Bofylatos, 2022. Upcycling Systems Design

sustainability
Article
Upcycling Systems Design, Developing a Methodology
through Design
Spyros Bofylatos
Department of Product and Systems Design Engineering, University of the Aegean, 841 00 Syros, Greece;
bofy@aegean.gr; Tel.: +30-2281087343
Abstract: Design has an important role in shaping the modes of production, consumption and
disposal. Decisions made early in the product, service and system development influence the majority
of the environmental impact and social consequences. With sustainability emerging as the major
challenge of our times, the creation of novel methodologies, economic models and innovative
materials is critical. In this paper, we put forward a new methodology that aims to bridge the
ecomodernist business-focused circular economy models with the expressive material driven design
(MDD) approach. The ‘design out waste methodology’ (DOWM) bridges existing concepts, methods
and practices, creating an innovative design and production process that redefines waste and sets
it up as a subject of creative study. The purpose of this process is to help designers understand
the importance of evaluating the entire life cycle of a product; it also enables local ‘degrowth’ by
shifting our modes of production towards a human scale with local makers exchanging knowledge
and expressing themselves through upcycled materials, while simultaneously eradicating the very
concept of waste. The methodology has been developed in an iterative research-through-design

process that combines experiential and tacit knowledge from local case studies with desk research of
Citation: Bofylatos, S. Upcycling
emerging case studies in MDD.
Systems Design, Developing a
Methodology through Design. Keywords: circular economy; material driven design out waste methodology; research through
Sustainability 2022, 14, 600. design; DIY; upcycled materials
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020600
Academic Editors:
Nikos A. Salingaros,
1. Introduction
Alexandros A. Lavdas,
Michael W. Mehaffy and Since the industrial revolution, humanity has adopted a utilitarian view of the envi-
Ann Sussman ronment, seeing it as a means of economic growth, a provider of infinite resources and an
endless space for discarding our waste. Products have become part of a throwaway culture,
Received: 4 November 2021
creating waste at every step of their lifecycle, from the acquisition of virgin materials to pro-
Accepted: 31 December 2021
duction and disposal. This throwaway culture and planned obsolescence [1] have created
Published: 6 January 2022
mountains of trash that poison our air, ground, and waterways, putting the existence of life
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral on the planet in danger. The fallacy of exponential growth on a finite planet has led to the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in emergence of sustainability as an answer to the interconnected and wicked problems we
published maps and institutional affil- are facing today. Seeing how the rise of the Anthropocene has created existential threats to
iations. the survival of humans on Earth, the Paris accords were adopted as a means to curb rising
temperature to less than two degrees Celsius. In short, we need to reconsider the way we
do things every ten years for a chance to have a future. The difficulty of each transition
towards a carbon neutral system is exponentially harder than the previous one [2].
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
In addition to environmental management, consumption patterns also must shift.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
Products and the materials they are made from make up a considerable part of the problem.
distributed under the terms and
The European Union has adopted a strategy for transitioning towards a circular economy
conditions of the Creative Commons
as a two-pronged approach that has the capacity to improve environmental conditions,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// increase resource efficiency and foster behavioral change towards sustainable lifestyles.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ This paper presents an iterative research-through-design study of the upcycling sys-
4.0/). tems design methodology. This methodology aims to identify existing waste streams in
Sustainability 2022, 14, 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020600 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 600 2 of 18
the local context and use existing methodologies to create DIY materials and products
that decelerate the rate at which they end up in landfills. In the first section, a literature
review of relevant approaches in waste management, design for sustainability and material
design is presented. The insights from these methodologies are synthesized in a new design
methodology. In the second section, the steps of the methodology and the rationale for
the research-through-design approach are presented. The presentation of these steps is
elaborated through five iterative applications of the methodology with a new layer being
added in each one. The article closes with a discussion of the conclusions and a reflection
on the next steps of the development of the methodology.
The central research contributions of this paper are twofold. Research-through-design
as a designerly method of inquiry and scholarship is very promising in the context of
design and sustainability. We believe that this way of developing theory and practice in
tandem is relevant to the ill-defined and messy problems that are posed by the need to
transition towards sustainability. The second level of contribution is the methodology per
se and its application in a wide array of materials. The choice to adopt a wide scope instead
of a deep one is based on the view that multidisciplinary creative research can act as a
counterposition to the way modern science has been fragmented and specialized to the
point that it cannot be applied in a practical way.
2. State of the Art

2.1. Design for the Circular Economy
One notion central to the circular economy is the separation of materials in two distinct
loops, technical and biological [3]. Materials that belong in the first category are those that
do not biodegrade and can be recycled with minimal loss in quality. Such materials are
metals, petrochemical plastics and glass. The latter loop leverages the biological process of
biodegradation to break down a material to benign compounds that act as nutrients for
the ecosystem. Such materials include paper, most agricultural waste, organic textiles and
bioplastics. Combining materials from the two categories in a way that cannot be sepa-
rated creates “monstrous hybrids” [3]—materials that cannot be recycled or biodegraded.
Through this approach the concept of waste is eliminated as materials are either to be given
new life or to be fed to the environment.
The circular economy, as an approach to sustainability, offers efficient and realistic
solutions to these problems, while paving the transition from the current ‘take-make-waste’
extractivist industrial and economic model, to a circular one. Circular economy directives
have become part of the EU’s waste management policy and design of new products. The
idea of the circular economy seeks to redefine the idea of waste around us, not as trash, but
as a starting point of a new value creation chain during every aspect of their use. In this
model, previous approaches, such as cradle-to-cradle [3], are considered.
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) has established the circular economy as a
solution for sustainability and prosperity. The foundation defines the circular economy as
“An industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design. It replaces the
‘end-of-life’ concept with restoration, shifts towards the use of renewable energy, eliminates the use
of toxic chemicals, which impair reuse, and aims for the elimination of waste through the superior
design of materials, products, systems, and, within this, business models” [4]. This definition
is based on three principles: (i) design out waste and pollution, (ii) keep products and
materials in use and (iii) regenerate natural systems.
The butterfly diagram, pictured in Figure 1, is a visualisation of this model. It exempli-
fies the necessity of small and cascading loops that preserve value in both products and
materials. The closed loops pictured aim to decelerate the speed with which objects and
materials end up in landfills, either by trapping them in closed loops or by adding end of
life usability to products and materials. Incineration for energy production and landfilling
is the last resort that should be avoided at all costs.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
materials end up in landfills, either by trapping them in closed loops or by adding end of
life usability to products and materials. Incineration for energy production and landfilling
is the last resort that should be avoided at all costs.
Figure 1. Circular
Figure Economy.
1. Circular Source:
Economy. Ellen
Source: MacArthur
Ellen Foundation.
MacArthur Foundation.
TheThe
transition towards
transition thethe
towards circular economy
circular economy creates a necessity
creates a necessityfor for
innovative
innovativedesign
design
approaches that address the entire product lifecycle, posing questions such
approaches that address the entire product lifecycle, posing questions such as, ‘how can as, ‘how can a a
thing be assembled and disassembled into its constituent parts?’, and
thing be assembled and disassembled into its constituent parts?’, and ‘how can the ‘how can the user be
be motivated and given instructions
instructions on on how
how totoproperly
properlyrecycle
recycleaathing
thingatatthe
theend
endofofitsitslife’.
life’.
TheThe material
material selection
selection aspectofofthe
aspect thedesign
designprocess
processmust
mustevolve
evolvetotoinclude
includethis
thislogic
logicbut
butalso
alsototoinvolve
involvethe
theaesthetic
aestheticand
andexperiential
experientialproperties
propertiesof ofmaterials
materialsin inthe
the design
design process.
pro-
cess. However,
However, thethe creation
creation of new
of new loops
loops andand materials
materials is not
is not simply
simply a technical
a technical problem.
problem. Design
Design hascapacity
has the the capacity tovalue
to give give value and meaning
and meaning to the outputs
to the outputs of the
of the new new material
material loops that
the that
loops application of circular
the application economyeconomy
of circular principles creates. creates.
principles In the next section,
In the a method
next section, a to
leverage
method the aesthetic
to leverage qualities of
the aesthetic recycledofmaterials
qualities recycledas a creative
materials asmethod of understanding
a creative method of
what design what
understanding can look likecan
design is presented.
look like is presented.
2.2.2.2. Material
Material Driven
Driven Design
Design
Tinkering
Tinkering with
with materials
materials is a is
waya way to integrate
to integrate the study
the study of materials
of materials early inearly in the
the de-
design process [5]. The material driven design method (MDD) [6] is based
sign process [5]. The material driven design method (MDD) [6] is based on a ‘research- on a ‘research-
through-design’
through-design’ [7][7] methodology,
methodology, which
which emphasizesboth
emphasizes boththe
thetechnical
technicalandandthe
theexperien-
experiential
tial characteristics of the material, through comparison with similar materials, the
characteristics of the material, through comparison with similar materials, and andcreation
the
of samples and user studies.
creation of samples and user studies.
TheTheMDD MDD methodologyfacilitates
methodology facilitatesaadesign
design process
process in
in which
whichthe
thematerials
materials areare
thethe
main
main pillar. It encourages direct interaction with the material by hand, from the first con-the
pillar. It encourages direct interaction with the material by hand, from the first contact to
detailed study and understanding of the material with its unique properties and limitations.
tact to the detailed study and understanding of the material with its unique properties
Working with an exploratory approach, the designer understands the material in depth, in
and limitations. Working with an exploratory approach, the designer understands the ma-
terms of experiential properties, physical properties and the purpose of the material within
terial in depth, in terms of experiential properties, physical properties and the purpose of
a specific context. The MDD methodology has four successive steps pictured in Figure 2:
the material within a specific context. The MDD methodology has four successive steps
1. Understanding of material; 2. Creating a vision of material experiences; 3. Defining
pictured in Figure 2: 1. Understanding of material; 2. Creating a vision of material experi-
material experience standards; and 4. Material-driven concept development.
ences; 3. Defining material experience standards; and 4. Material-driven concept develop-
ment.
Figure2.2.MDD
Figure MDDmethodology.
methodology.Source:
Source:Karana
Karanaetetal.
al.2015
2015[6].
[6].
Material-driven-design
Material-driven-design is is aa pluriversal
pluriversal practice
practice [8],
[8], that
that does
does notnot aim to create a per-
fect
fectfinished
finished industrial
industrial material,
material, but but instead
instead focuses
focuses on on creating
creating associations
associations of of humans,
humans,
non-humans
non-humans and and infrastructure.
infrastructure. It It acts
acts as
as aa multidisciplinary
multidisciplinary field field that
that aims
aims toto combine
combine
biotechnology,
biotechnology,artistic
artisticmethods,
methods,engineering,
engineering,waste wastemanagement
management and and craft
craft in a new unity.
Technological
Technologicaldevelopment
developmenthas has led, and
led, andis being driven
is being by, the
driven by,constant
the constanttendency towards
tendency to-
perfection. The dominance of an aesthetic model is associated
wards perfection. The dominance of an aesthetic model is associated with perfection with perfection in everyin
sphere of human
every sphere life, thelife,
of human body, thethe waythe
body, of life,
waytheir products
of life, and materials
their products [9]. Striving
and materials [9].
for perfection
Striving feeds the feeds
for perfection throwaway culture that
the throwaway has dominated
culture modern design
that has dominated modern and has
design
given
and hasroom to planned
given room toobsolescence [1]. In contrast,
planned obsolescence [1]. Inaccording
contrast,toaccording
the Japanese to thephilosophy
Japanese
of ‘Wabi Sabi’, the asymmetrical, the imperfect, the broken, the
philosophy of ‘Wabi Sabi’, the asymmetrical, the imperfect, the broken, the fragmented fragmented and the decon-
structed are all equally important aspects of the aesthetic pleasure
and the deconstructed are all equally important aspects of the aesthetic pleasure of the of the world around
us. Thisaround
world is a world that is
us. This is constantly
a world that changing its “perfect”
is constantly changing state.
its ‘Wabi’
“perfect”identifies rustic
state. ‘Wabi’
simplicity, freshness or silence. It can also refer to peculiarities or defects
identifies rustic simplicity, freshness or silence. It can also refer to peculiarities or defects resulting from the
construction process, which add uniqueness and elegance to the
resulting from the construction process, which add uniqueness and elegance to the object.object. ‘Sabi’ is the beauty
or serenity
‘Sabi’ is thethat accompanies
beauty or serenity aging,
that when the ephemeral
accompanies longevity
aging, when of the object
the ephemeral is evident
longevity of
from the patina,
the object texture
is evident fromand thethe visibility
patina, of repairs
texture and the [10,11].
visibility of repairs [10,11].
Whether intentionally or unintentionally, every crack and scratch, that manifests in
Whether intentionally or unintentionally, every crack and scratch, that manifests in
the materials as we interact with them, describes a story, a trace of the entanglement of
the materials as we interact with them, describes a story, a trace of the entanglement of a
a human with the physical, the animate with the inanimate. Interactions with materials
human with the physical, the animate with the inanimate. Interactions with materials re-
result in changes, imperfections, and ultimately unique objects, which bear signs of time
sult in changes, imperfections, and ultimately unique objects, which bear signs of time
and life [12]. Understanding and interpreting these elements in a material is becoming
and life [12]. Understanding and interpreting these elements in a material is becoming
increasingly important in design practice. Traces make a product unique and affect the way
increasingly important in design practice. Traces make a product unique and affect the
objects are perceived and valued over time [13].
way objects are perceived and valued over time [13].
Self-produced materials evoke a sense of uncertainty, curiosity, and surprise to those
Self-produced materials evoke a sense of uncertainty, curiosity, and surprise to those
who encounter them, for example, when finding out that a given material comes from
who encounter them, for example, when finding out that a given material comes from
recycled coffee grounds or is made from recycled plastic collected from the oceans [14].
recycled coffee grounds or is made from recycled plastic collected from the oceans [14]. The
article ”5 Kingdoms of DIY-materials for Design” classifies DIY materials into five categories-
kingdoms. This classification is based on the origin of the raw material used to develop each
new material. DIY materials, as mentioned above, come from non-conventional sources,
such as fruits, vegetables and other foods, animal parts, organic and inorganic waste or
from modified standard materials.
• Kingdom Vegetabile: The first category includes raw materials from plants and fungi
that come mainly from agricultural crops. Designers work with biologists and farmers
to create materials in this category.
• Kingdom Animale: Materials derived from living animals belong to this category.
They grow using either bacteria or animal parts, or their hair or bones.
• Kingdom Lapideum: The kingdom of Lapideum contains all DIY materials derived
from minerals, stones, sand, clay, mud, etc.
• Kingdom Recuperavit: This category includes all the unwanted or useless materials
that society considers waste, but which, with the creativity and knowledge of de-
signers, have the potential to be turned into valuable resources. Examples of these
are municipal solid waste (e.g., household waste), wastewater, organic waste and
by-products of factory production.
• Kingdom Mutantis: In the fifth category belong all the cases that are transformed
with the help of technology. That is, they belong to the DIY materials that are created
by combining raw materials from other kingdoms/categories, with technological
elements, producing hybrid, interactive or smart materials.
Material design provides a methodology that can go beyond the technocratic view
of sustainability as waste management. It provides the tools to foster the emergence of a
new ontology of design that is more compatible with sustainability and can act as a bridge
for the transition towards a new design ethos. In the next section, we will be presenting
a synthesis of the waste management aspects of design for the circular economy and the
evocative and hands on aspects of MDD.
2.3. Design out Waste Methodology

The design out waste methodology (DOWM) [15] is based on the first principle of
circular economy which places the waste of production, use or consumption of goods and
products, as a pillar of design and aims at their effective utilization. With knowledge and
acquired information as key factors, waste acquires ‘innovative’ attributes. Using an old
material in a different and innovative manner, provokes enthusiasm for its potential and
brings it back into the value cycles of the economy.
DOWM, pictured in Figure 3, consists of three parts: The first part is centered around
understanding the material flows and the feedback loops that decelerate their transfor-
mation into waste. Based on the understanding of existing waste management systems
new loops are designed to facilitate the development of new materials using the MDD
methodology. In the second part the “upcycling systems design” methodology aims to
transform a flow of waste into a loop that creates a new upcycled material. The third
step is the documentation of all relevant information into an open-source database, that
includes the properties, the making process and all other material qualities [16] relevant to
the material.
Sustainability2022,
Sustainability 2022, 14,
14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
600 66 ofof1818
Figure
Figure 3. 3.
DOWDOW Methodology.
Methodology. Source:
Source: Kottaridou
Kottaridou & Bofylatos
& Bofylatos 2019 [15].2019 [15].
Upcyclingsystems
Upcycling systems design
design is
is aa proposal
proposal for
foraaresearch
researchmethod
methodwhich
whichposits that
posits the
that
creation of a sustainable system will impact our strategies for waste management
the creation of a sustainable system will impact our strategies for waste management and and re-
source efficiency
resource efficiency by
by changing
changing consumer perceptionsof
consumer perceptions ofwaste
wasteand
andswitching
switchingtotoproduction
production
modelsand
models andconsumption
consumptioncloser
closertotothe
thehuman
humanscale.
scale.ItItisisbased
basedon
onlessons
lessonslearnt
learntfrom
fromthethe
DOWmethodology
DOW methodologybut butfocuses
focusesononthe
theprocess
processinstead
insteadofofthe theend
endgoal.
goal.The
Thesteps
stepsofofthe
the
methodologyare:
methodology are:
WasteWaste evaluation:
evaluation: Identification
Identification and and quantification
quantification of possible
of possible sources
sources ofof materialfor
material for
upcycling.
upcycling.
Material
Material vision:vision: Experimentation
Experimentation and development
and development of the rawof material
the raw material
production production
process.
process.
Material understanding: Testing of the mechanical and aesthetic properties of the upcy-
Material understanding: Testing of the mechanical and aesthetic properties of the
cled material.
Product concepts:
upcycled Prototyping objects iteratively.
material.
Production:
Product Starting
concepts:of a Prototyping
new value chain situated
objects at the end of a previously wasteful value
iteratively.
chain.Production: Starting of a new value chain situated at the end of a previously wasteful
value chain.
Upcycling systems design has the ambition to make designers think about the city
and their surrounding
Upcycling systems environment
design has as thea ambition
space ripetowithmake resources.
designers Urban
thinkforests, mines
about the city
and
andfields
their can be leveraged
surrounding for the reduction
environment as a spaceof ripe
the environmental
with resources.footprint of resource
Urban forests, mines
acquisition
and fields andcan for the provision
be leveraged for of
thea reduction
lower impact andenvironmental
of the more human scale to theofcycles
footprint of
resource
consumption
acquisition and andforproduction. Circular
the provision of a material designers
lower impact are designers
and more who to
human scale arethe cyclestoof
“trained
detect unused materials
consumption from technical
and production. or natural
Circular flows and
material transform
designers arethem into circular
designers who materials by
are “trained
using their design aptitudes” [17]. Upcycling systems design aims to support these
to detect unused materials from technical or natural flows and transform them into circular mate- emerging
designers to flourish.
rials by using their design aptitudes” [17]. Upcycling systems design aims to support these
The central
emerging designers innovation concerns the synthesis of the design tools based on the material
to flourish.
and the design for the circular
The central innovation concerns economy. theSynthesis
synthesisdoesof thenot remain
design at abased
tools theoretical
on the level,
mate-
but through the experimental approach it forms an iterative process
rial and the design for the circular economy. Synthesis does not remain at a theoretical of action research
and theory
level, development.
but through The production
the experimental of new
approach it design
forms an tools structures
iterative a methodology
process of action re-
for whole systems upcycling. As a research-through-design
search and theory development. The production of new design tools structures project, the goal is toaproduce
method-
aology
minimum viablesystems
for whole methodology,
upcycling.applyAs it, and through feedback and
a research-through-design reflection
project, iterate
the goal is to
the next version of the methodology. The nature of these DIY
produce a minimum viable methodology, apply it, and through feedback and reflection materials is such that at
the moment the knowledge and documentation of their properties is poor [16]. Finally,
iterate the next version of the methodology. The nature of these DIY materials is such that
Sustainability 2022, 14, 600 at the moment the knowledge and documentation of their properties is poor [16]. Finally, 7 of 18
this study aims to illustrate models for better waste management methods and a more
substantial and local recycling process with the goal of renegotiating the concept of waste.
this At a practical
study aims tolevel, the most
illustrate important
models innovation
for better of this studymethods
waste management is the process
and aofmorede-
signing and and
substantial documenting
local recyclingnew process
materials with
with thean emphasis
goal on understanding
of renegotiating the concept theofwhole
waste.
At aofpractical
life cycle both thelevel,
materialthe and
most theimportant innovation of
product. Ultimately, thethis study that
materials is thewillprocess
be proof
designing
duced throughand documenting new materials
this process incorporate andwith an emphasis
valorize the values onofunderstanding
sustainability,the whole
circular
life cycle of
economy andboth the material
degrowth. Theyandembrace
the product. Ultimately, the that
the imperfections materials
comethatwith will be produced
more human
through this process incorporate and valorize the values of sustainability,
focused loci and age gracefully. The design of such materials and the involvement of de- circular economy
and degrowth.
signers and engineersThey embrace the imperfections
in the development that come
and creation with moreproducts
of innovative human focused
that utilizeloci
and age
them allow gracefully.
the results The ofdesign of such
the research materials
process to be and the involvement
directly of designersThis
applied to production. and
engineerssupports
approach in the development
the transition andtowards
creation sustainable
of innovative products[18]
lifestyles thatbyutilize them
creating theallow
condi- the
results
tions of support
that the research process to be directly
the establishment of new applied
businesstomodelsproduction. Thisand
for small approach supports
medium-sized
the transition
enterprises withtowards
an emphasissustainable lifestyles
on low-scale, [18] by
quality creating the
production thatconditions
acts locally,that support
improving
the establishment of new business models for small and
the natural and social environment and increasing employment in a human-scale econ- medium-sized enterprises with
an emphasis on low-scale, quality production
omy addressing both environmental and social [19] sustainability. that acts locally, improving the natural and
socialToenvironment
better understandand increasing employment
and develop the this in methodology,
a human-scale economy we approach addressing
it as abothre-
environmental and social [19] sustainability.
search-through-design project. The term was coined by Sir Christopher Frayling in his
seminal To 1993
betteressay,
understand
Research andin develop the this
art and design [7].methodology, we approach
In it, a distinction is madeit between
as a research-
‘re-
search for design’, ‘research about design’ and ‘research through design’. Thehis
through-design project. The term was coined by Sir Christopher Frayling in seminal
sentiment
is1993 essay,
echoed byResearch
Bruce Archerin art and design
in his 1995[7]. In it,The
article, a distinction is made [20],
Nature of Research betweenwhere ‘research
he differ- for
design’, ‘research about design’ and ‘research through design’. The
entiates between research into practice, for practice and through practice. It is “a research sentiment is echoed by
Bruce Archer in his 1995 article, The Nature of Research [20],
approach that employs methods and process from design practice as a mode of inquiry” where he differentiates between
research
[21] and has intobeen
practice,
adopted for inpractice
a varietyand ofthrough
contexts,practice.
including It artistic,
is “a research
empiricalapproach
and socialthat
employs methods and process from design practice as a mode of inquiry” [21] and has
research [22]. It creates iterative design interventions to make new design theory [23]. This
been adopted in a variety of contexts, including artistic, empirical and social research [22].
type of research is different to typical scientific processes, as they might lack refutability,
It creates iterative design interventions to make new design theory [23]. This type of
fallibility, or testability. However, research through design is generative and convergent
research is different to typical scientific processes, as they might lack refutability, fallibility,
towards a new research program [24]. Design theory is a theory of action and meaning,
or testability. However, research through design is generative and convergent towards a
leaning on reflection in action [25] as a source of knowledge. As such, the methods need
new research program [24]. Design theory is a theory of action and meaning, leaning on
to be rooted in practice, informed by other disciplines and adopting intuition and tacit
reflection in action [25] as a source of knowledge. As such, the methods need to be rooted
knowledge [26].
in practice, informed by other disciplines and adopting intuition and tacit knowledge [26].
To develop upcycling systems design methodology, we engaged in an iterative re-
To develop upcycling systems design methodology, we engaged in an iterative research-
search-through-design project with five iterations pictured above in Figure 4. We ran five
through-design project with five iterations pictured above in Figure 4. We ran five case
case studies
studies of material
of material creation,
creation, adding
adding a new
a new layerand
layer andtools
toolsatateacheach step.
step. At
At the
the end
end of of
each
each iteration, we reflected on the steps and outputs and, through this, designed thenext
iteration, we reflected on the steps and outputs and, through this, designed the next
experiment.
experiment.Reflection
Reflectionininactionactionenabled
enabledthe theevolution
evolutionof ofboth
boththeory
theoryand andpractice.
practice.This This
was not the end of the process but a first proof of concept
was not the end of the process but a first proof of concept of the method. of the method.
Figure 4. The five-step research through design process.

Figure 4. The five-step research through design process.
3. The Research through Design Project Development

To develop the process a research-through-design project was undertaken. We did not
set out to go beyond feasible product concepts. Instead, we chose to focus on the mechanical
and aesthetic qualities of the materials produced, on the craft processes and how they give
new meaning to the making, and on communicating the values of sustainability through
the narratives associated with it. In this section we briefly present and reflect on five DIY
materials produced in the Department of Product and Systems Design Engineering with an
array of different collaborators. We picked the material types based on the ‘five kingdoms
of DIY materials’ [14] as a means to iteratively validate the first steps of the methodology.
In the following sections, the material, process, steps and reflection will be discussed.
3.1. Kingdom Recuperativ Upcycled Poplar Plywood

This material has been presented at length at the EKSIG 2017 conference [27]. Wooden
fruit crates needed for the experiment were collected from Syros’s central market where
fruit stores throw them away. These wooden crates are usually produced by small-sized
factories and are used for fruit distribution all over the country and disposed in a landfill
after a single use. In the production, trees cultivated in Greece are used and the type of
wood mostly chosen for the manufacture of fruit crates is poplar.
The crates were disassembled into veneer and reassembled into 3-ply and 5-ply ply-
wood sheets, pictured in Figure 5. Stress tests were undertaken to calculate their mechanical
properties. The samples used for the stress tests were 11.5 cm by 1.5 cm, but the method
allows for the creation of any size plywood sheet due to the overlapping of the pieces
of veneer. These tests enabled us to be certain that the proof of concept of this material
was valid and could be developed further. The material presented promising mechanical
behavior given the raw materials’ origin and defects [28]. At the same time, the choice of
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
liquid hide glue, an adhesive that is compatible with the values of sustainability due9toofits
18
natural non-toxic origin, created remarkable properties and made the material possible.
Figure5.
Figure 5. Upcycled
Upcycled plywood.
plywood.
3.2. Kingdom Mutantis

In this first Light
iteration, we performed the initial scoping of the field to find a waste stream
that could
In the next iteration, create
be leveraged to a new to
we decided material, thethe
focus on process of making
experiential a new material
properties and
of materials
to complete the knowledge gathered from the experimentation with upcycled plywood.
The process of holistically understanding the material is one that requires an understand-
ing of both. To focus on the purely immaterial material, we turned to applying MDD to
designing with light [28]. Light, due to its immaterial nature, can be viewed as an experi-
ential phenomenon, but the way it is experienced is tacit, therefore it cannot be repro-
the validation of the mechanical properties of the material. Additional research and tests
were necessary to explore the aesthetic properties of the upcycled material. The branding
of different producers created a colorful mosaic that communicated the narrative behind
the material in a humble and sincere way. The next step undertaken would be the material
experience tests and the prototyping of a piece of veneer furniture or a longboard.
This first material provided interesting insights into the method developed. First and
foremost, looking at the local context as a source of materials proved to be fruitful as was
the need to focus on the practical qualities of the material before the aesthetic properties.
Modeling the mechanical properties helps designers choose the application that are possible
given the material. Finally, the marks and traces that the old material passed down to the
new material transmit a narrative that can add value to what was considered useless waste.
3.2. Kingdom Mutantis Light

In the next iteration, we decided to focus on the experiential properties of materials to
complete the knowledge gathered from the experimentation with upcycled plywood. The
process of holistically understanding the material is one that requires an understanding of
both. To focus on the purely immaterial material, we turned to applying MDD to designing
with light [28]. Light, due to its immaterial nature, can be viewed as an experiential
phenomenon, but the way it is experienced is tacit, therefore it cannot be reproduced or fully
explained. Despite light’s immateriality, light is what enables the experience of materialities
in space. With this in mind, we categorized light as a catalyst that has the capacity to change
the sensorial qualities of any materials and, as such, it belongs in the Kingdom Mutantis. It
permits us to perceive the surrounding environment making it a medium through which
our perception of space and its surroundings becomes possible [29]. The ephemeral and
intangible qualities of light can reveal texture, accent, and spatial transition [30] and, at
a level of abstraction, light can transform into materials as volumes, surfaces and colors.
Color and light are entwined, in a similar way the material and the immaterial cannot be
separated [31]. It is this intermediate status of light that describes its materiality, like its
very nature being a wave of energy and a stream of particles.
During this study, we developed an understanding of the concept of luminous atmo-
sphere and found ways to convert it to user experience in tandem with other materials. The
pieces of colored plexiglass used for the making of the atmospheric luminaires were scraps
taken from a local sign maker. The design of atmospheric luminaires, shown in Figure 6,
was approached in an interdisciplinary way, with particular emphasis on the integration of
the experiential nature of light in the design. In most respects, we felt we were designing
a transformation in the form of the product by designing the way the light shines and
transforms the space. We understood the experience and the aesthetic qualities of different
lights through introspective writing [27] focusing on how the phenomenon made us feel
and changed the space.
In this case study, we focused on how to embody internal meanings in a material and
how to design a material that transforms the materials around it. This was a change of
pace from the engineering approach in the previous study, yet it felt that we were lacking
documentation beyond our own ideas and feelings. The process was very fruitful, but it
underlined the need to engage with the users of the material to understand their experience.
In the next case study, we engaged with both experiential and mechanical tests to better
understand the material.
documentation beyond our own ideas and feelings. The process was very fruitful, but it
underlined the need to engage with the users of the material to understand their experi-
ence. In the next case study, we engaged with both experiential and mechanical tests to
better understand the material.
Figure6.6.Using
Figure Usinglight
lightas
asaamaterial.
material.
3.3.
3.3.Kingdom
KingdomVegetabile
VegetabileMycelium
Mycelium
The experimentation
The experimentation with
with mycelium
mycelium hashasbeen presented
been presented in thein EKSI 20192019
the EKSI conference [32].
conference
Again, with this
[32]. Again, withmaterial,
this material,we focused
we focused on mechanical
on mechanical teststests
andand thethe
co-development
co-development of of
a
growing
a growing protocol
protocolin collaboration
in collaboration with mycologists
with mycologists of the Athens
of the Athens Agricultural
AgriculturalUniversity.
Univer-
Biotechnology,
sity. Biotechnology,an approach
an approach that that
combines
combines thethe
principles
principles of of
engineering,
engineering,biology
biologyand and
materials science, has greatly contributed to the creation of sustainable
materials science, has greatly contributed to the creation of sustainable materials, through materials, through
bio-fabrication
bio-fabricationtechnology,
technology,i.e., i.e.,the
theproduction
productionofofcomplex
complexmaterials
materialsand andartifacts
artifactsthrough
through
the development of living organisms, tissues and cells [33,34].
the development of living organisms, tissues and cells [33,34]. By exploiting By exploiting the metabolism
the metabo-
of biological
lism systems
of biological to produce
systems materials,
to produce the need
materials, theforneed
additional energy is
for additional limited
energy is [35,36],
limited
which
[35,36],leads
which to leads
a verytolow, or even
a very low, or positive, environmental
even positive, environmentalfootprint. As a result,
footprint. these
As a result,
materials are environmentally friendly, biodegradable and
these materials are environmentally friendly, biodegradable and can become food for can become food for growing
new materials
growing new at the endat
materials ofthe
theirend lifeofcycle
their[37].
life cycle [37].
Growing
Growing design is a design practicethat
design is a design practice thatrequires
requiresthe thecultivation
cultivationof ofliving
livingbiological
biological
organisms
organisms to grow products, to achieve unique properties, expressions andsustainable
to grow products, to achieve unique properties, expressions and sustainable
solutions for product design. It is informed by the practices of bio-fabrication, and it is
solutions for product design. It is informed by the practices of bio-fabrication, and it is
concerned with specific types of materials. This practice adopts techniques from other
concerned with specific types of materials. This practice adopts techniques from other
contemporary design and production practices, involving utilizing natural materials, such
contemporary design and production practices, involving utilizing natural materials, such
as wood or plants. The designers who use this practice function at the intersection of the
as wood or plants. The designers who use this practice function at the intersection of the
science of biology and design. The most common organisms used for growing design
science of biology and design. The most common organisms used for growing design ma-
materials are fungi, bacteria, and algae.
terials are fungi, bacteria, and algae.
In our case, we chose three species of fungi and two types of substrates for the mechan-
In our case, we chose three species of fungi and two types of substrates for the me-
ical tests. For the material experience tests, we tried to use a variety of different substrates,
chanical tests. For the material experience tests, we tried to use a variety of different sub-
such as cereal (e.g., oatmeal), seeds (e.g., quinoa, flax, poppy), herbs (e.g., rosemary and tea
strates, such as cereal (e.g., oatmeal), seeds (e.g., quinoa, flax, poppy), herbs (e.g., rose-
mix), flowers (e.g., chamomile, lavender, amaranth, hibiscus, bougainvillea) and other plant
mary and tea mix), flowers (e.g., chamomile, lavender, amaranth, hibiscus, bougainvillea)
fibers (e.g., pine needles, red lentils, corn silk, peanut shells) in different shapes and sizes,
and
to other plant
determine the fibers (e.g.,apine
difference needles,
substrate canred lentils,
make; these corn silk, peanut
samples shells) in
are pictured inFigure
different7.
shapes and sizes, to determine the difference a substrate
The procedure was different for the samples made for the mechanical test compared can make; these samples are pic-
to
turedfor
those in the
Figure 7. TheThe
aesthetic. procedure
substrates wasused
different
for thefor the samples
mechanical testmade for the
samples were mechanical
all waste
test compared to those for the aesthetic. The substrates
from agricultural production. In this way, we undertook two parallel case studies, used for the mechanical test sam-
one
ples were all waste from agricultural production. In this way,
focusing on creating a very controlled material that used an existing waste stream, and we undertook two parallel
one
case studies,
growing one focusing
a mycelium in a DIY onmanner
creating to aexplore
very controlled
its aesthetic material
qualities.that used an existing
waste stream, and one growing a mycelium in a DIY manner to explore its aesthetic qual-
ities.
rial is anything but easy. You can never know if you did everything right until the material
shows you, and you can only guess what went wrong. The creation of DIY materials, es-
pecially living ones, is a process of trial and error, in which you must record every step
and any variable alteration, until you get to a result that pleases you and meets your re-
quirements. Then, you will be able to recreate it. Despite the little time we had and the
uncertain nature of our project, we managed to achieve positive results. In addition, we
learnt the value of failing, reflecting, and evolving from our failures.
Figure7.7.Mycelium
Figure Myceliumsamples
samplesfor
forexperiential
experientialstudy.
study.
3.4. Kingdom
Three veryAnimale Bioplastics
interesting lessons emerged from this third iteration. First, regarding our
view ofInmycelium
the fourthas a material,
iteration in contrast
of the to the experts’
development view, who
of this research see it as we
program, the changed
root systemthe
of fungi, we attributed to it humanized characteristics, and considered feelings, memories
focus to bioplastics. The rationale behind the choice of these materials is rooted in the need
and responsesthe
to minimize arising
use offrom its looks, smell,
petrochemical and
plastics texture,
such while we interacted
as polypropylene withand
(PP), high- it. This
low-
living collaborator has a will of its own and engaging in such processes creates pluriversal
ontologies [8] that can further the discourse on sustainability and the transition from
modernity towards sustainability. Secondly the difference between generative research-
through-design and the scientific method became apparent in the specimens grown in the
laboratory for mechanical tests. Even when it was evident that the fungus had not grown
enough during the previous 24 days of the protocol, we could not let it grow more. For us,
as designers, the material was the end goal, while for our scientist colleagues validating
the protocol was the end goal. Finally, working with a living material is anything but easy.
You can never know if you did everything right until the material shows you, and you can
only guess what went wrong. The creation of DIY materials, especially living ones, is a
process of trial and error, in which you must record every step and any variable alteration,
until you get to a result that pleases you and meets your requirements. Then, you will be
able to recreate it. Despite the little time we had and the uncertain nature of our project, we
managed to achieve positive results. In addition, we learnt the value of failing, reflecting,
and evolving from our failures.
3.4. Kingdom Animale Bioplastics

In the fourth iteration of the development of this research program, we changed the
focus to bioplastics. The rationale behind the choice of these materials is rooted in the need
to minimize the use of petrochemical plastics such as polypropylene (PP), high- and low-
density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), commonly
used in single-use plastic items, such as shopping bags, straws, bottles, cups and other
types of design ephemera. Due to the massive environmental problems created, European
Directive 720/2015, aiming for the implementation of policies regarding the reduction of
excessive use of plastic bags, and European Directive 904/2019, aiming to reduce single-use
plastics, have been passed into law banning the use of such items. Creating alternatives
based on materials with a lifecycle close to the lifecycle of the products is a priority within
the European Union.
Bioplastics are materials that use biological polymers such as glycerin or gelatin to
create rigid or flexible materials with mechanical properties similar to plastics derived
from petrochemicals. In this study, we used animal-based glycerin made of byproducts of
the meat industry and used different types of food waste as additives. According to the
European Bioplastics organization, bioplastics can be defined as plastics based on renewable
resources (biobased) or as plastics which are biodegradable and compostable [38]. Recently,
the attention in the packaging industry regarding the use of bioplastics has been shifting
from compostable or biodegradable materials towards biobased materials.
This study was the most diverse to date as it aimed to investigate in depth both
mechanical and aesthetic qualities. The following actions were undertaken and created a
variety of outputs on the subject: mechanical tests of pure glycerin-gelatin bioplastics were
undertaken to examine the overall mechanical behavior of the material [37]; the bending
and tensile test were repeated using different percentages of glycerin and gelatin to explore
the correlation for different recipes [37]; in terms of mechanical tests, we also ran tests
involving adding different types of food waste to further explore the effects of different
waste materials being added to the bioplastic—due to previous test runs the change in
mechanical behavior was readily calculable.
With respect to aesthetics, this study pushed the frontier and was the most diverse
to date. Bioplastics can display a wide variety of aesthetic qualities imitating materials’
different textures and characters, ranging from brutal cement to brilliant plastics or natural
materials, such as wood; some samples are pictured in Figure 8. In addition, they can create
delightfully puzzling experiences by combining visual appearance with tactile feeling,
weight or other properties that feel “wrong”. To explore these characteristics beyond
introspection, a wide array of aesthetic experience tests was undertaken. A quantitative
survey of the perceived aesthetic qualities was developed and disseminated. This was
followed by focus groups that aimed to discuss the aesthetic qualities of these materials.
The most novel tool developed in this exploration of the emotive aspects of bioplastics
was the development of five samples of mature bioplastics—the maturity refers to the
development of the recipe and the ability of the designer-maker to produce a consistent
result. These five samples were given to four poets with varying degrees of skill, who were
asked to write an emotive text about how these materials made them feel and how they
evoked memories; the samples and the associated haiku poems are shown in Figure 9.
The five materials were bioplastics made from different types of food waste, these were
eggshells, avocado peeps, chamomile tea residue, orange, and banana peels.
An additional aspect was added to this iteration and that was the educational perspec-
tive. These types of DIY materials need to be more accessible and at times the barrier to
entry is high. A number of masters’ programs on material design have now begun includ-
ing, “Design through New Materials” in ELISAVA in Barcelona, and “Material Futures” in
Central Saint Martins in London. In this study, we created an educational two-day work-
shop targeted towards designers and other creatives. The hands-on workshop included a
theoretical lecture on the environmental problem of plastic pollution, a presentation of the
mechanical properties of bioplastics and a hands-on tutorial on bioplastics making. The
participants were very pleased and half of them went one to continue experimenting with
the bioplastics after the workshop.
riety of outputs on the subject: mechanical tests of pure glycerin-gelatin bioplastics were
undertaken to examine the overall mechanical behavior of the material [37]; the bending
and tensile test were repeated using different percentages of glycerin and gelatin to ex-
plore the correlation for different recipes [37]; in terms of mechanical tests, we also ran
tests involving adding different types of food waste to further explore the effects of dif-
ferent waste materials being added to the bioplastic—due to previous test runs the change
in mechanical behavior was readily calculable.
materials were bioplastics made from different types of food waste, these were eggshells,
Figure8.8.Examples
Figure Examplesof
ofthe
thebioplastics
bioplasticsmade
madefor
forfocus
focusgroups.
groups.
avocado peeps, chamomile tea residue, orange, and banana peels.
With respect to aesthetics, this study pushed the frontier and was the most diverse to
date. Bioplastics can display a wide variety of aesthetic qualities imitating materials’ dif-
ferent textures and characters, ranging from brutal cement to brilliant plastics or natural
materials, such as wood; some samples are pictured in Figure 8. In addition, they can cre-
ate delightfully puzzling experiences by combining visual appearance with tactile feeling,
weight or other properties that feel “wrong”. To explore these characteristics beyond in-
trospection, a wide array of aesthetic experience tests was undertaken. A quantitative sur-
vey of9.the
Figure 9.
perceived
Writing Haiku
aesthetic
Haiku for
for material
qualities
materialexperience.
was developed and disseminated. This was fol-
experience.
Figure Writing
lowed by focus groups that aimed to discuss the aesthetic qualities of these materials. The
most
3.5. novel
Kingdom
An tool developed
Lapideum
additional in this
Precious
aspect was exploration
Plastics
added of the emotive
to this iteration aspects
and that was ofthebioplastics
educational wasper-
the
development
spective. These of five
types ofsamples
DIY of mature
materials bioplastics—the maturity refers to the develop-
Plastic pollution has emerged as need to be more
an important partaccessible and at times the
of the environmental barrier
problem
ment
to of isthe
entry recipe and theofability of the designer-maker to produce a consistent result.
humanity ishigh. A number
facing. Approximately masters’oneprograms on material
third to 40% designout
[38] of plastics, haveof now begun
the more in-
than
These
cluding, five samples
“Design were
through given
New to four poets
Materials” with
in varying
ELISAVA degrees
in of
Barcelona, skill,
448 million tons produced annually, are being used in packaging designed to be disposed ofand who were
“Material asked
Fu-
to write
tures”
within an
ainfew emotive
Central
minutes text
Saint about
Martins
after how
its use theseIn
in[39–41].
London. materials
In made
this study,
addition, them
we feel
[42]and
created
landfilling how they evoked
an educational
and incineration two-
[43]
memories;
day
of workshop
plastic the
are well samples
targeted and
towards
documented the associated
designers
to cause haiku
healthand poems
andother are shown in
creatives. problems
environmental Figure
The hands-on 9. The
workshop
[44,45]. five
Instead
included
of applying a theoretical
a linear modellecture on the
to the useenvironmental problem
of materials, circular of plastic
economy pollution,
models can bea presen-
used to
tation ofsustainability,
provide the mechanical properties
separating of bioplastics
economic growthand froma hands-on tutorial on bioplastics
resource consumption [46,47].
In this
making. Theway, recycling were
participants refersvery
to the circular
pleased economy
and as thewent
half of them best way
one to tocontinue
manage plastic
exper-
that has been rejected by consumers
imenting with the bioplastics after the workshop. [48]. Unfortunately, there can be highly measurable
environmental impacts from the collection and transport of relatively low-density plastic
waste to collection
3.5. Kingdom Lapideumcenters Plastics under ¨traditional¨ recycling conditions [49–51].
for separation
Precious
In addition,
Plastic pollution has emerged asthere
in the process of recycling are many difficulties,
an important part of thewith the most basic
environmental being
problem
the sorting and cleaning of different plastics, and for this reason it
humanity is facing. Approximately one third to 40% [38] of plastics, out of the more than has not managed to
establish itself as an efficient method.
448 million tons produced annually, are being used in packaging designed to be disposed
Precious
of within a fewplastic is anafter
minutes initiative
its usethat aims to
[39–41]. Inaddress
addition, thelandfilling
problem of plastic
[42] recycling. It
and incineration
began in 2014 as the master’s thesis of Dave Hakkens in the
[43] of plastic are well documented to cause health and environmental problems Design Academy Eindhoven
[44,45].
and is now
Instead in its fourth
of applying version.
a linear Precious
model to theplastic
use ofismaterials,
a community basedeconomy
circular around open-source
models can
machines with more than 80,000 members around the globe. It includes sorting, making and
be used to provide sustainability, separating economic growth from resource consump-
use of educational tools that aim to foster collective understanding. This type of initiative
tion [46,47].
evokes the idea of ‘cosmopolitan localism’ [52] in the way it uses a global network to
In this way, recycling refers to the circular economy as the best way to manage plastic
develop bespoke, local solutions.
that has been rejected by consumers [48]. Unfortunately, there can be highly measurable
The community around precious plastics is a part of the Maker Movement [53] a
environmental impacts from the collection and transport of relatively low-density plastic
phenomenon connected to the design discipline since makers can be considered a new kind
waste to collection centers for separation under ¨traditional¨ recycling conditions [49–51].
of designer, often working with open, peer-to-peer, distributed and DIY approaches [54–56].
In addition, in the process of recycling there are many difficulties, with the most basic
Its preeminent characteristic is the bridging of the local and digital dimension through
being the sorting and cleaning of different plastics, and for this reason it has not managed
the collaborative and social nature of its activities. These communities act as a model of a
to establish itself as an efficient method.
distributed microproduction system [57]. The model of microproduction aims to enable,
Precious plastic is an initiative that aims to address the problem of plastic recycling.
use, and enhance local skills and work practices by linking them with those present on
It began in 2014 as the master’s thesis of Dave Hakkens in the Design Academy Eindhoven
global platforms.
and Inis now in its fourth
the context of this version.
study, we Precious
have beenplastic is a community
developing basedthroughout
interventions around open- the
source machines with more than 80,000 members around the globe.
different steps of the methodology presented. Parts of this study are ongoing, aiming to It includes sorting,
build
making and use of educational tools that aim to foster collective understanding. This type
of initiative evokes the idea of ‘cosmopolitan localism’ [52] in the way it uses a global
network to develop bespoke, local solutions.
The community around precious plastics is a part of the Maker Movement [53] a phe-
nomenon connected to the design discipline since makers can be considered a new kind

In the context of this study, we have been developing interventions throughout the
different steps of the methodology presented. Parts of this study are ongoing, aiming to
build
on on the experience
the experience we generated
we generated throughthrough the previous
the previous studies tostudies to better
better design design
with with
recycled
recycledThe
plastics. plastics.
studyThe study an
includes includes an exhaustive
exhaustive investigation
investigation of the mechanical
of the mechanical properties prop-
of
recycled
erties ofplastics
recycledwith a focus
plastics onamaterial
with focus ondegradation, productionproduction
material degradation, method and the effect
method and
of different
the effect ofinfill patters
different in the
infill context
patters in theof context
3D printing.
of 3DIn addition,
printing. In the study the
addition, includes
study
autoethnographic studies ofstudies
includes autoethnographic makingofwithin
making the context
within theofcontext
a precious plastics laboratory
of a precious plastics la-
aiming
boratory to aiming
better understand the process
to better understand theinprocess
the context
in theof digitalofcrafts
context and
digital the and
crafts makerthe
movement. An additional
maker movement. point of research
An additional point of is the design
research of services
is the design of around collection
services aroundpoints,
collec-
which is connected
tion points, which to is the first steptoofthe
connected thefirst
methodology
step of theand aims, through
methodology andaaims,
service designa
through
approach, to include
service design citizens
approach, in the separation
to include citizens inand collection of
the separation andthecollection
plastics. of
Separation
the plastics.of
plastics can lead
Separation to a more
of plastics caninformed view of
lead to a more the matter
informed viewandoffoster behavioral
the matter change.
and foster Finally,
behavioral
some
change.initial product
Finally, some concepts were developed
initial product during
concepts were this study.
developed A series
during thisof lampshades
study. A series
were
of lampshades were made using upcycled HDPE and PET collected from marineinspired
made using upcycled HDPE and PET collected from marine environments environ-
by jellyfish.
ments Theybycan
inspired be seenThey
jellyfish. in Figure
can be 10.seen
Theyin were
Figure made in anwere
10. They attempt
madeto in
explore how
an attempt
this materialhow
to explore andthis
method
materialcan and
be used
methodto communicate
can be used to thecommunicate
issues associated with plastic
the issues associ-
pollution through product design.
ated with plastic pollution through product design.
Figure10.
Figure 10.Three
Threejellyfish
jellyfishinspired
inspiredlampshades
lampshadesmade
madeusing
usingthe
theprecious
preciousplastic
plasticextruder.
extruder.
Plasticsrecycling
Plastics recyclingas ascraft
craftisisaapromising
promisingavenue
avenuefor foraddressing
addressing the the issue
issue of
of the
the ever-
ever-
growingpollution
growing pollutionassociated
associatedwith
withaamaterial.
material. ItIt works
works veryvery well
well in
in the
the context
context ofof MDD,
MDD,
offeringnew
offering newvalue
valuetotoanan otherwise
otherwise useless
useless andand dangerous
dangerous material.
material. TheThe emerging
emerging com-
commu-
munity
nity of people
of people working
working on all on all aspects
aspects of the process,
of the process, namely namely
gathering,gathering, sorting
sorting and and
making,
making,
shows shows
signs signs
of an of an underlying
underlying pluriversal pluriversal
aspect in aspect in its approach.
its approach. The process Theofprocess
making of
the machines
making and producing
the machines with them
and producing is full
with them ofistacit
fullknowledge and mastery
of tacit knowledge as a way
and mastery as
of
a learning. In the next
way of learning. stages,
In the next we aimwe
stages, to scale
aim to upscale
fromup prototyping products
from prototyping to a larger
products to a
level of level
larger production. The products
of production. aim to bring
The products aim to together the knowledge
bring together of the mechanical
the knowledge of the me-
properties of the material,
chanical properties of thethe uniquethe
material, aesthetic
uniqueproperties of recycledofplastic,
aesthetic properties theplastic,
recycled collectivethe
intelligence of a global community
collective intelligence of craftspeople,
of a global community and narratives
of craftspeople, andthat communicate
narratives the
that com-
need to actthe
municate against
needthe climate
to act catastrophe
against the climatetoday.
catastrophe today.
4.4.Discussion
Discussion
Designing
Designingsustainability
sustainabilityisis
a diverse
a diverseand wide
and project
wide with
project methodological,
with ontological
methodological, ontolog-
and epistemological transitions being necessary [18]. The idea that one linear solution
ical and epistemological transitions being necessary [18]. The idea that one linear solution can
address the problems associated with it is part of the problem. We approach the study
can address the problems associated with it is part of the problem. We approach the study of
sustainability through a localized and pluriversal lens, recognizing that creating as many
of sustainability through a localized and pluriversal lens, recognizing that creating as
solutions and discussions as possible are steps that can foster the transitions necessary.
Research-through-design as a method of inquiry is an approach that has the capacity to
function within design for sustainability and enable the creative bridging of the technical,
experiential and tacit aspects of this emerging design project. The iterative application of
the upcycling systems design approach aims to act as an elaboration of the steps and as
inspiration for design researchers and practitioners to apply it in their local context and
develop new materials and products.
The methodology developed aims to address issues of design in relation to all three
levels mentioned. On a methodological level, it moves away from the instrumentalized
problem-solving approaches and adds open-ended experimentation that can include nar-
ratives, experiences and traces within the created artifact. This motivation is shared with
MDD [6] and the tools that address the experience played an important role in how this
was addressed. In addition, the need to create and communicate the virtuous cycles that the
novel material loops generated is of importance in relation to the circular economy frame-
work [4]. We observed the open-endedness and the experimental aspect of the method
appear in all our case studies but especially in the third one (Kingdom Vegetabile), where
the contaminations or lack of growth of our fungal collaborators forced us to go back to
the drawing board many times. In addition, the collaborations with microbial and fungal
organisms opens the space towards more than human ontological associations. Addressing
the divide between human and non-human in a necessary ontological turn to address con-
temporary models of production and foster the emergence of pluriversal, post-humanist
ontologies [8]. We witnessed this connection to microorganisms, the need to valorize them
and to tell their stories through the material. We see the different genera of fungi as col-
laborators and appreciate their sacrifice for the creation of a new material. With respect to
epistemology, the methodology leans on alternative ways of knowing usually associated
with craft, tacit knowledge of the material and the process of making.
Tacit knowledge and its association with experience were a strong point of the second
case study (Kingdom Mutantis) where we had to engage with introspective writing to
uncover the experiences and transformations that the luminous atmospheres triggered. The
tacit knowledge and the sense of belonging in a community of makers [55–57] was central
in the fifth case study as well (Kingdom Lapideum). Prototyping using digital fabrication
tools [58,59] is an important strategy in enhancing sustainability. The epistemology of
design has been a major point of contention within the discipline and as the paradigm
shifts to include post-normal, feminist and decolonial viewpoints design, the science of the
particular opens up further to include more ways of knowing. Again, research-through-
design is a tool that is compatible with all these emerging viewpoints and can support
generative research.
The second learning point from this study is the capacity of iterative research-through-
design to support multidisciplinary approaches in ill-defined and emerging contexts of
human action. All the case studies were focused on different materials and included a
variety of tools and approaches. Through the synthesis of MDD [6], design for the circular
economy [4], and the five kingdoms of materials [14], we created new design theory [23].
The DIY approach creates a meaningful narrative around the material that can communicate
the values of sustainability and those of the maker. In addition, the inclusion of hard data
makes the materials easier to share and can foster the emergence of a community around
the processes [16]. The last point is exemplified by the global community created around
precious plastics mentioned in the last iteration of the case study. The mechanical properties
can help in guiding the designers in selecting the appropriate uses for a material and have
been an enabler to the adoption of such materials. Through the process of making, we felt
that the abstract ideas take form. This is a central advantage of research-through-design
as, after this process, the idea of material design as a pluriversal practice is embodied and
much clearer to all the participants. The same clarity emerged in relation to embracing
imperfections [10,12] and traces that emerge with such processes. DIY materials will be
imperfect; this simple fact can cause a shift in aesthetics and appreciate the marks of time
and use. The educational activities are also a very interesting aspect that emerged in
the latter studies. Creating hands-on educational workshops and experiences is a tool
that can trigger the curiosity of creatives and can bring new ideas for potential uses of
novel materials through ideation. We saw this in action in the fourth case study (Kingdom
Animale), where the creatives participating in the workshop were all excited by the ease
and flexibility of bioplastics and more than half of them went on to experiment with the
material in their own time and space.
Overall, if sustainability is a project that demands a series of paradigm shifts every
decade in order to merely exist on our horizon, we need to come up with ways to explore
what can be while we are addressing the problems with what is. Upcycling systems design
exists within a wider interdisciplinary research project that aims to use materials as a
means to discuss our material culture and the ideas behind waste in order to create a more
meaningful, local and resource effective model of production and consumption. Engaging
in this study, we have gone through cycles of convergence and divergence that have
created a wealth of new knowledge on how to create new material loops and products. The
case studies presented in this study aimed to provide hands-on knowledge of what the
methodology can be. We feel that leaning on the MDD methodology and the five kingdoms
of materials added granularity to the insight that emerged.
In the next steps, we will be aiming to create a typology of tools for each step, ap-
proach (e.g., data-driven, emotive, narrative or making) and kingdom of DIY material,
and disseminate the ideas to the wider community of researchers and practitioners in this
emerging field. In addition, we will be focusing on how to move from the proof of concept
of a material to the design of products using this material while communicating the values
of sustainability and the narratives around the material.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all the collaborators who made
this project possible, namely: Nikolaos Zacharopoulos and Paraskevas Papanikos at the University
of the Aegean and George Zervakis, George Bekiaris and George Koutrotsios of the Agricultural
University of Athens. My students who collaborated in making amazing projects, namely Christina
Kachrimani, Natalia Triantafyli, Vasilia Katsikogianni, Anna Kotaridou, Niki Boukouvala, Korina
Vrettou, Glykeria Makrygianni, Maria Sarantopoulou, Niki Pagouna and Ifigenia Pappa. In addition,
all the non-human collaborators who gave their life to make the materials for the study and Cpt.
Anna Roussetou for being a continuous source of inspiration and for proofreading my work. Finally,
a huge thanks to the reviewers and the editor who provided meaningful and valuable comments and
corrections that improved this study deeply.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
References
1. Walker, S. Sustainable by Design: Explorations in Theory and Practice; Routledge: London, UK, 2012.
2. Rockström, J.; Gaffney, O.; Rogelj, J.; Meinshausen, M.; Nakicenovic, N.; Schellnhuber, H.J. A roadmap for rapid decarbonization.
Science 2017, 355, 1269–1271. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Braungart, M.; McDonough, W. Cradle to Cradle; Random House: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
4. MacArthur, E. Towards the Circular Economy, Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition; Ellen MacArthur
Foundation: Cowes, UK, 2013; pp. 21–34.
5. Giaccardi, E.; Candy, E. Introduction to the special issue on Materialities of Creativity. Leonardo 2009, 42, 193–196.
6. Karana, E.; Barati, B.; Rognoli, V.; van der Laan, A.Z. Material driven design (MDD): A method to design for material experiences.
Int. J. Des. 2015, 9, 35–54.
7. Frayling, C. Research in art and design. R. Coll. Art Res. Pap. 1993, 1, 1.
8. Escobar, A. Designs for the Pluriverse; Duke University Press: Durham, NC, USA, 2018.
9. Rognoli, V.; Karana, E. Toward a new materials aesthetic based on imperfection and graceful aging. In Materials Experience;
Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2014; pp. 145–154.
10. Juniper, A. Wabi Sabi: The Japanese Art of Impermanence; Tuttle Publishing: North Clarendon, VT, USA, 2011.
11. Tsaknaki, V.; Fernaeus, Y. Expanding on Wabi-Sabi as a design resource in HCI. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on
Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Jose, CA, USA, 7–12 May 2016; pp. 5970–5983.
12. Robbins, H.; Giaccardi, E.; Karana, E.; D’Olivo, P. Understanding and Designing with (and for) Material Traces. Stud. Mater.
Think. 2015, 13, 1–24.
13. Rosner, D.K.; Ryokai, K. Spyn: Augmenting knitting to support storytelling and reflection. In Proceedings of the 10th international
conference on Ubiquitous computing, Seoul Korea, 21 September 2008; Volume 21, pp. 340–349.
14. Ayala-Garcia, C.; Rognoli, V.; Karana, E. Five Kingdoms of DIY-Materials for Design. In Proceedings of the EKSIG 2017 Alive
Active Adaptive: International Conference on Experiential Knowledge and Emerging Materials, Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
19–20 June 2017; pp. 222–234.
15. Kottaridou, A.; Bofylatos, S. Design out Waste Methodology for Circular Economy. In Proceedings of the Responsive Cities
Disruption through Circular Design, Barcelona, Spain, 31 July 2019; pp. 1–12.
16. D’Olivo, P.; Karana, E. Materials Framing: A Case Study of Biodesign Companies’ Web Communications. She Ji J. Des. Econ. Innov.
2021, 7, 403–434. [CrossRef]
17. Llorach, P. Circular Design and Circular Material Design. In Material Designers Boosting Talent towards Circular Economies; Cleries,
L., Rognoli, V., Solanki, S., Llorach, P., Eds.; 2021; Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/11311/1166868 (accessed on 2 February
2021).
18. Gaziulusoy, İ.; Erdoğan Öztekin, E. Design for Sustainability Transitions: Origins, Attitudes and Future Directions. Sustainability
2019, 11, 3601. [CrossRef]
19. Corsini, L.; Moultrie, J. What Is Design for Social Sustainability? A Systematic Literature Review for Designers of Product-Service
Systems. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5963. [CrossRef]
20. Archer, B. The Nature of Research. Co-Des. Interdiscip. J. Des. 1995, 2, 6–13.
21. Zimmerman, J.; Forlizzi, J. Research through design in HCI. In Ways of Knowing in HCI; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2014;
pp. 167–189.
22. Binder, T.; Koskinen, I.; Redström, J. Lab, Field, Gallery and Beyond. Artifact J. Des. Pract. 2008, 2, 46–57.
23. Redström, J. Making Design Theory; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017.
24. Gaver, W. What should we expect from research through design? In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems, Austin Texas, TX, USA, 5–10 May 2012; pp. 937–946.
25. Schön, D.A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action; Routledge: London, UK, 2017.
26. Overbeeke, K.C.; Wensveen, S.S. From perception to experience, from affordances to irresistibles. In Proceedings of the 2003
International Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and Interfaces, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 23–26 June 2003; pp. 92–97.
27. Bofylatos, S.; Kachrimani, C.; Zacharopoulos, N. Upcycling reclaimed wood, a preliminary analysis. In Proceedings of the EKSIG
2017: Alive. Active. Adaptive, Delft, The Netherlands, 19–20 June 2017.
28. Triantafylli, N.; Bofylatos, S. An experimental approach for the inclusion of the experiential aspects of lighting through the design
process of atmospheric luminaires. In Proceedings of the EKSIG 2017: Alive. Active. Adaptive, Delft, The Netherlands, 19–20
June 2017.
29. Ingold, T. The eye of the storm: Visual perception and the weather. Vis. Stud. 2005, 20, 97–104. [CrossRef]
30. Edensor, T.; Sumartojo, S. Designing Atmospheres: Introduction to Special Issue. Vis. Commun. 2015, 14, 251–265. [CrossRef]
31. Boukouvala, N.; Bofylatos, S.; Zacharopoulos, N. MYCELIUM exploring the new, alternative fungal hyphae based material’s
potentials. In Proceedings of the EKSIG2019 Knowing Together—Experiential Knowledge and Collaboration, Tallinn, Estonia,
23–24 September 2019.
32. Mironov, V.; Trusk, T.; Kasyanov, V.; Little, S.; Swaja, R.; Markwald, R. Biofabrication: A 21st century manufacturing paradigm.
Biofabrication 2009, 1, 022001. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Pavlovich, M.J.; Hunsberger, J.; Atala, A. Biofabrication: A secret weapon to advance manufacturing, economies, and healthcare.
Trends Biotechnol. 2016, 34, 679–680. [CrossRef]
34. Jones, M.; Huynh, T.; Dekiwadia, C.; Daver, F.; John, S. Mycelium Composites: A Review of Engineering Characteristics and
Growth Kinetics. J. Bionanoscience 2017, 11, 241–257. [CrossRef]
35. Jiang, L.; Walczyk, D.; Mooney, L.; Putney, S. Manufacturing of mycelium-based biocomposites. In Proceedings of the SAMPE
Conference, Long Beach, CA, USA, 20 January 2013; pp. 6–9.
36. Camere, S.; Karana, E. Fabricating materials from living organisms: An emerging design practice. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 186,
570–584. [CrossRef]
37. Tonuk, D. Making Bioplastics: An Investigation of Material-Product Relationships; Lancaster University: Lancaster, UK, 2016.
38. Pagouna, N. Development of Materials from Natural Polymers with the Aim of Their Integration into a Product, in the Context of
Sustainable Development. Master’s Thesis, University of the Aegean, Mitilini, Greece, 2019.
39. Plastics Europe. Plastics—The Facts 2017 An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data. Brussels.
2017. Available online: https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5715/1717/4180/Plastics_the_facts_2017_FINAL_
for_website_one_page.pdf (accessed on 2 February 2021).
40. Andrady, A.L. Applications and societal benefits of plastics. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 2009, 364, 1977–1984. [CrossRef]
41. Parker, L. We Made Plastic. We Depend on It. Now We’re Drowning in It. National Geographic. 2018. Available online: https:
//www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-wastepollution-trash-crisis/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
42. Carpenter, E.; Wolverton, S. Plastic litter in streams: The behavioral archaeology of a pervasive environmental problem. Appl.
Geogr. 2017, 84, 93–101. [CrossRef]
43. Zhang, J.; Wang, X.; Gong, J.; Gu, Z. A study on the biodegradability of polyethylene terephthalate fiber and diethylene glycol
terephthalate. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2004, 93, 1089–1096. [CrossRef]
44. Astrup, T.; Møller, J.; Fruergaard, T. Incineration and co-combustion of waste: Accounting of greenhouse gases and global
warming contributions. Waste Manag. Res. 2009, 27, 789–799. [CrossRef]
45. Webb, H.K.; Arnott, J.; Crawford, R.J.; Ivanova, E.P. Plastic degradation and its environmental implications with special reference
to poly (ethylene terephthalate). Polymers 2013, 5, 1–18. [CrossRef]
46. Derraik, J.G. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: A review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2002, 44, 842–852. [CrossRef]
47. Rodríguez-Seijo, A.; Santos, B.; da Silva, E.F.; Cachada, A.; Pereira, R. Low-density polyethylene microplastics as a source and
carriers of agrochemicals to soil and earthworms. Environ. Chem. 2018, 16, 8–17. [CrossRef]
48. Preston, F. A Global Redesign? Shaping the Circular Economy; Chatham House: London, UK, 2012.
49. Bicket, M.; Guilcher, S.; Hestin, M.; Hudson, C.; Razzini, P.; Tan, A.; Watkins, E. Scoping Study to Identify Potential Circular Economy
Actions, Priority Sectors, Material Flows and Value Chains; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2014. [CrossRef]
50. Barton, J.R.; Dalley, D.; Patel, V.S. Life cycle assessment for waste management. Waste Manag. 1996, 16, 35–50. [CrossRef]
51. Craighill, A.L.; Powell, J.C. Lifecycle assessment and economic evaluation of recycling: A case study. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 1996,
17, 75–96. [CrossRef]
52. Woern, A.L.; McCaslin, J.R.; Pringle, A.M.; Pearce, J.M. RepRapable Recyclebot: Open source 3-D printable extruder for converting
plastic to 3-D printing filament. HardwareX 2018, 4, e00026. [CrossRef]
53. Manzini, E. A Cosmopolitan Localism: Prospects for a Sustainable Local Development and the Possible Role of Design. In Design
Studies, a Reader; Clark, H., Brody, D., Eds.; Berg Publishers: Oxford, UK, 2009; pp. 448–453.
54. Gershenfeld, N. Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your Desktop—From Personal Computers to Personal Fabrication; Basic Books:
New York, NY, USA, 2005.
55. Romani, A.; Rognoli, V.; Levi, M. Design, Materials, and Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing in Circular Economy Contexts:
From Waste to New Products. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7269. [CrossRef]
56. Bakırlıoğlu, Y.; Kohtala, C. Framing Open Design through Theoretical Concepts and Practical Applications: A Systematic
Literature Review. Hum. Comput. Interact. 2019, 34, 1–45. [CrossRef]
57. Menichinelli, M. A Framework for Understanding the Possible Intersections of Design with Open, P2P, Diffuse, Distributed and
Decentralized Systems. Disegno J. Des. Cult. III 2016, 1-2, 44–71.
58. Bianchini, M.; Maffei, S. Microproduction Everywhere: Defining the Boundaries of the Emerging New Distributed Microproduc-
tion Socio-Technical Paradigm. In Proceedings of the Social Frontiers—The Next Edge of Social Innovation Research, London,
UK, 14–15 November 2013; pp. 1–21.
59. Soomro, S.A.; Casakin, H.; Georgiev, G.V. Sustainable Design and Prototyping Using Digital Fabrication Tools for Education.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 1196. [CrossRef]

Bofylatos, 2022. Upcycling Systems Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bofylatos, 2022. Upcycling Systems Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bofylatos, 2022. Upcycling Systems Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020600 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. State of the Art

2.3. Design out Waste Methodology

Figure 4. The five-step research through design process.

3. The Research through Design Project Development

3.1. Kingdom Recuperativ Upcycled Poplar Plywood

3.2. Kingdom Mutantis

3.2. Kingdom Mutantis Light

3.4. Kingdom Animale Bioplastics

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Sustainability 2022, 14, 600 14 of 18

Funding: This research received no external funding.

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.