LEARNING MODULE

BIOLOGY
Living Things and Their Environment

Name: __________________________________________________________________
Section: __________________________________________________________________

BY:
Loyd D. Gaudia, LPT, MAEd
 The Body’s Command Center

In this quarter, you will learn the following competencies:

 Describe how the nervous system coordinates and regulates these feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.
 Explain the importance the nervous system plays in the human body.
 What are examples of diseases that affects the nervous system.

PRE-ASSESSMENT:
Let us find out how much you already know about this lesson. Write F if it represents the female
reproductive system, M for the male reproductive system and B for both male and female reproductive systems.

Organs Answer
spleen
liver
sensory organs
nerves
kidney
intestines
brain
urethra
spinal cord
ganglion

ACTIVITY 1: Word Search

Let’s begin our lesson with this activity. Search words that are related to the nervous
system. You may highlight it horizontally, diagonally, or vertically.
 Body Control and Response
The nervous system helps you receive information about what is happening inside and around your
body, and directs you to respond appropriately to a given situation.

In situations that require us to act immediately, our alert senses report all the necessary information
about the event to our brain. The brain then interprets the information as a threat and quickly sends
electrical signals through selected nerves. Since this important event requires a fast reaction, our body’s
quicker means of communication takes the form of the electrical nerve impulses, sending an urgent
message to our leg muscles to move, commanding them to “contract quickly, a speeding car is heading this
way!”. In addition to electrical signals, the nerves also control the endocrine glands in your body that
produce chemical signals known as hormones. The hormones then trigger a sudden rush of emotions,
causing our heartbeat to increase, and our lungs to work harder and preparing our muscles for immediate
action to move our feet. In such a state, we move toward the sidewalk to avoid the accident. Our body
remains prepared for any trouble until the brain stops sending out danger signals. When the endocrine
glands respond, our body begins to calm down.

Functions of the Nervous System

The extraordinary amount of information that the body receives at any one time is flashed through
the nervous system in the form of millions of messages. These messages bring information about what is
happening inside and outside the body – the itch on the scalp or a sad news heard. Almost immediately, the
nervous system tells the other parts of the body what to do – scratch the itch or feel sadness. While the
body is doing these activities, the nervous system is also busy monitoring breathing, blood pressure, and
body temperature. Even during sleep, the nervous system is very active. It monitors and adjusts internal
processes and checks the outside world for any danger. The heart never stops beating and it continues to
do so slowly while one is at rest. The simple act of noticing changes in the weather is an example of how
the nervous system monitors events happening outside the body. The nervous system would then respond
to the weather by prompting one to take off his/her sweater or wear warm clothing.

The nervous system keeps the body working properly despite the constant changes that take place
around it. These changes are called stimuli (singular: stimulus).
Example: A fly was moving toward your eye and you quickly and automatically blink to avoid
damage to your eye. In this case, the fly zooming toward you are the stimulus and the blinking is the
response.

Although some responses to stimuli are involuntary (not under one’s control), such as
blinking of the eyes and sneezing, many responses of the nervous system are voluntary (under one’s
control).
Example: Opening an umbrella because it is raining (stimulus) is a voluntary action. It is a conscious
effort that involves the feelings of the moment, the memory of what happened after staying out in the rain,
and the ability to reason.

Neuron: The Message-Carrying Unit of the Nervous System

The nervous system is constantly active. Every second, hundreds of these messages are carried by
strings of special cells called neurons or nerve cells.

Neurons – the basic units of structure and function of the nervous system. They carry information
through the nervous system in the form of nerve impulses. They are unique because they can’t reproduce.
Once damaged, they can’t be replaced.

Parts of a Neuron
Although neurons come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain characteristics or features. A
neuron also has a nucleus, a cytoplasm (axoplasm in neuron), and organelles. These features are shown in
the figure below.

 Cell body – largest part of the

neuron and contains the nucleus
which controls the cell’s activities.
 Cytoplasm – extends into two
types of fiber-like structures
 Dendrites – one or more tiny,
branching, threadlike structures
which receive and carry information
toward the cell body
 Axon – a long, tail like fiber that
extends from the cell body which
carries messages away from the cell
body.\
 Myelin sheath – covers the axon,
which speeds up the travel of the nerve
impulses
 Axon terminals – feather-like
fibers at the far end that pass on
messages to the dendrites of other
A Typical Neuron sdsneurons
 Types of Neuron
Type of Neuron Functions
 Conduct nerve impulses toward the central nervous system
 Transmit information from the cells and organs that gather
Sensory neurons
information about conditions in the internal and external
(Afferent neurons)
environments
 Sensory receptors are specialized sensory neurons
 Conduct impulses away from the central nervous system
 Nerve impulses transmitted by motor neurons cause muscles,
Motor neurons
organs, and glands to respond
(Efferent neurons)
 Effectors are muscles, organs, and glands that respond to impulses
from motor neurons
 Conduct impulses within the central nervous system. Interneurons
Interneurons connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons
(Connector or  Carry out functions of the central nervous system; processing and
Association Neurons) coordinating the incoming and outgoing impulses of the peripheral
nervous system

Nerve Impulses
A nerve impulse is a wave of chemical and electrical signals that is conducted along the membrane
of a neuron. It travels from sensory neurons to interneurons to motor neurons.

How exactly does it get from one neuron to another?

When a nerve impulse travels along a neuron or from one neuron to another, it does so in the form
of electrical and chemical signals. The nerve impulse enters the neuron through the dendrites and travels
along the length of the axon.

Neurons do not
touch one another nor do
they touch effector
organs. Instead, there is a
tiny gap called a synapse
between two adjacent
neurons and effectors.
Somehow, the
nerve impulse must
“jump” through that gap.
But how? Think of a
synapse as a river that
cuts across a road. When
a car gets to the river, it
crosses over by ferry. The
car then drives right back
onto the road and The path of the nerve impulses in the body
continues its journey.
Similarly, a nerve impulse is “ferried” across the synapse by a chemical signal. This happens when an
impulse reaches the end of the axon, sending information across the synapse in the form of chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters, which are stored in small sacs. When a nerve impulse reaches the
axon terminal, the sacs fuse with the axon’s membrane and release its neurotransmitter molecules into the
synapse. The molecules then diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the next neuron or
effector cell. The electrical signal that brought the nerve impulse to this point shuts down, and the chemical
signal takes the nerve impulse aboard, moving it across the synapse to the next neuron along its route.

The chemical signal then triggers the electrical signal again, and the whole process is repeated
between the next neurons until the nerve impulse reaches its destination – the effector neuron – which
then triggers the organ muscles to respond accordingly. This process is very efficient since for a certain
reaction, everything happens in a matter of seconds! One of the simplest responses of the nervous system
is called a reflex. It is an automatic response to a change in the environment.

(a) Neurons are linked together at a synapse, (b) When a nerve impulse reaches the tip of an axon,
the neurotransmitters are released into the gap, carrying the nerve impulse across the gap.

PROCESS QUESTIONS ACTIVITY 2: Challenge Corner

Read comprehensively. Answer the questions in at least 3 complete sentences.

1. What is the importance of the nervous system?
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2. What makes your neurons essential?
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 Divisions of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) is the brain

and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is
everything else

Central and Peripheral Nervous System

The structures of the PNS are referred to as ganglia and nerves, which can be seen as distinct
structures. The equivalent structures in the CNS are not obvious from this overall perspective and
are best examined in prepared tissue under the microscope.

The Central Nervous System

 the command center of the entire body
 processes information and sends instructions to other parts of the body
 all information gathered by sensory receptors is delivered here in the form of nerve impulses
 processes the information and responds by sending nerve impulses to the motor nerves and peripheral
nervous system
Brain

- important and delicate organ that is protected by a group of bones joined by immovable joints (jagged
sutures) called skull
- wrapped in three layers or connective tissue that nourishes and protects it
- bathed with fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that cushions it against sudden impact
- it appears gray because it is mostly composed of gray matter which is due to the presence of billions
of cell bodies and underneath the gray matter is white matter which is due to myelinated axons
- mass is about 1.4 kilograms

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Brain Stem

Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

Spinal Cord

- a tube-like organ of neurons and blood vessels

- located inside the spinal column and is about 1.8 cm wide (nearly same size as a garden hose)
- covered with protective membranes called meninges
- relays nerve impulses to and from the brain

Reflexes are not only lightning-fast reactions; they are also automatic. The speed and nature of a
reflex is possible because the nerve impulses bypass the brain and travel directly to the spinal cord. The
brain becomes aware of the event only after it has happened. A similar sequence happens when you touch
a hot object. Your automatic response is to quickly withdraw your hand from a hot object. The neurons, in
a pathway called the reflex arc, carry the nerve impulses for an automatic response.
 1. Heat on the object stimulates a heat receptor in the
ccccskin of the hand.
2. Impulses that are produced travel from a sensory
ccccneuron to the spinal cord.
3. In the spinal cord, the impulses are transmitted
ccccfirst across a synapse through an interneuron,
ccccwhich then carries a nerve impulse to a motor
ccccneuron.
4. The motor neuron then carries the nerve impulse
ccccto a muscle.
5. The muscle contracts and pulls the hand away
ccccfrom the object.

Again, notice that the interneuron in this

pathway is in the spinal cord, not in the brain. A reflex
that does not involve the brain is called a spinal reflex.
Spinal reflexes enable us to respond quickly because
we don’t have to think about it.

The Peripheral Nervous System

 links the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the rest of the body
 made up of a network of bundled ropelike structures called nerves, which extend or branch out from
the central nervous system to the different organs of the body
 gathers and delivers information from and to the central nervous system
 consists of 43 pairs of nerves that arise from the brain and spinal cord, leading to the organs throughout
the body

Many nerves in the PNS are under the direct control of the conscious mind. For example, when you
want your leg to move, a message from your brain travels to your spinal cord, goes through a peripheral
nerve, and then to your leg. The part of the peripheral nervous system that stimulates the skeletal muscles
under your conscious control is called the somatic nervous system. It is responsible for the mediation of
spinal reflexes, which are involuntary. Spinal reflexes are extremely rapid; they involve the spinal cord and
the PNS but not the brain. The part of the PNS that is not under the direct control of the conscious mind is
called autonomic nervous system. This controls body activities that are involuntary – that is, those happen
automatically without thinking about them. The autonomic nervous system directs motor nerve fibers in
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and the glands. Contractions of the heart muscle and movement of
smooth muscles surrounding the small intestine are activities under the control of the autonomic nervous
system.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system have two divisions that have opposite effects
on the organs they control. Their antagonistic nature maintains stability in the body by keeping the
activities in balance.
The parasympathetic division is most active under normal conditions; it keeps the body
functioning even when the person is not active. For instance, our breathing continues even while we are
sleeping. The sympathetic division dominates in times of physical and emotional stress or whenever the
body requires some action it controls the “fight-or-flight” response during stressful situations such as the
nervousness we may experience when speaking before an audience. When we are frightened, the nerves
leading to organs, such as the lungs and the heart, are activated. The sympathetic division increases blood
pressure, breathing rate, and heartrate back to normal.
 Physiological Effects of the Autonomic Nervous System

Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of

Diseases of the Nervous System

Encephalitis
 acute infectino and inflammation of the brain
 caused by a virus such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and enterovirus, and in rare cases by bacteria
amoeba
 affects children, elderly, and those with weak immune system.

DETECTION
Patients experience fever, severe headache, coma, seizures, and convulsions

TREATMENT
Many people with mild encephalitis can fully recover. In severe cases – which can be fatal – patients
are confined in a hospital so their vital signs and fluid intake can be monitored to prevent further
inflammation. Certain antiviral drugs and corticosteroids are used to treat most forms of
encephalitis.

Meningitis
 inflammation of the meninges and the membranes surrounding the brain and the spinal cord.
 contagious disease caused by viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.
 viral meningities is fairly common and less life-threatening, whereas bacterial meningitis requires
serious medical attention since sever cases can lead to paralysis, brain damage, coma, or death.
DETECTION
The swellling triggers the symptoms of headache, fever, and stiffness of the neck
TREATMENT
Early treatments are important to prevent serious complications

Rabies
 viral infection transmitted through bites by infected animals such as dogs and vampire bats.

DETECTION
It can spread from the point of the bite area, specifically from the muscle, then to nearby nerves and
the brain. Once it reaches the brain, it is fatal in almost all cases.the brain infection causes the patient
to experience abnormal excitability, aggression, and in later stages, paralysis and death.
TREATMENT
It is important to be vaccinated immediately before the symptoms of the infection develop.

Tetanus
 a disease caused by certain bacteria found in soil contaminated with horse manure.
 often introduced into the body via open wounds

DETECTION
Inside the body, the bacterium Clostridium tetani releases a neurotoxin that affects the
muscles and nerves. The toxin can further spread via the bloodstream and lymph system, leading to
generalized spasms. Because the jaw muscles are affected early in the disease, tetanus is also known
as lockjaw.

TREATMENT
It can be prevented by immunization.
-Tetanus vaccineis derived from the blood plasma of horses
 Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of
Diseases of the Nervous System

Epilepsy
 is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in which brain activity becomes abnormal, causing seizures or
periods of unusual behavior, sensations and sometimes loss of awareness.

DETECTION
Patients repeatedly twitch their arms and legs during an attack.

TREATMENT
Although there is no knoen cure, some available treatments include medication and special diets to
reduce the frequency and intensity of attacks

Parkinson’s Disease
 is a brain disorder that leads to shaking, stiffness, and difficulty with walking, balance, and
coordination

DETECTION
Parkinson's symptoms usually begin gradually and get worse over time. As the disease progresses,
people may have difficulty walking and talking. They may also have mental and behavioral changes,
sleep problems, depression, memory difficulties, and fatigue.

TREATMENT
Although there is no cure for Parkinson's disease, medicines, surgical treatment, and other
therapies can often relieve some symptoms.

Alzheimer’s Disease
 is a brain disorder or a type of dementia that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to
carry out the simplest tasks.

DETECTION
In its early stages, memory loss is mild, but with late-stage Alzheimer's, individuals lose the ability
to carry on a conversation and respond to their environment.

TREATMENT
There's currently no cure for Alzheimer's disease. But there is medicine available that can
temporarily reduce the symptoms.
 ACTIVITY 3: See the Analogy (20 POINTS)
Read comprehensively and answer the guide questions. Refer to the scoring rubric below.
* Please answer this in the worksheet provided.

WHAT TO DO?
Make a list of things that can be compared to the parts of the nervous system and explain their similarities
according to their function. Write your answers in the table provided.

Examples:
 Brain is similar to a computer because…
 Nerves are like a two-line telephone switchboard because…

Part of Nervous System Thing (Analogy) Comparison to Their Function

Brain

Spinal cord

Sensory organs

Nerves

REFERENCES:

• Pavico, J. F., Ramos, J. A., Ramos, A. M., Bayquen, A. V., & Silverio, A. A. (2019). Exploring Life Through
Science Series (2nd ed.). Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

• Sta. Ana, S. T., Sismundo Bernas, V. S., Macalalad, E. P., Vergara-Macalalad, R. L., & Magleo, L. A.
(2016). Exploring the Realms of Science 10. JO-ES Publishing House, Inc.