Yapay Zeka - 4

Uninformed/Blind Search
Fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence

Example: Romania
Example: Romania
• On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad.

• Flight leaves tomorrow to Bucharest
• Formulate goal:
– be in Bucharest
• Formulate problem:
– states: various cities
– actions: drive between cities
• Find solution:
– sequence of cities, e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest
Vacuum world state space graph
• states integer dirt and robot location.

– The agent is in one of two locations, each of which might or might not
contain dirt – 8 possible states
• Initial state: any state
• actions Left, Right, Suck
• goal test no dirt at all locations
• path cost 1 per action
Example: The 8-puzzle
• states: locations of tiles

• Initial state: any state
• actions: move blank left, right, up, down
• goal test: goal state (given)
• path cost: 1 per move
[Note: optimal solution of n-Puzzle family is NP-hard]

Example: 8-queens problem
• states: any arrangement of 0-8 queens on the board is a

state
• Initial state: no queens on the board
• actions: add a queen to any empty square
• goal test: 8 queens are on the board, none attacked
64.63...57 = 1.8x1014 possiblesequences

Example: Route finding problem
• states: each is represented by a location (e.g. An airport) and the
current time
• Initial state: specified by the problem
• Successor function: returns the states resulting from taking any
scheduled flight, leaving later than the current time plus the within
airport transit time, from the current airport to another
• goal test: are we at the destination by some pre-specified time
• Path cost:monetary cost, waiting time, flight time, customs and
immigration procedures, seat quality, time of day, type of airplane,
frequent-flyer mileage awards, etc
• Route finding algorithms are used in a variety of applications, such

as routing in computer networks, military operations planning,
airline travel planning systems
Example: robotic assembly
• states: real-valued coordinates of robot joint angles parts of

the object to be assembled
• actions: continuous motions of robot joints
• goal test: complete assembly
• path cost: time to execute
Tree search algorithms
• Basic idea:
– offline, simulated exploration of state space by generating
successors of already-explored states (a.k.a.~expanding states)
Example: Romania
Tree search example
Tree search example
Tree search example
Implementation: Components of a node
• State: the state in the state space to which the node

corresponds
• Parent-node: the node in the search tree that
generated this node
• Action: the action that was applied to the parent to
generate the node
• Path-cost: the cost, traditionally denoted by g(n), of the
path from the initial state to the node, as indicated by the
parent pointers
• Depth: the number of steps along the path from the initial
state
Uninformed search strategies
• A search strategy is defined by picking the order of node

expansion
• Uninformed search (blind search) strategies use only the
information available in the problem definition
• Can only distinguish goal states from non-goal state
• Breadth-first search
• Uniform-cost search
• Depth-first search
• Depth-limited search
• Iterative deepening search
Breadth-first search
Analysis of Search strategies
• Strategies are evaluated along the following dimensions:

– completeness: does it always find a solution if one exists?
– time complexity: number of nodes generated
– space complexity: maximum number of nodes in memory
– optimality: does it always find a least-cost solution?
• Time and space complexity are measured in terms of
– b: maximum branching factor of the search tree
– d: depth of the least-cost solution
– m: maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)
Properties of breadth-first search
• Complete? Yes (if b is finite)
• Time?
Number of nodes in a b-ary tree of depth d:
(d is the depth of the optimal solution)
• Space? O(bd) (keeps every node in memory)
• Optimal? Yes (if cost = 1 per step)

• Space is the bigger problem (more than time)
Properties of breadth-first search
Uniform-cost search
Uniform-cost search
• For each frontier node, save the total cost of the path
from the initial state to that node
• Expand the frontier node with the lowest path cost
• Implementation: frontier is a priority queue ordered by
path cost
• Equivalent to breadth-first if step costs all equal
• Equivalent to Dijkstra’s algorithm in general
Uniform-cost search
Uniform-cost search
Create root by start

state
Uniform-cost search
Expand and add

children to queue
Uniform-cost search
Expand R and add

children to queue
Already expended
Uniform-cost search
Already expended
Uniform-cost search
Replace with new

node
Already expended
Uniform-cost search
Uniform-cost search
Properties of uniform-cost search
• Expand least-cost unexpanded node

• Implementation:
– fringe = queue ordered by path cost
• Equivalent to breadth-first if step costs all equal
• Complete?
Yes, if step cost is greater than some positive constant ε (we
don’t want infinite sequences of steps that have a finite total
cost)
• Optimal?
Yes
Uniform-cost search
• Complete? Yes, if step cost ≥ ε
• Time? # of nodes with pathn cost g ≤ cost of optimal

solution,
O(b(C*/ ε)) where C* is the cost of the optimal solution
• This can be greater than O(bd): the search can explore long paths
consisting of small steps before exploring shorter paths consisting
of larger steps
• Space? # of nodes with g ≤ cost of optimal solution,

O(b(C*/ ε))
• Optimal? Yes – nodes expanded in increasing order of g(n)

Uniform-cost search example
Uniform-cost search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
H is removed from memory and even tree search

Depth-first search
I is removed from memory and even tree search

Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Properties of depth-first search
• Complete? No: fails in infinite-depth
spaces, spaces with loops
– Modify to avoid repeated states along path
→ complete in finite spaces
• Time? Could be the time to reach a solution at
maximum depth m:
Terrible if m is much larger than d, But if there are

lots of solutions, may be much faster than BFS
• Space?
• i.e., linear space!
• Optimal? No - – returns the first solution it

finds
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-limited search
= depth-first search with depth limit l,
i.e., nodes at depth l have no successors
• Recursive implementation:
Properties of Depth-limited search
• Complete? Yes, if l>=d
• Time?
• Space?
• Optimal? No, like DFS

Depth limited search
The main problem. Determine a suitable depth range!

Iterative deepening search
• Idea: get DFS’s space

advantage with BFS’s time
/shallow-solution advantages
• Run a DFS with depth limit 1. If
no solution…
• Run a DFS with depth limit 2. If
no solution…
• Run a DFS with depth limit 3.
…..
• Isn’t that wastefully redundant?

• Generally most work happens in the
lowest level searched, so not so bad!
Iterative deepening search l =0
Properties of iterative deepening search
• Complete? Yes, like BFS

• Time?
• Space?
• Optimal? Yes, like BFS if step cost = 1

Graph search
Repeated states
• Failure to detect repeated states can turn a linear

problem into an exponential one!
Repeated states
• Failure to detect repeated states can turn a linear

problem into an exponential one!
For m=20
The number of graph state= 800
The number of tree nodes=1099511627776
Repeated states
Repeated states
Handling repeated states
Handling repeated states
• Do not return to the state just you came from
• Do not create paths with cycles in them
• Do not generate any state that was ever generated

before
Summary
• Problem formulation usually requires abstracting away real-world
details to define a state space that can feasibly be explored
• Variety of uninformed search strategies
• Iterative deepening search uses only linear space and not much more
time than other uninformed algorithms

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Uninformed/Blind Search

Fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence

• On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad.

• states integer dirt and robot location.

• states: locations of tiles

[Note: optimal solution of n-Puzzle family is NP-hard]

• states: any arrangement of 0-8 queens on the board is a

64.63...57 = 1.8x1014 possiblesequences

• Route finding algorithms are used in a variety of applications, such

• states: real-valued coordinates of robot joint angles parts of

• State: the state in the state space to which the node

• A search strategy is defined by picking the order of node

• Strategies are evaluated along the following dimensions:

• Space? O(bd) (keeps every node in memory)

• Optimal? Yes (if cost = 1 per step)

Create root by start

Expand and add

Expand R and add

Replace with new

• Expand least-cost unexpanded node

• Complete? Yes, if step cost ≥ ε

• Time? # of nodes with pathn cost g ≤ cost of optimal

• Space? # of nodes with g ≤ cost of optimal solution,

• Optimal? Yes – nodes expanded in increasing order of g(n)

H is removed from memory and even tree search

I is removed from memory and even tree search

Terrible if m is much larger than d, But if there are

• Optimal? No - – returns the first solution it

• Complete? Yes, if l>=d

• Optimal? No, like DFS

The main problem. Determine a suitable depth range!

• Idea: get DFS’s space

• Isn’t that wastefully redundant?

• Complete? Yes, like BFS

• Optimal? Yes, like BFS if step cost = 1

• Failure to detect repeated states can turn a linear

• Failure to detect repeated states can turn a linear

• Do not return to the state just you came from

• Do not create paths with cycles in them

• Do not generate any state that was ever generated

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