Engineering Chemistry CH 1105

Lecture by Motin Sir

Tahsin Hossain, 2105006

1 Corrosion
Question: Desrcibe the difference between Corrosion and Erosion.

The process by which a metal reacts with its environment and thereby,
loses its characteristic metallic properties (particularly metallic strength) is
known as corrosion. On the other hand, deterioration by physical or me-
chanical means is called erosion. Example: Galling, wearing. When both
erosion and corrosion occurs, it is called corrosion-erosion. Nonmetallic
substances like plastics, wood, concrete, glass may also be deterio-
rated by the chemical action of their environment. These may also
be included in the corrosion process. Example of corrosion:
1. Iron rusting in air and moisture. Chlorine Gas + Magnesium.
2. Copper + CO2 forms a green layer called patina. It is composed of
CuCO3 +Cu(OH)2 .

Question: How does Corrosion affect the economy of a country?

Economic Aspects of Corrosion: Corrosion is a silent killer. Every year

almost all countries of the world face large amount of economic loss due
to corrosion. For example, US faces annual loss between $8 to $12 billion.
Australia, Great Britain, Japan faces almost 3 − 4% of their Gross National
Product. Bangladesh is facing more serious problems due to corrosion than
any other developed country. This is due to the fact that: i) weather of BD
is very suitable and ii) the ignorance of people.

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 Question: What are the Direct and Indirect Loss of Corrosion?

Direct Loss:

1. Cost of replacing corroded part

2. Cost of repainting the structure

3. Capital cost to modify the metal to make alloy to prevent corrosion

4. Cost of addition of corrosion inhabitor

5. Use of dehumidifying storage rooms

Indirect Loss:

1. Life of equipments, plants, bridges: Sudden explosion, sudden failure

causing harm to human life.

2. Shutdown of the Industry: Cost huge amount of money in production

lost.

3. Loss of Product: Total production of an industry is reduced.

4. Loss of Efficiency:

ˆ Loss of efficiency of boiler because of decreasing heat transfer ca-

pacity through the accumulation of corroded products.
ˆ Pipelines for water supply can be clogged by the deposition of rust
that require increased pumping capacity.
ˆ Combustion gases and condensates corrode piston rings and cylin-
der in IC engine.

5. Contamination of the Product: Copper salt can damange an entire

batch of soap. Color of the products may be changed as well. Lead
equipment is not recommended to use in pharmaceuticals, foods, and
beverage. Lead cannot be used in water pipers as well.

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 6. Over-Design: Incurs huge amount of loss. Ground pipelines, oil pipes,
water tanks, reaction vessel, boilers, condenser tube, marine structure
etc. Young engineers do heavier design to ensure safety of life because
of not knowing about the corrosion rate, nature of environments.

Question: What factors can increase the rate of corrosion?

Note: The more the catalyst(adsorbent), the more corrosion because catalyst
are high corrosive gas. The more the electrolyte in an environment, the
more the charge carriers - the more corrosion. Industry bed cause more
corrosion. Marin atmosphere has sea salt and more corrosive environment.
Rural environment is less corrosive. There are also liquid corrosives: SO2 ,
Cl, Phosphorus, Nitrates, Precipitation/Dew in industrial environment.

Question: Definitions of Electo Chemical Reactions and Factors.

Anode: The place where oxidation of metal into metal ions takes place.

Cathode: The place where reduction reaction takes place.

In a galvanic cell where electrical energy is produced, anode is the positive

electrode at which positive current enters intro electrolyte solution and neg-
ative electrode is the cathode, where positive current leaves the electrolyte
solution. However, in case of electrolysis/electroplating (where current is ap-
plied from the generator) cathode is the positive electrode which is connected
with the negative pole of the battery and anode is the negative electrode to
which positive pole of the battery is connected.

Electrode Potential: The tendency of the metal of an electrode to oxidize

into metal ion at equilibrium condition is called Electrode Potential. The
standard potential of a metal is equal to the difference between its solution
pressure and the osmotic pressure of its ions.

Solution Pressure: All metallic element and hydrogen have a tendency to

pass into solution in the form of positive ions. This property of the metal
is known as the solution pressure/electrolytic solution pressure/solution ten-
sion.

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Osmotic Pressure: If a metallic electrode is dipped in a solution of one of
its salts, the tendency of the ions is to be deposited on the electrode. This
backward reaction is attributed to be osmotic pressure of ions in solution.

Types of Corrosion Reaction:

1. High temperature corrosion reaction: Direct contact between metal

(Cu, Fe, Zn) and oxidizing agent (oxygen, halogens, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen)

ˆ 2Cu + O2 = 2CuO
ˆ 2F e + O2 = 2F eO
ˆ F e + H2 S = F eS + H2

2. Normal temperature corrosion reaction: A metal or two dissimilar met-

als or alloys are in contact with an electrolyte solution (moist air). It
is called wet corrosion reaction. The reaction is similar to electro-
chemical cells. Electro chemical reaction must have electrolyte and
electrode. Electrolyte is dissolved/paste in a solution. There should be
one donor and one acceptor. Wet corrosion has three types of classifi-
cation.

Question: Discuss the electrochemical mechanism of wet corrosion

with appropriate figure.

Mechanism of Wet Corrosion: Aqueous electrolyte solution con-

nects two dissimilar metals (one of which will be corroded) or two parts
of the same metal, which are in two different environments (one part
will be corroded). The reaction is similar to that of the Daniel cell.
At the copper electrode reduction reaction takes place and at the zinc
electrode oxidation reaction takes place. As a result, zinc is corroded.
Greater the flow of electricity through the cell larger is the amount of
zinc corrosion.

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Figure 1

Figure 2

5
Figure 3

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Question: What is meant of atmospheric corrosion? Discuss the
humidity and dust particle on the rate of corrosion.

ˆ Atmospheric Corrosion: Presence of certain amount of humidity

is essential. The minimum value is called the threshold value of
humidity. For iron, it’s 60 − 70%. SO2 acts as corrosive gas,
SiO2 , (N H)2 SO4 , and Charcoal Powder is adsorbant. Atmosphere
is divided into: i) marine ii) industrial iii) tropical iv)arctic v)
urban and vi) rural.

Figure 4

Adsorption: The collection of molecules by the external or inter-

nal surface (walls of capillaries) of solids or the surface of liquids
is referred to as adsorption.

Absorption: Absorption is a physical or chemical effect or a

mechanism in which electrons, molecules or ions join some bulk
phase.

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 Question: Explain that the fully exposed metal surface is
more beneficial than the partially exposed metal surface from
the corrosion point of view.

Product Film: The rate of corrosion will be affected by the na-

ture (protective or non-protective) of the corrosion product film
form on the metal surface. For example, rust on steel in open at-
mosphere is protective. Rust on pure iron is less protective than
that on Cu-bearing. Metal surfaces partially covered by rust may
corrode at higher rates than fully exposed metal due to moisture or
corrosive being absorbed by the rust. Therefore, sometimes fully
exposed metal is more beneficial. Another reason is the differ-
ential aeration corrosion. The protective qualities of corrosion
product films depend largely on humidity and moisture condition
of the exposure. In winter, accumulation of dust particle, com-
bustion products make the metal surface more corrosive. This is
relatively less in rainy season as water washes away these particles.

Gas: Chlorine ion is highly corrosive for steel in marine atmo-

sphere. In cold countries, fuel consumption is higher in winter.
So, SO2 is higher in winter. Thus, corrosion rate is higher in win-
ter than summer. H2 S causes turnish of silver and copper. Nickel
is quite resistant to marine atmosphere. Urban atmosphere like
Dhaka is enriched in CO and CO2 . CO2 decreases the rate or
corrosion by forming a protective rust film.

ˆ Under Water Corrosion: The extent and rate of under water cor-
rosion reaction depends upon the following factors.

Question: Discuss the effect of oxygen on the rate of under-

water corrosion.
(a) Dissolved Oxygen: Initially, the rate of corrosion increases un-
til a certain critical concertration of dissolved oxygen. How-
ever, it decreases over time due to the formation of rust film.

8
 Figure 5

(b) Temperature: Corrosion rate increases with temperature in

acqueous medium. The rate is higher in hyrdrogen evolution
than in oxygen absorption reactions. In open vessel the rate
increase upto 80◦. In closed system, the rate increases linearly.

Figure 6

Question: Discuss the effect of pH on the rate of under-

water corrosion. What is meant by passivity of metal?

(c) pH: pH range 4-10 doesn’t affect corrosion rate. This is the
steady state. The film formation rate is equal to the film dis-
olution rate. The rust coating is called passive film. The
process of forming this film is called passivation of
metal. It changes the potential of the surface. The

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 coating gets thick which acts as shielding effect. When pH¡4,
highly acidic medium, the coating will dissolve. As a result,
surface gets exposed and corrosion rate increases. In highly
akaline medium, the rate decreases with increased alkalinity
because metal oxides get permanent.

Figure 7

Question: What is salting out effect? Discuss the effect

of present of a salt in water on the rate of corrosion.

(d) Dissolved Salt: The concentration of dissolved oxygen de-

creases continuously with increase of salt concentration in wa-
ter. Excess NaCl, KCl takes the place of oxygen gas in the
solution. This is called salting out effect. At first, the corro-
sion rate increases upto a value, then it starts to decrease.

Figure 8

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 Mechanism: The conductivity of the water will increase due
to excess amount of salt. The anode and cathode can operate
staying quite far. The formed iron ion and hydroxil ion will
be quite far to form insoluble protective rust film. Soft water
is more corrosive than hard water.
(e) Water Velocity: Surface water is neutral or alkaline. Oxygen
absorption occurs. Relative water motion increases corrosion
rate. High velocity causes partial passivation. So, rate in-
creases at first but then decreases. Smoothness of the metal,
impurities in water plays a role.

ˆ Under-Ground Corrosion: In the soil following factors generally

control the rate of corrosion. Porosity (Damaging effects are more
than atmospheric corrosion because of pit formation), Electrical
Conductivity, Dissolved Salt (opposite of underwater), Moisture
Content, Acidity (same as under water).

Types of Corrosion: According to the outward appearance of the corroded

surface:
1. Uniform Corrosion: Corrosion occurs regularly through out the entire
surface. It is delocalized corrosion. Rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,
fogging of nickel, high temperature oxidation.
2. Non-uniform Corrosion: The corrosion is concentrated to a limited area.
The anodic area is very small in compared to the cathodic area.

Question: Write short note on Pitting Corrosion.

ˆ Pitting: It is very dangerous and harmul. Corrosion is concen-

trated to a relatively small area. It is highly localized. Anode is
much less than cathode, thus pit or cavity forms. If attacked area
is large, then pits are not deep. It is called shallow. Pit depth is
expressed as pitting factor.
P
f=
d
11
 P = depth of pith from original surface
d = thickness of original surface

Figure 9

ˆ Fretting: It occurs as pits or grooves. It occurs at the contact

area between two surface materails under load and subjected to
vibration, and slip.

3. Cavitation-Erosion: Both chemical and mechanical factors are involved.

It occurs underwater where due to repeated high velocity of water, air
bubbles form and collapse on the metal surface. Formation and collapse
of air bubbles make a localized didfferential aeration. Pits are formed.
In hydraulic turbines, ship propeller, pump, impeller.
4. Differential Aeration: It occurs due to difference of oxygen concentra-
tion. The part where oxygen is less acts as anode and the part where
oxygen is more acts as cathode. Example is a drop of dilute solution
on an iron surface. The corrosion attack will be found at the center of
the drop. Similar thing happens when impurities, debris, rust or small
leaf covers a portion of a metal surface.

Figure 10

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 Question: Write short note on Corrosion Fatigue.

5. Corrosion Fatigue: A metal usually cracks, when it is subjected to

repeated or alternate stresses in a corrosive environment. The cracks
are found after a limited number of cycles. This failue is called stree
corrosion cracking or corrosion fatigue.

Figure 11

Question: Write short note on Stress Corrosion Cracking.

6. Stress Corrosion Cracking: If an alloy is subjected to a constant tensile

stress and exposed simultaneously to a specific corrosive environment,
cracks occur immediately or after a given time. This failure is called
stressed corrosion cracking.

Prevention of Corrosion: It can be prevented by the following methods.

1. Modification of Metal: Metal can be modified.

ˆ Purification: Small amount of impurity causes to form action cell.

Cost of purifying is very high and very high purified material has
inadequate mechanical properties. It is soft, low tensile strength.
ˆ Alloying Metal: Alloying increases the homogeneity of metals and
produces oxide films on the surface of metals which prevent cor-
rosion. We can get homogenous and heterogenous alloys.

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 ˆ Passive Oxide Film: Passivity is the process in which a metal or
alloy exhibits much higher corrosion resistance. It arises mainly
due to the formation of highly protective thin film on the surface of
the metal or alloy. The film is insoluble, non-porous, self-healing
in nature. Chromium, Aluminum, Nickel, Titanium forms passive
films. Fe and Al produces a thin protective film by the action of
nitric acid.

2. Modification of Environment: Air purification is difficult in large place.

It will be difficult to make the air corrosive gas free. On the other hand,
air modification in small area is possible.

ˆ Removing Harmful Constituents:

– By removing acidity, dissolved oxygen, salts.
– K2 Cr2 O7 is used to form oxide films.
– Reducing the moisture content by dehumidifier.
– By neutralising acidic nature using alkali.
ˆ Using Inhibitors: Small amount of inhabitor decreases the rate.
Ex: Potasium Chromate.

3. Electro Chemical Method:

Question: Explain the Cathodic protection method of corrosion

control.

ˆ Cathodic Protection: Force the metal to behave like a cathode by

using sacrificial/galvanic anode and impressed current.
– Sacrificial Anode: Electrochemically more active metal is con-
nected to the metal needed to be protected to concentrate the
whole corrosion in the more active metal. For example: Zn,
Al, Mg. Mg is widely used in soil for its large negative po-
tential. Zinc is used in seawater. Used for undergound cable,
pipeline, ship hulls etc.

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 Figure 12

– Impressed Current: Current is applied from external source

to convert the corroding metal from anode to cathode. It is
done by applying sufficient amount of direct current from an
external source to an anode buried in the soil or immersed in
corrosive medium and connected to the metal structure needs
to be protected. Anode uses graphite, scrap iron, stainless
steel etc.

Figure 13

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 Question: Explain that buried pipelines be prevented from
corrosion by anodic protection.

ˆ Anodic Protection: Current is applied in a direction that renders

the metal more anodic and passivates it. This technique is only
applicable to such metals and alloys which exhibit active/passive
behavior. It is based on protective film formation by externally
applied currect. A device called Potentiostat is used. It maintains
a metal at a constant currect potential with respect to a reference
electrode. It has three terminals. One is connected to the struc-
ture, one is connected to an auxilary cathode (platinum), one is
connected to the reference electrode.

Figure 14

4. Applying Coating: We can use metallic, inorganic and organic (paints,

varnish, enamels, lacquers) coatings. However, coating is temporary
protection. The metal surface needs to be prepared before applying
coating. We need to remove the greases and scales. Then we will need
to do etching. We can also spray metallic compounds or electroplating.

References
[1] Monimul, H. Corrosion in Chemistry of Engineering Materials (pp.
65-126). (Associates Printing Press, Dhaka, 2007).

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2 Colloidal Chemistry:
Crystalloids: Those substances whose solution can pass through a parch-
ment membrane. It is called True Particle. It’s size is less than 10Å.
Example: sugar solution, electrolyte.

Question: What are colloids?

Colloids: It rooted from a Greek word - Colla, which means glue. The
substance which cannot pass through parchment membrance. The size is be-
tween 10Å and 2000Å. The speciality is that colloids don’t aggregate, so it
can keep a consistent phase for long. It can be of two types: i) solid (gel)
which is ordered structure. ii) liquid (sol) which is disordered state. Colloidar
particle has special characteristics. For example: Brownian motion. (Zig zag
movement) Colloids also carry charge. Preservatives for food industry falls
under colloids. Food process is controlled by colloidal chemistry.

Suspended Particle: It’s size is more than 2000Å. It can coagulate. It can
be removed by filtration.

Dispersed Phase: The substance distributed as the colloidal particle is dis-

persed phase.

Dispersion Medium: The second continous phase in which the colloidal

particle is dispersed is dispersion medium.

There are 8 types of colloidal system.

Figure 15

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Sol are of two types:

1. Lyophilic: It shows definite affinity for the medium. Example: Starch,

Protein, in water.

2. Lyophobic: It shows no attraction for the medium. Example: Gold,

Iron Hydroxide in water.

Question: Write down the difference between lyophilic and lyophobic

colloid.

Figure 16

Brownian Movement: The continuous rapid zig zag movement executed

by a colloidal particle in the dispersion medium is called Brownian movement
or motion. The movement of the particle was caused by unequal number of
molecules of the medium striking in from opposite directions. It creates a zig
zag movement. The suspended particles being very large, the probability of
unequal bombardment diminishes. Hence, no brownian movement. This is
because collision from both sides diminishes the effect.

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 Question: Explain Dialysis and Electro Dialysis methods for the prepa-
ration of sols.

Sol Purification: There are several techniques to remove the impurities

from the sol.

1. Dialysis Technique: A sol containing dissolved ions or molecules is

placed in a bag of permeable membrane dipping in pure water, the
ions diffuse through the membrane. By using a continuous flow of fresh
water, the concentration of the electrolyte outside the membrane tends
to be zero. In this way, electrolyte present in sol can be removed easily.
The process of removing ions from a sol by diffusion through
a permeable membrance is called Dialysis.

Figure 17

2. Electro Dialysis: Dialysis is carried under influence of electric field. Po-

tential is applied between the metal screens supporting the membranes.
This speeds up the migration of ions to the opposite electrode. Dialysis
is greatly accelerated.

19
 Figure 18

3. Ultrafiltration: The separation of the sol particles from the liquid medium
and electrolytes by filtration through an ultrafilter is called ultrafiltra-
tion.

Figure 19

Question: What is meant by Tyndall Effect.

Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light as it is called illuminates that path

of the beam in the colloidal dispersion. The phenomenon of the scattering
of light by the sol particle is called the Tyndall Effect. This is because sol
absorb light energy and then emit it in all direction. The illuminated beam
is called Tundall Beam or Tyndall Cone. True particle doesn’t show this
because of the size. This is because the size of true particle is lesser than the
wavelength of light. On the other hand, colloidal particls’s size is equal to
or greater than the wavelength. As a result, Tyndall effect can be used to
distinguish a colloidal solution from true solution.

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 Question: What is meant by electrical double layer?

Electric Properties of Sols:

1. The sol particle carry an Electrice Charge: While making Ferric Hy-
droxide Sol, Iron (III) (F e3+ ) goes through selective adsorption. This
increases the positive charge density. The mutual forces of repulsion
between similarly charged particle prevent them from aggregating and
settling under the action of gravity. This gives stability to sol. If it
didn’t happen, coagulation would have taken place.

2. Electric Double Layer: First of all, the solution must have electrolyte.
In this phenomena, colloidal particles acquires positive charge through
selective adsorption of a layer of positive ions around it. The negative
charge are then attracted which forms a second layer. The combination
of the two layers around the sol particle is called Helmholtz Double
Layer. The potential at the center is E◦ .

Figure 20

More recent considerations have shown that the double layer is made of
compact and diffuse layer together which is called Stern Double Layer.

ˆ A compact layer of positive and negative charge firmly fixed. It is

also called primary layer.
ˆ A diffuse layer of conterion (negative ions) diffused in the medium
of containing positive ions. It is also called the secondary layer.

21
 The diffuse layer is only loosely attached to the particle surface and
moves in the opposite direction under an applied electric field. Because
of the distribution of the charge around the particles, there is a differ-
ence in potential between the compact layer and the bulk of solution
accross the diffuse layer. This is called Electrokinetic/Zeta Potential.
The difference in potential between the surface of sol particle and the
compact layer is called Thermodynamic Potential or Interface Poten-
tianl or Irreversible Potential.

Question: What is electrophoresis? How does this prove that colloid

particles are electrically charged? How to determine whether sol particle
carry a positive or negative charge?

Electrophoresis/Cataphoresis: The movement of sol particles under an

applied electric potential is called electrophoresis or cataphoresis. Direction
of sol movement helps us identify the charge of the sol. If the sol particles
migrate toward the positive electrode, they carry a negative charge.

Figure 21

Usage:
1. Removing smoke from chimney gas
2. Removing suspended impurities
3. Electro plating of rubber on metal surface
4. Painting of metal parts

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Electroosmosis: Sol is electrically neutral as the dispersion medium carry
the same amount of opposite charges. The dispersed phase is kept stationary,
the medium is actually found to move to the electrode of opposite sign than
its own. The movement of the dispersion medium under the influence of
applied potential is known as electroosmosis. It is a direct consequence of
the existance of zeta potential.

Figure 22

Question: Define coagulation and precipitation. Describe the Hardy

Schulze Rule. What are the factors that determine the rate of coagula-
tion.

Coagulation/Precipitation: Stability of lyophobic sol is due to adsorption

of positive and negative ions. The repulsive force do not allow the particles
to settle. If charge is removed, there will be nothing to keep the particles
apart. As a result, it will coagulate. The flocculation and settling down of
the discharged sol particles is called coagulation. Coagulation can be carried
out in four ways.

1. Addition of Electrolyte: Excess electrolyte is added. Sol particles ad-

sorb the oppositely charged ions and gets discharged. In this method,
Hardy Schulze Rule is applicable. The rule states:

ˆ Precipitating effect of an ion on dispersed phase of opposite charge

increases with the valence of ion. For example, Aluminum ion will

23
 be more effective to precipitate As4 S3 .

Al3+ > Ba2+ > N a+

Again for F e(OH)3 , the following will be applicable.

[F e(CN )6 ]3− > SO42− > Cl−

The smaller the flocculation value, the higher the precipitation power
of ions.

2. By Electrophoresis: As the sols migrate to the electrode of opposte

signs, particles are discharged and precipitated.

3. By Mixing Two Opposite Charged Sol: Equals amounts of two sols are
taken. The positive particles of one sol atrract the negative particle of
the second sol. This is followed by mutual adsorption and precipitation
of both sols.

4. Boiling: Sols like sulfur, silver hallide dispersed in water may be coag-
ulated by boiling.

Question: How do the colloidal particles acquire electric charge?

Source of Charge:

1. Adsorption of Ions: In most cases, sol particles originates by the selec-

tive adsorption of ions common to the particle from the dispersion
medium.
F e(OH)3 + F e3+ → F e(OH)3 /F e3+
As2 S3 + S 2− → As2 S3 /S 2−

2. Ionization: Protein sol particle has positive charge at low pH and neg-
ative charge at high pH.

ˆ At low pH: N H2 acquired a proton to give N H3+

ˆ At high pH: COOH transfers a proton to OH − to give COO−

24
 Figure 23

Lyophilic: It is stable due to cluster formation which acts as a protective

layer.

Lyophobic: Colloid remains seperate and thus can aggregate easily as it has
no attraction for medium. In order to make lyophobic more stable, we need
to add small amount of lyophilic substance. It is absorbed by the surface and
lyophilic will create a protective layer around the lyophobic particle. Thus,
it will make lyophobic stable. For examlpe: (i) adding gelatin to prepare ice
cream (ii) silver protected argyrol in eye drops.

Gold Number: The amount of lyophilic substance that is needed to pre-

vent precipitation of 10mL gold sol in a solution containing 10% 1mL NaCl.
Stability of solution is inversely proportional to Gold Number.

Question: What is CMC? How can one detect a colloidal solution forms
micelle?

Associated Colloids: Soap, detergent particles are smaller than colloids.

However, these molecules aggregate to form colloidal size in concentrated
solutions. Aggregating spontaneously in a given solvent to form colloidal di-
mension particle are called Associated or Association Colloids. The colloidal
aggregates of soap and detergent molecules formed in solvent is called Mi-
celle. The required concentration is called Critical Micelle Concentration
(CMC). Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic parts aggregate on different sides.

25
 Figure 24

Cleansing Action of Soap: Two factors drive the cleansing action. (i) Sol-
ubilisation of Grease into Micelle (ii) Emulsification of Grease. In relatively
strong solution of soap, anions spontaneously form a micelle. The hydrocar-
bon tails are in the interior of the micelle and COO− ions on the surface. The
grease stain is thus absorbed into the interior of the micelle which behaves
like liquid hydrocarbons. As the stain is detached from the fabric, the dirt
particles sticking to the stain are also removed.

Emulsion: It is a liquid-liquid colloidal system. The dispersion of finely

divided liquid droplets in another liquid is called emulsion. It is of two types.
ˆ Oil in Water (O/W): Milk (Fat in Liquid)

ˆ Water in Oil (W/O): Stiff Grease

Preparation:The process is called emulsification. Agitating a small propor-
tion of one liquid with the bulk of the other by passing them through colloid
mill homogenizer. Emulsion prepared by shaking is unstable. To make stable,
a third substance called emulsifying agent/emulsifier is added. For example:
Soap, Detergent.

Question: What is emulsifier? Write down the roles of emulsifier.

Emulsifier:Emulsion prepared by shaking is unstable. To make stable, a

third substance called emulsifying agent/emulsifier is added. For example:
Soap, Detergent. It acts as bridge and reduce surface tension in the interface

26
of organic and inorganic parts to increase kinetic stability. Ex: It is used in
paint to make paint stable.

Gels: It is jelly like colloidal system where liquid is dispersed in solid medium.
If the sol is concentrated and the discrete particles are present in a state of
bridge cross linked structure with some mechanical stability and elasticity,
the system is called gel. When a warm sol of gelatin is cooled it sets to a
semisolid mass which is gel. The process is gelation. It is partlce coagulation
of sol. The coagulating sol particles first unite to form long thread chain.
These chains are interlinked to form a solid framework. The liquid medium
get trapped in the cavities of this framework.

Types of Gels:

1. Elastic Gels: Those gels which posses the property of elasticity. It

can change shape on applying force and then retract to its original
shape upon force removal. Example: Gelatin, Soap, Starch. It can be
obtained by cooling farily concentrated lyophilic solution.

2. Nonelastic Gels: Colloids that are rigid like silica. It has a network
linked by covalent bonds which give a strong and rigid structure.

Question: What are the properties of gels?

Property of Gels:

ˆ Synersis: Many gels if allowed to stand, undergoes contraction upon

exuding water and shrinks. As a result, some of immobilized medium
is given out.

ˆ Imbibition: Partially dehydrate elastic gels imbibe water when im-

mersed in solvent increasing its volume. It is called swelling.

ˆ Thixotropy: The interconversion of sol and gel. By shaking gel, we can

get sol. If we keep the sol undistured, it will again convert to gel.

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 Question: What are the applications of Colloids? Why is colloidal chem-
istry important?

Application of Colloids:

ˆ Foods: Many foods are colloid in nature. For example: milk is an

emulsion of butterfat in water. Salad dressing, fruit jellies, whipped
cream, ice cream, bread are other examples.

ˆ Medicines: Colloidal medicines being finely divided are more effective

and easily absorved in our system. Cod liver, skin ointments, antibiotics
are made in colloidal form. More examples include Antacid Liquid,
Colloidal Calcium, Manganese, Capsule Medicine etc.

ˆ Non-Drip or Thixotropic Paints: All paints are colloidal dispersion of

solid pigments in a liquid medium. It contain long chain polymers.
Thus, the paint is semi solid gel structure. When the shear stress is
applied with brush, molecules straighten up and entrapped medium is
released. As soon as the brush is removed, the liquid paint reverts to
the semi solid form.

ˆ Electrical Precipitation of Smoke: Smoke coming out from industrial

plants is colloidal dispersion of solid particles and is a nuisance and
pollutes the atmopshere. The smoke is treated by Cottrell Precipitator
to remove these from smoke.

ˆ Clarification of Municipal Water: Municipal water obtained from nat-

ural sources contain colloidal particles. Coagulation is used to remove
the colloidal particles from water.

Al3+ + 3H2 O → Al(OH)3 + 3H +

Al(OH)3 + 4H2 O + H + → Al(OH)3 (H2 O)+

4

The positively charged floc attracts the negative sol particles which are
then coagulated. Thus, clear water comes out.

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ˆ Formation of Delta: River water contains colloidal particles of sand and
clay which carry negative charge. Sea water contains positive ions. As
river meets sea water, these ions discharge the sand or clay particles
which are precipitated as delta.

ˆ Artificial Kindey Machine: Impure blood is made to pass through a

series of cellophane tube surrounded by a washing solution. The purified
blood is returned to the patient.

ˆ Adsorption Indicators: These indicators functions by preferential ad-

sorption of ions onto sol particles.

ˆ Blue Color of Sky: This is an application of Tyndall effect. The sun

light absorbed by the dust or ice in upper atmosphere and scatter light
of blue color.

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3 Industrial Chemistry
The branch of chemistry which applies physical and chemical procedures to-
wards the transformation of natural raw materials and their derivatives to
products that are of benefits to humanity. By determining chemical compo-
sition new process, substance are developed to increase scientific knowledge.

Scope:
ˆ Exploitation of material and energy

ˆ Food production, health, hygiene, shelter protection, decoration

Question: What is meant by unit process and unit operation.

Types of Changes: There are basically two types of change processes.

1. Physical Change (Unit Operation): Vaporization, Adsorption, Distilla-
tion, Mixing, Drying, Centrifuzation, Filtration, Screening
2. Chemical Change (Unit Process): Oxidation, Reduction, Neutraliza-
tion, Electrolysis, Nitration, Halogenation, Sulphonation

Question: Define glass both physically and chemically.

3.1 Glass:
One type of composition is 72% Quartz, 13% Soda, 10% Lime. There are
two types of definitions. These are as following:
1. Physical Definition: Glass is hard, rigid, brittle, amorphous (having
no fixed shape) solid, undercooled, non crystaline substance with no
definite melting point and high viscosity to prevent crystallization.
2. Chemical Definition: Glass is made by fusing mixtures of silicates, alkali
and alkaline earth compounds and other constituents as CaO, MgO,
SnO2, BaO, PbO2 forming a random structure.
Physical Properties:
ˆ It is transparent and amorphous solid

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 ˆ It is a vitirified solid

ˆ It is hard, rigid with no melting point

ˆ It has sufficiently high viscosity to prevent crystallization

ˆ It is heat and electrical insulating

ˆ It can incorporate coloring material

ˆ It can adjust structure even when foreign material is added

Chemical Properties:

Question: Briefly illustrate the raw materials of glass manufacturing

process.

Composition: There are two types of components.

1. Major Components: Sand (SiO2 ), Lime (CaO), Soda (N a2 O)

2. Minor Components: As2 O3 , F e2 O3 , K2 O, B2 O3 (Borax Glass), P bO

(Optical Glass), M gO, Al2 O3 , ZnO, BaO, Sb2 O, SO3 , Se (Decoloriza-
tion).

Question: What are the properties of optical and safety glass?

Classification: There are many types of glass. The types are discussed as
follows.
1. Soda Lime Glass: It is the most widely used glass. Almost 90-95% glass
used belong to this type. It has 70-74% SiO2 , 10-13% CaO, 13-16%
N a2 O.
Properties:

ˆ Sufficiently viscous
ˆ Melt with difficulty
ˆ Chemically more resistant

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 Application: Flat Glass, Tumblers, Table Ware, Window, Plate, Float,
Wire.

2. Silica Glass/Quartz: It is made by fusion of quartz. It is consisted of

almost 100% silica.
Properties:

ˆ Thermally and chemically very resistant

ˆ Lowest specific gravity (density)
ˆ High softening and melting point
ˆ Low cubical thermal coefficient
ˆ Highest annealing point
ˆ Unusual Chemical Stability
ˆ Transparent to UV radiation

Application: Telescope Glass, Watch

3. Alkali Silica/Water Glass: It is a water soluble glass made of silica and

soda ash. It can range from N a2 O.SiO2 to N a2 O.4SiO2 .
Application: Adhesive for Corrugated Paper Box, Fire Proofing, Egg
Protection

4. Boro Silicate Glass: It has 10-20% B2 O3 , 80-87% SiO2 , 10% N a2 O.

Properties:

ˆ Low expansion coefficient

ˆ Superior resistance to shock
ˆ Excellent chemical stability
ˆ High electrical resistance

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 Application: Baking Dish, Laboratory Glass Wire, Pipeline, Insula-
tor, Washer

5. Alkali Silica/Water Glass: It is a water soluble glass made of silica and

soda ash. It can range from N a2 O.SiO2 to N a2 O.4SiO2
Application: Adhesive for Corrugated Paper Box, Fire Proofing, Egg
Protection

6. Lead Glass: It is used for optical purpose. It has 67% SiO2 , 14.8%
P bO, 9.5% N a2 O 7% K2 O, 0.9% CaO, 0.5% As2 O3 .
Properties:

ˆ High refractive index

ˆ Low hardness
ˆ High dispersion power
ˆ High density

Application: Optical work, bulb, tube light, lance, electric bulb, neon-
sign tubing, radiator, shielding from nuclear radiation.

7. Special Glass:

(a) Colored Glass: It is made in pot furnace from batch material con-
taining inorganic colorizing agents like metallic oxide. There are
three types:
ˆ Colored glass is produced by the absorption of certain light
frequencies by coloring agents in solution using oxides of tra-
sition elements: Ti, V, Crn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Ni, Cu.
ˆ Color is due to colloidal particle precipitated within the col-
orless glass as a result of heat trearment. Gold ruby glass is
produced by the precipatation of colloidal gold.

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 ˆ Color is due to microscopic large particles which may be col-
ored themselves. SeO2 is used in traffic lights.
(b) Opal Glass: Opal glass or trasnclucent glass is clear when melted
but becomes opalescent.
(c) Safety Glass: It is of two types.
ˆ Laminated: It is prepared by placing a non brittle plastic sheet
between two thin plate glass sheets. Three sheets are pressed
together under moderate heat to seal edges. Then they are
heated under in a an autoclave to make the plastic sheets in
absolute contact with the glass sheet. The three sheets are
made into single one.
ˆ Tempered: Strong and tough.

Question: Describe the properties of minor ingredients.

Minor Ingredients Influence on Glass Quality:

ˆ P bO - Increases refractive index and transparency.

ˆ K2 O Softening agent.

ˆ F e2 O3 - UV radiation resistance.

ˆ B2 O3 - Durability, Hardness, Chemical Resistance.

ˆ As2 O3 - Bubble removal.

ˆ N a2 SO4 - Removing scum from molten glass.

ˆ Se - Decolorizer when Collet is used. Collet is when old glasses are

used for recycling.

ˆ M nO2 - Decolorizer when Collet is used. Collet is when old glasses

are used for recycling.

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 Question: Define feldspar. Give the approximate composition of three
different forms of feldspar.

Manufacture of Plate Glass:

1. Major Raw Material: Quartz Sand, Soda, Soda Ash, Lime: Lime
Stone, Dolomite

2. Minor Raw Material: Sodium Sulfate, Feldspar, Boron Oxide, Potas-

sium Oxide, Lead Oxide

ˆ Formation: Lime stone, burnt lime stone, dolomite, feldspar and other
ingredients which are obtained in lump form are crushed to coarse pow-
der. Sand, soda ash are obtained in proper particle size. The mixture
of powdered ingredient is called Batch Material. Then it is taken into
tank furnace or pot furncae.

ˆ Melting: Tank furnace is used for huge production of glass and pot
furnace is used for special glass.

ˆ Tank Furnace Operation: Tank is heated above 1400C by fuel. Batch

material and cullet are added to tank. Materials melt and form molten
glass. When the molten glass is free from bubbles, it is called Plain.
Mixture of salt cake and charcoal fused with sand and lime stone to get
glass mass.

SiO2 + N a2 CO3 → N a2 O.SiO2 (Water Glass) + CO2

SiO2 + CaCO3 → CaO.SiO2 + CO2

N a2 CO3 + CaCO3 + SiO2 → N a2 CaO.6SiO2 + 2CO2

ˆ Shaping: The manufacturing of different types of glass form the molten

glass is called shaping or forming. It is done either by hand moulding or
by machine. Molten glass is allowed to pass between two water cooled
rollers to make plate glass.

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 Question: Explain term Annealing. Why is it necessary for finish-
ing a glass object?

ˆ Annealing: When the glass is cooled suddenly, glass develop a great in-
ternal strain cracking or breaking due to glass being conductor and lack
of uniformity. They cannot withstand temperature of shock. Arcticles
should be kept above critical or annealing temperature for sufficiently
long time. So, the glass is slowly cooled by passing through several hot
chambers.

ˆ Finishing: Clearing, washing, grinding etc.

Question: Why glass is supercooled or undercooled liquid?

Glass is amorphous. It does not form a crystalline structure. So, the con-
stituents particles of glass can move. Crystalline quartz forms a colorless
liquid when heated to 1050C to melt. If this liquid is cooled rapidly, the
quartz can be obtained as a clear, colorless glass mass and it is called supper
cooled or undercooled liquid. It is much more transparent. This contracts
or expands only very slightly as a result if can be cooled rapidly or heated
without cracking.

Question: Discuss the function of fluxes, stabilizer, refining agents, and

cullet in manufacturing process of glass.

Cullet: Broken or crushed glass from imperfect glass articles. Large amount
is included in batch materials.

Question: Discuss about the raw materials and manufacturing process

of bullet proof glass.

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