy bone.
B. Teeth: consist of an outer layer called the enamel made of pure ceramic and a calcium phosphate
mineral called the hydroxyapatite; and an inner layer called the dentin made of hydroxyapatite and
40% of the protein called collagen. This biological design of teeth helps deflect a full force that may
cause a spread of a crack.

Note: According to Wolff's law, bone responds dynamically to adapt physiologically to changing stress.
Remodeling of bone occurs in proportion to the mechanical demands placed upon it.
Note: Bones are less able to withstand tensile forces than they can on compressive forces.
Adaptive remodeling entails thickening along the wall experiencing compression.

➢ Lacunae- spaces within the calcium matrix of a bone that either flatten or become round depending on
the force acted upon it.

Piezoelectricity-low level electric charges.

TISSUE RESPONSE TO MECHANICAL STRESS

Terms:
1. Atrophy: a condition in which living tissues undergo a decrease in prominence due to it being
unstressed.
2. Hypertrophy: a condition in which tissues experience an increase in prominence due to an increase
in stress.
3. Hyperplasia: Cell division and proliferation under stress.
4. Metaplasia: a change of tissue from one type to another (often pathological)

NOTE: The response of bone to mechanical stress depends upon the force duration. Atrophy will continue and
bone tissue is lost if the bone experiences continuous pressure. Absence in forces on the other hand, thins
bone density. For example, people restricting to prolonged bed rest without exercise show signs of
osteoporosis.
NOTE: Intermittent stress stimulates bone deposition or hypertrophy.

Environmental influences that alter or enhance the basic shape of bone set down by genetic program:
1. Infectious disease
 2. Nutrition
3. Hormones
4. Mechanical stress

BIOPHYSICS & OTHER PHYSICAL PROCESSES

➢ Biophysics- concerned with principles of energy exchange and the significance of these principles for
living organisms

Pressures and Partial Pressures:

Air is a mixture of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the remaining percentage consists of carbon dioxide and other
trace elements.

Partial pressures of:

Oxygen: 21,210Pa Nitrogen: 78,780Pa
Other gasses: 1,010Pa
Total air pressure: 101,000Pa at sea level

EXCHANGE:
Concurrent exchange- same direction in flow
Countercurrent exchange- opposite direction in flow (heat transfer is more efficient)

NOTE: Respiration in many fishes is characterized by countercurrent exchange. Water high in oxygen flows
across the gills, which contain blood capillaries low in oxygen flowing in the opposite direction.

OPTICS:
Types of vision:
1. Monocular Vision- visual fields DO NOT overlap
2. Binocular Vision- visual fields OVERLAP.

NOTE: Humans have 140 degrees of binocular vision and 30 degrees of monocular vision creating a stereoscopic
image when combined.

➢ Parallax-the slightly different views one gets of a distant object when it is viewed from two different
points
➢ Accommodation- sharp focusing of a visual image upon the retina
➢ Hyperopia- farsightedness. Occurs when the image being focused by the eye falls behind the retina.
➢ Myopia- nearsightedness. Occurs when an image focused by the eye falls in front of the retina.
- Lens and Cornea- important in focusing light. Their job is considerably affected by the refractive
index of the media through which light passes
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CHAPTER 5

Embryonic Development or Ontogeny

- Extends from fertilization to birth or hatching
- During this time, a single cell, the egg, is fertilized and divides into millions of cells from which the basic
structural organization of the individual take shape.
Maturation
- Includes the time from birth to the point of sexual maturity
- Usually involves growth in size and acquisition of learned skills as well as appearance of anatomical
features that distinguish the reproductive- ready adult.
Metamorphosis
- If juvenile and adult are strikingly different in form and the change from the one to the occurs abruptly
- Example tadpole to frog
Senescence or aging
- Loss of physical vigor and reproductive ability accompany
- Apparent in humans but rare in wild animals
- Some species of salmon senesce quickly after spawning and die within few hours

Early Embryology

Ectoderm, Endoderm, Mesoderm

- 3 primary germ layers
- Each layer gives rise to specific regions that form body organs
Zygote
- The youngest stage of the embryo is the fertilized egg which subsequently develops through the morula,
blastula, gastrula, and neurula stages
Embryonic area
- Becomes delineated from the extraembryonic area that supports the embryo or delivers nutrients but does
not become a part of the embryo itself.
Organogenesis
- The delineated embryo first becomes organized into basic germ layers and then passes through this stage
- Means “organ” and “formation”, during which the well - established germ layers differentiate into specific
organs

Fertilization

Gametes - union of two mature sex cells

Sperm
- male gamete, haploid cell.
- The sperm’s passage through the outer layers of the ovum sets in motion or activates, the embryonic
development
Ovum
- female gamete or egg, haploid cell
- It but a single cell with a nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell-membrane or plasma membrane
Vitellogenin
- The ovum accumulates the vitellogenin
- A transport form of yolk formed in the liver of the female and carried in her blood
Yolk Platelets
 - Once in the ovum, it transforms into yolk platelets
- Consisting of storage packets of nutrients that help support the growing needs of the developing embryo.

Microlecithal, Mesoecithal, Macrolecithal

- Eggs with slight, moderate, or enormous amounts of yolk

● The yolk can be evenly distributed ( isolecithal) or concentrated at one pole ( telolecithal) of the spherical
ovum.

● When the yolk and other constituents are unevenly arranged the ovum shows polarity defined by a vegetal
pole, where most yolk resides and an opposite animal pole, where the prominent haploid nucleus resides

Cortex
- The region immediately beneath the plasma membrane of the ovum
- Contains cortical granules activated at fertilization

3 types of envelopes surround the ovum

1. Primary egg - lies between the plasma membrane and the surrounding cells of the ovary
- The most consistent component of this primary layer is the vitelline membrane, a transparent
jacket of fibrous protein.
- In mammals, the homologous structure is called the zona pellucida
- When the zona pellucida is viewed with a light microscope, a thin, striated line that once was called
the “zona radiata” seems to constitute another discrete component of this primary layer.
- Often after fertilization, a perivitelline space opens between the vitelline membrane and the
plasma membrane
2. Secondary egg - is composed of ovarian, or follicle, cells that immediately surround and help transfer
nutrients to the ovum.
- Eutherian mammals’ follicle cells cling to the ovum, becoming the corona radiata that accompanies
the ovum on its journey to the uterus.
- The successful sperm must penetrate three layers — follicle cells ( eutherian mammals), vitelline
membrane, and plasma membrane
3. Tertiary Egg - the exterior wrapping around the egg, forms in the oviducts.
- Sharks consists of an egg case
- birds , reptiles, and monotremes, includes the shell, shell membrane, and albumen enveloping the
ovum
- Tertiary layer is added after fertilization when the ovum travels down the uterine tubes
➢ Oviparous ( egg, birth) - Are egg laying vertebrates encapsulated in such shells.
➢ Incubated - if parents nestle over the eggs to add warmth
➢ Viviparous ( live, birth) - vertebrates giving birth to embryos without such shells
- The gestation period includes the time the embryo develops within the female
➢ Parturition - the act of giving birth via viviparity
➢ Oviposition - the act of laying eggs
➢ Parition - includes parturition and oviposition

Two general terms describes the patterns of fetal nutrition

1. Lecithotrophic nutrition - occurs through direct transfer of yolk to the connecting part of the digestive
tract, as in some fishes, or through the vitelline arteries and veins that provide a vascular connection
between the embryo and its yolk reserves.
 2. Matrotrophic - if nutrients are drawn from alternative sources
- Example: Vascular placentae or secretions of the oviduct that deliver nutrients to embryos
- In mammals, nutrient delivery changes from preparative matrotrophy (placenta) to postparitive
matrotrophy (lactation)
- The release of the ovum from the ovary is ovulation
- The diploid chromosome is restored.
- Cleavage is the next process after the activation of development initiated by sperm penetration
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